Sprint 1.

1 Computing Hardware
Unit 1 Computing Systems and Networks

DigiChamps | Level 11
Learning Objectives

● semiconductors, transistors and logic gates;

● adders and subtractors;
● functioning and examples of processors ;
● Parts of motherboard.

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Outline

● Fundamentals of computer hardware

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Today's digital technologies astound us with their power and versatility. But have you ever
wondered what happens inside a device when you switch it on? How does your smartphone
respond to your touch input? How does the cursor move on the screen when you move the
mouse? Have you ever opened a computer to examine what's inside?

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In this unit, let’s explore the fundamentals of computer hardware. We will focus on the
components that