EXPERIMENT 1: HYDROSTATICS

I. OBJECTIVE
To understand basic equation of the hydrostatics and apply it to some problems
associated with uncompressed fluid at static state.
II. SUMMARY OF THEORY
p0

h
p
z0

0 0
Figure 1.1

The state of the static, uncompressed fluid is described by the basic equation:
p
z  const (1.1)

With z being the elevation of any point in the static fluid mass with constant specific
p
weight  and p is the hydrostatic pressure at that point, the value of z  is the water

pressure gauge, it is in meters. We can have several uses from this equation:
1. Isobaric surface
The isobaric surface is the surface on which the pressure is the same. When the pressure at
the points on the opened sides is equal, the elevation of the points must be equal. That
means the surface is horizontal.
2. Fluid manometer
Apply the basic equation (1.1) to calculate the pressure at any point in a static fluid mass. If
at a point with elevation z0, the pressure is p0, then at the point of elevation z (see Figure
1.1), the pressure will be:
p  p 0   z 0  z   p 0  h (1.2)
In which the 0-0 plane is the standard plane for comparison.
By measuring height h, we will determine the pressure p.
3. Calculate the specific weight of the liquid
If knowing both p0, p, z0 and z, we can calculate the specific weight of the liquid from the
formula:
p  p0
  (1.3)
z0  z
Basic equation (1.1) is established when the influence of capillary phenominon is
neglected. In case the liquid inside a small tube which has a diameter of d ≤ 3mm, the
effect of the capillary phenominon is significant, equation (1.1) is no accurate. If the liquid
is water, alcohol, oil ... the liquid level in the small diameter tube will rises higher than in
the large diameter tube, and if the liquid is mercury, the liquid level in the small diameter
tube will decrease lower than in the large diameter tube.

1
III. APPARATUSES

Ruler (mm) 12

1 21 22 23 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Tank D

Tank T

Figure 1.2 11

Hydrostatics experiment Set

The pressure gauge consists of a group of tubes numbered 1 to 10 mounted on a board with
rulers to measure elevation, and accuracy to the millimeter shown in Figure 1.2. Diameter
of tubes di = 5mm (except for group of tubes 2 with diameter  3mm).
In these tubes:
 Pipes 1-3 are used as fluid manometer to measure the pressure in the tank T
 Group of tubes 2, consisting of 3 tubes: 21, 22, 23 with diameters of 1mm, 2mm,
3mm, respectively, are used to observe capillary phenomena.
 Pairs of tubes: 4-5, 6-7 and 8-9 contain liquid to determine their specific weight.
 Tubes 10 and 3 are used to observe the isobaric surface. The pressure of the tubes
1, 4, 6 or 8 is the gas pressure in the tank T. The liquid level in the tubes is
denoted by Li
The pressure generating part consists of the tank T in the back of the board and the tank D
hanging on the pulley 12. By rotary handle 11 we can change the height of the tank D,
making gas pressure in the tank T change.
IV. PROCEDURE
1- Check the standard surfaces of the measured rulers (on the milimeter table) is
horizontal or not by reading the water levels in tubes 3 and 10. These water levels must
be horizontal.
2- Use the rotary handle 11 to put the tank D up to a high position (the opened surface
of the tank D is higher than the opened surface of the tank T about zĐ - zT = 15  20cm).
 Measure the liquid level in tubes from 1 to 10 and write down in the table in the
report. (including group of tubes 2).
The tank D is lowered to the average position (zĐ - zT = 5  7cm) and low position
(zĐ - zT = -15  -20cm). Measured similarly to the first time and write down last
time and record the results in the table (of the report).
V. ANALYSIS
1. Calculate hydrostatic pressure of gas in the tank T
From equation (1.2), the absoluted pressure in the tank T is calculated:
p T  p a  H2 O L3  L1 (1.4a)
The specific weight of the water in the tank is determined by the temperature of
surrounding enviroment. If we take pa = 0, we can calculate the gauge pressure
pT   H2O  L3  L1  (1.4b)
With three positions of the tank D, we can calculate three values of the gas pressure in the
tank T.

2
2. Caculate to the specific weight of the fluid in the U-tubes
Consider to fluid has the specific weight , in static state in both branch i and i + 1 of the U-
tube. Pressure in the tank T can also be calculated:
p T  p a   Li1  Li  (1.5)
Comparing this formula with formula (1.4a), we derive the formula for the specific weight
of this liquid
  H2 O
L3  L1 (1.6)
Li1  Li 
3. Calculate the error of the method of pressure measurement method
Applying the theory of error, from the formula (1.4b) we determine the relative error p of
the gauge pressure measurement:

p  
 

p T    H2O L 3  L1   H2O L 3  L1
 (1.7)
pT  H2O L 3  L1  H2O L 3  L1
Thus, the relative error of the gauge pressure measurement is the sum of the two relative
error values
The relative error due to the determination of the specific weight of the water:
H2O   H2O H2O
The relative error due to reading elevation on the scale
L 3  L1
L31 
L 3  L1
Thus:  p   H O   L
2 31
(1.7)
Usually we take:
 H 2O = 0,12% và L1 = L3 = 0,5mm
4. Calculate the error when calculating  of the liquids in the U-tubes
From formula (1.7), we determine the relative error of specific weight measurement of the
liquid in the U-tubes
 H2 O L3  L1 Li1  Li
    
 H2 O L3  L1 Li1  Li
or:     H 2O   L31   Li 1i (1.8)
We aslo take  H 2O = 0,12% và L1 = L3 = Li = Li+1 = 0,5mm

3
Date: Name of Instructor:

EXPERIMENT 1: HYDROSTATICS

The atmospheric pressure and the air temperature:

Pa = …………………….. mmHg; t 0 …………………………0C
The water specific weight:
H2O = ………………………………………. N/m3
I. MEASUREMENTS
1. With respect to the three relative positions of the tank D and the tank T, record the
measured values of nine tubes and the group of tubes 2 in Table 1.
Table 1a. Measurement (Unit: cm)

No L1 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10 NOTE
1

Table 1b. Measurement in group of tubes 2 (Unit: cm)

No L21 L22 L23 Ghi chú

1
2
3

II. RESULTS
1. Calculate the absolute pressure, gauge pressure of the gas in the tank T and the
relative error of this pressure in the measured cases. The results fill in table 2.
2. Calculate the specific weight of three fluids in pairs of tubes: 4 - 5, 6 - 7, 8 - 9 and
the relative error of these specific weights for the cases. The results fill in table 2
Table 2. Result

pt pd  4-5 6-7 8-9 4-5 6-7 8-9

No
103N/m2 % 103N/m3 %

4
3. Which tubes or tanks have equal water level in the hydrostatic experiment set? Why ?

4. Which tubes have water level that do not according to hydrostatics law in the
hydrostatics experiment set? Why?

5. How do the pressure in tank T change in experiments? Why?

6. In one case experiment, how do the relative error of specific weight   change? Why?

5
 Experiment 3A: Energy equation

I. Fundamental theory
a. Objectives
Investigating the energy equation and calculate related parameters in flow when
changing the area of cross sections.
b. Summary of related theory
The energy of a unit weight of fluid 2
at a section is determined by 3
components: 1 V2
V1
- Potential energy: zi 2
- Flow energy (pressure head): pi/g
1 z2
- Kinetic energy (velocity head): z1

In which:
- zi; pi, Vi are height, pressure and 0 0
velocity at section i-i, respectively. Figure 3.1
-  is kinetic energy correction
factor. The occurrence of  is due to the inhomogeneous distribution of velocity in the
flow section, given by formula:
3
1 u
    dA (3.1)
A AV
In which:
- V: average velocity
- u: point velocity
To simplify calculation, for turbulent flows
The energy equation from section 1-1 to section 2-2:
p 1 1V12 p  V2
z1    z 2  2  2 2  hf12 (3.2)
 2g  2g
In which:
h f12 : The head loss due to friction from section 1 to section 2
Neglecting total head loss, the energy equation becomes:

p1 1V12 p2  2V22 (3.3)

z1    z2    const
 2g  2g
From the equation above (3.3), if neglecting total head loss, the total head of the considered
interval is a constant and there is transformation of energy between potential energry and
kinetic energy.

II. Apparatus:

5 3
1
Pump 4

6
2

Figure 3.2

6
- Water from tank  is pumped into tank  flow into glass channel through valve  (to
change discharge )
- The horizontal section of the glass channel  is rectangle, in which bottom width B =
78mm.
- Broad crested - weir  has a trapezoidal cross-section, with the sides angle is 45 °. Height
is a = 33.1 mm

Figure 3.3

- The water level after broad crested weir is changed by the valve  located at the end of
the channel. Then the water is poured into the tank  through the rectangular spillway
- Point gauge and vernier  are mounted on the glass channel  to determine channel
bottom level and water level in the glass channel.
III. Procedure:
1- Determine the location of the sections on the glass channel corresponding to points
1 to 6 in the order from the upstream to downstream levels as shown in Figure 3.4.
The distance between sections is as follows:
L1-2 = L2-3 = L4-5 = L5-6 = 20cm; L3-4 =3.7cm
2- Determine bottom of the channel from 1 to 6 by point gauge and vernier. Write
down the results in Table 1 (in the report).
3- Use the valve  to adjust the flow and water level in the channel so that the
downstream water level is higher than the water level on the broad crested weir.

Point gauge and vernier

Figure 3.4
4- The flow in the channel is stabilized, using point gauge and vernier determine Z i
of water level from sections 1 to 6. Note down the results in Table 1 (in the report).
5- Keeping the discharge constant, adjust the water level at downstream by the
valve  (this time the downstream water level is lower than the water level on the

7
 broad crested weir). Wait for the water level in the glass channel to be stable, repeat
the procedure in step 4. Write down the results in Table 1 (in the report).

VI. Calculating:
1. Calculations of velocity:
The average velocity at section i:
Vi = Q/Ai (3.4)

In which: Q=0,48l/s
Ai is the area of the cross-section i: Ai = Bhi;
Channel width is B = 78mm;
Water level from the bottom of the channel: hi = Zđi - Zi; (see figure 3.3)
Notice:
- Check if the whole system is safe to operate
- Switch ON on switchboard.
- Observe the water level in the glass channel to prevent the overflow of water.
2. Calculations of velocity head:
The average velocity head at section i:
hVi  Vi2 / 2g (3.5)
3. Investigate the anergy loss:
The energy loss between sections i and sections j was determined by applying the Bernoulli
equation (3.1) for these sections:
 pi Vi 2   p j V j2 
h f ij   z i     z j   
   
 2 g   2 g 
 zi  hVi   z j  hVj  (3.6)
p p
In which zi and zj are the water level at i section and j section; i  j  0 . where  = 1
 
and avegare velocity head is given by (3.5).
Apply (3.6) to calculate the energy loss form section 1 to section 2 (hf1-2), from section
2 to section 3 (hf2-3), from section 3 to section 4 (hf3-4), from section 4 to section 5 (hf4-5),
from section 5 to section 6 (hf5-6). Calculate for cases of water level.
4. Draw water level lines in the channel:
Drawing the bottom of channel, broad crested - weir and water surface which are
ideal water level line and measured water level line on Graph 1 (drawing only one case
of water level downstream higher than the water level on the broad crested – weir). And
then drawing conclusions about water level changes

Date: Name of Instructor:

8
 Experiment 3A1: Energy equation
I. PREPARATION
1. How to measure water level and channel bottom coordinates?

2. How to adjust the water level in the glass channel? How many water levels do
experiment with downstream do?

3. How many forms of energy loss on this experiment?

II. Results

9
 Measurement of the bottom of the glass channel Zđ, the water surface Zi in the
glass channel at the cross section corresponding to different water level, the results
recorded in Table 1
Table 1
No Section 1 2 3 4 5 6
Bottom height
Zđ, cm
1
Water level
Zi, cm
2
Distance from section i
to section i+1, cm 0 20 18,2 3,6 18,2 20

Accrual distance from

section 1 to section
0 20 38,2 41,8 60 80
i+1, cm

III. Calculations and results

1. Calculate the velocity of the flow and the average velocity head at the cross-sections of
Equations (3.4), (3.5). Calculating for two measured cases. The results are recorded in
Table 2.
2. For two measured cases, calculating the energy loss (hf1-2) between the cross sections 1 -
2, hf2- 3 between the cross sections 2 - 3, hf3-4 between the cross sections 3-4, hf4-5 between
the cross sections 4 - 5, hf5-6 between the cross sections 5 - 6 according to the formula (3.6).
The results are recorded in Table 2.
3. In figure 1, draw the bottom of the channel:
a) Based on the results in table 1, drawing on Figure 1 a "measuring waterline" (drawing
for the first water level).
b) Based on the results in table 1, drawing on Figure 1 a " ideal " waterline (drawing for the
first water level).
c) Discussing two "measuring" waterlines and "ideal" waterlines?

10
4. Discussing the water level between section 5 and section 6?

5. Please comment, compare, explain the energy loss of calculations power between the
sections in table 2.
Energy
losses
hf5 -6,
cm

11
 Table 2

No Energy Energy Energy Energy

losses losses losses losses
Average Velocity Vi, cm/s hfl -2, hf2 -3, hf3–4, hf4 - 5,
Average Velocity head hvi, cm cm cm cm cm

sec
sec sec sec sec sec sec sec sec sec sec 5 sec
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 6

12
1

2
Experiment 3D MEASUREMENT OF VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE

I. OBJECTIVES OF EXPERIMENT
Calculate air flow from pressure difference.
Comparison of flow measurement devices in a duct:
 Orifice plat.

13
  Venturi nozzle.
II. EQUIPMENT SET - UP
The fan inlet is a duct 149 mm diameter provided with pressure tapings whereby the
static pressure may be measured simultaneously at each of 4 sections. All four pressure
tapings are connected to a bank of pressurised manometer tubes (1,2,3,4). Two flow
measurement devices are:
- 65mm orifice plat (1)
- 149mm – 65mm diameter ventury nozzle (2).

Figure1: Experimental map

In which:
1. Orifice plat
2. Ventury nozzle
3. Fans and electric motors
4. Inverter
5. Measuring tubes
6. Pressure gauges
7. Silicon tubes
1,2,3,4: Order number of the measuring tubes.
III. SUMMARY OF THEORY
The volume flow rate at the orifice plat and venturi nozzle in the pipe is determined
by formula as follows

C d2  (1)
Where: Q   2 p / 
1  4  4 
Q: volumetric flow rate.
C: discharge coefficient.
p: pressure difference from inlet to throat. The manometer containing liquid of density 1
is used to indicate p, the pressure difference may be expressed in terms of the manometric
head differential h by:
p = (1 –).g.h (2)
 : flow density.  = 1.226 kg/m +3

1: water density 1 = 1000kg/m+3

 : diameter ratio = d/D.

14
 : expandability factor. The expandability factory is also detailed in the code and
allows for the effects of density change in gas flows where a high pressure reduction
occurs. For liquid flows and gas flows with moderate variation in pressure at the meter,  =
1.00.
The discharge coefficients of the orifice plat and the venturi nozzle can be
determined by empirical formula
(3) 0.73
 106 
 0.00390 4 1   4   0.0158 3
1
C  0.5959  0.0312  2.1  0.1840 2  0.0029  2.5  
 Re 
For the orifice plate. (4)
UD 4 Q
Re   
 D
Where:
Re: Reynolds number
U: upstream pipe velocity.
Q: discharge in pipe
D: diameter of pipe
: dynamic viscosity
When determining Q from p, it is necessary to estimate a value C initially as Re cannot be
calculated until Q is known. From an initial estimate of C (example C = 1), Q can be
calculated and thus Re found. The value of C can then be corrected and new values of Q
and Re cure calculated.
For the venturi nozzle:
(5)
IV. PROCEDURE C  0.9858  0.196 4.5

1.
Reading the water level in 4 measures tubes and 2 manometer of 2 measures
equipment , Inverter is adjusted at 4 different speeds (400-450rpm,650-700rpm,900-
950rpm, 1150-1200rpm). Write the reading values into the Table 1 and Table 2

Date: Name of Instructor:

Experiment 3D MEASUREMENT OF VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE

The air temperature: t0 =…………………………0C;

The air density: ρ=………………………kg/m3
The air kinematic viscosity:  =………………………..m2/s
The water density: ρH2O = ………………………………………. kg/m3
I. MEASUREMENTS AND CALCULATES
Table 1 Orifice plat
h2 – Presssure Difference
Frequency tube 1, tube 2, p 1 – p2 Q
h1 gauge (Presssure C
h1 (m) h2 (m) (Pa) (m3/s)
(m) (Pa) gauge

15
 -
measuring
tube) (%)

Table 2 Ventury nozzle

Difference
(Presssure
h4 – P3 – Presssure
Frequency tube 3, tube 4, gauge Q
h3 p4 gauge C
h3 (m) h4 (m) - (m3/s)
(m) (Pa) (Pa)
measuring
tube) (%)

II. REPORT
1. Determine the discharge coefficients, the volumetric flow rate in 4 experiments
by using venturi nozzle and venturi nozzle (table 1, 2)
2. Explain the difference from the results of U tubes and pressure gauge?

3. Compare the computed results between the using of orifice plat and venturi
nozzle, give the discussions?

16
Experiment 5A FRICTION LOSS IN PIPE

I. OBJECTIVES OF EXPERIMENT
- To investigate the variation of friction head along a circular pipe with the mean flow
velocity in the pipe.
- To investigate the friction factor against Reynolds number and roughness.

17
II. EQUIPMENT SET – UP

A pipe of 10.64cm diameter is supplied by water a centrifugal pump. Four test

sections with interval of 3 m are connected to a bank of pressurized manometer tubes.
Water from the pipe flow into the concrete channel, and at the end of channel a vee-
notch, is installed to measure the flow rate in the channel, this flow rate is equal to the
flow rate in the pipe. Water level over the vee-notch is measured by a point gauge
vernier mounted on a small tank which is opened to the channel.
The flow rate over the vee-notch is calculated by formula as follow:

8  
Q tg  CD 2 g .h05 / 2 (1)
15  2 

Where:  = 90o
CD = 0.58
g = 9.81 m/s2
ho = ZCR – z
Where z is water level in channel, ZCR is the elevation of the crest of Vee-notch, ZCR
= 27.8 cm
The flow rate over the Vee-notch is regulated by inverter of pump on electric box
corresponding to the flow rate in the pipe. Inverter is adjusted at 8 different speeds
(1000rpm, 900rpm, 800rpm, 700rpm, 650 rpm, 600 rpm, 550 rpm, 500 rpm). The
difference of pressure between the test sections in the pipe are measured by reading the
water level in the tubes of manometer. Write the reading values into the Table 1.
III. SUMMARY OF THEORY

18
 Considering flow at two sections i,j in a pipe, Bernouilli’s equation may be written as:
Vi 2 Pi V j2 Pj
  Zi    Z j  hij (2)
2g  2g 

Where: Vi, Vj : velocity at section i, j respectively

Pi, Pj : pressure at section i, j respectively
Zi, Zj : elevation at water surface section i, j
hi,j : friction loss from section i to section j
For this apparatus, Zi = Zj, Vi = Vj, hence
Pi  Pj
hi , j   hi , j (3)

hi,j : the difference of manometer reading at section i and section j.
On the other hand, the friction factor can be determined by Darcy’s formula :
L V2
hi , j  f (4)
D 2g
Where : f : friction factor
L : the distance between section i and j
D : diameter of pipe
V : velocity of pipe
The friction coefficient depends upon the Reynolds number of flow and upon the ratio D/D,
the relative roughness of the pipe.
 
f  F  Re ,  (5)
 D
Where : Re : Reynolds’ number
Re = VD/ ( : viscosity coefficient)
D: size of roughness

: relative roughness
D

For a given pipe, is a constant
D
IV. PROCEDURE:

1. Before testing, check valves (2), (4) and locks (9). Make sure they are closed and
check the spindle of the pump and the motor by turning lightly to see whether it is
hard or not, if it moves is well.
2. Fully open the valve (4) by turning counterclockwise until it is no longer
rotatable. Note: If valve 4 does not open fully, when opening the valve 2 will cause
break the manometer tubes because of high pressure. Fully open the valve (2). On
electric box, you press: POWER ON button and adjust the inverter at 8 different
speeds, and then open clocks (9).
3. Measurements are made eight times.
19
4. Important note when you want to shutdown. Adjust the inverter to 0 rpm, then press
the OFF button, Close valve (2), then close the valve (4) and clocks (9)
a- The first measurement:
. Open the locks (9) of the manometer tubes at the section (1) and (2)
. Adjust the inverter to change the three flow rate levels corresponding to the
frequency of 1000rpm – 800rpm (the first - the flow rate corresponding to 1000rpm,
the second - the flow rate corresponding to 900rm; The third - flow rate corresponds
to 800rpm)
. Wait for the water level in the channel to stabilize (the water level in point gauge
(5) is constant), read the following values:
- Water level in manometer tube (1)
- Water level in manometer tube (2)
- Elevation Z at point gauge and vernier (5).
The measurement results are recorded in Table 1 of the report.
b- The second measurement:
• Adjust the inverter to change the five discharge levels corresponding to the
frequency 700rpm – 500rpm
• Continue to open the locks of manometer tubes (3), (4)
• For each discharge level, wait for the water level in the channel to stabilize, taking
the following measurements:
- Reading water level from the manometer tub (1) to the manometer tube (4).
- Elevation Z at the point gauge (5).
The results are recorded in Table 1 of the report

20
Date: Name of Instructor:

EXPERIMENT 5A. FRICTION LOSS IN PIPE

The water temperature t0H2O = ……………………………………0C
The water kinematic viscosity:  =………………………..m2/s
The elevation of the crest of Vee-notch: ZCR=…………cm

I. MEASUREMENTS
Table 1.
Water level
No Frequency Manometer reading (cm)
(Z)
(rpm) (1) (2) (3) (4) (cm)
1 1000
2 900
3 800
4 700
5 650
6 600
7 550
8 500

II. REPORT
1. Select any three levels of flow rate at the second measurement (Frequency <800rpm),
calculate the flow rate (Q) in the pipe and friction loss between the sections: 4 - 3, 4 - 2, 4
– 1, the results are recorded in Table 2. And then Plot the head loss (hd) against length (L)
for each flow rate level

Table 2: Relationship between hd and L

Q= Q= Q=

Length (L)
Cross Section (m)
hi-j (cm)

4 -3 3

4-2 6

4-1 9

2. With eight measured discharge levels, calculate the flow rate (Q), friction losses along
the pipe, hi-j , between two sections 1 and 2. The results are recorded in Table 3.. And then
plot the friction loss (hi-j) against the flow rate (Q)

21
 Table 3
No. frequency Q, l/s hi-j, cm f Re
1 500
2 550
3 600
4 650
5 700
6 800
7 900
8 1000

3. With eight measured discharge levels, Caculating the Reynolds number (Re) and
friction coefficients (f). The results are recorded in Table 3.
4. Use the Moody’s chart and mark the calculated points (value pairs f and Re) on the
Moody’s chart to conclude about the flowing state in the pipe. Based on Moody's
chart, approximate the absolute roughness value D.

Moody Chart
 e
( = )
D D
Answer:
The flowing state: .............................................................................................
/D = ...................................................... = ...................................... mm

22
Comment:
a) What is the relationship between hd and L? Is that reasonable? Why?

b) What is the relationship between hd and Q? Is that reasonable? Why?

c) Is the flowing state, relative roughness and absolute roughness reasonable? Why?

23
Appendix
POINT GAUGE AND VERNIER

I- STRUCTURE Ruler

Point Gauge and Vernier are used in laboratories to

measure elevation (or depth) as well as coordinates of Vernier
points (see Figure 1).

1- POINT GAUGE is a steel bar which is carved in mm.

One end of the ruler has a small needle attached to the 20 Wheel
point of measurement.
2- VERNIER Used to determine the measure of the ruler.
On the vernier is carved, the number of lines is the divider
of 1mm of the ruler. These measurements in the laboratory
10
are accurate to 1 / 20mm (corresponding to a 20 lines). The
measurement of the ruler is determined by the location of
the remaining lines on the vernier.
3- WHEEL: used to move up and down to pointer in
8
contact to the surface 0
Platform
4- PLATFORM: used to keep the vernier stable.
7

II- Using:
1- Uses the wheel to move the ruler up and down so that
1
the Pointer contact area of the water surface to be
measured. (Note the surface at this time must be stable).
2- Read water depth values on the ruler at the "0" of the 0
vernier. Normally, the "0" line is between two lines on the
ruler, the actual value is in this middle.
3- Determine the odd part of the 1mm: Find a line on the Pointer
vernier that coincides with a certain line on the ruler. The
odd part of the 1mm is the number of lines on the chain
multiplied by 1 / 20mm.
EX: In step 2, the line "0" is found between the bars of 7.8 Figure 1 - Point Gauge And Vernier
and 7.9 on the ruler. In Step 3, we see that "15" on vernier
coincides with a certain line on the Ruler.
The measured value is:
7,8 + 15  (1/20)/10 = 7,8 + 0,075 = 7, 875 cm.

24
 Properties of water

specific
Temperature
weight Density   
o  (Kg/m3) (Pa.s) (m2/s)
C
(KN/m3)
0 9.806 999.9 1.792E-3 1.792E-6
5 9.807 1000.0 1.519E-3 1.519E-6
10 9.804 999.7 1.308E-3 1.308E-6
15 9.798 999.1 1.140E-3 1.141E-6
20 9.789 998.2 1.002E-3 1.007E-6
25 9.778 997.1 0.890E-3 0.897E-6
30 9.764 995.7 0.801E-3 0.804E-6
35 9.749 994.1 0.723E-3 0.727E-6
40 9.730 992.2 0.656E-3 0.661E-6
45 9.710 990.2 0.599E-3 0.605E-6
50 9.690 988.1 0.549E-3 0.556E-6
55 9.666 985.7 0.506E-3 0.513E-6
60 9.642 983.2 0.469E-3 0.477E-6
65 9.616 980.6 0.436E-3 0.444E-6
70 9.589 977.8 0.406E-3 0.415E-6
75 9.560 974.9 0.380E-3 0.390E-6
80 9.530 971.8 0.357E-3 0.367E-6
85 9.499 968.6 0.336E-3 0.347E-6
90 9.466 965.3 0.317E-3 0.328E-6
95 9.433 961.9 0.299E-3 0.311E-6
100 9.399 958.4 0.284E-3 0.296E-6

Properties of Air

Temperature (oC) Density  

(kg/m3) (m2/s)
20 1.2047 1.5111E-5
25 1.1845 1.5571E-5
30 1.1649 1.6036E-5
35 1.1459 1.6507E-5
40 1.1275 1.6982E-5
45 1.1098 1.7462E-5

25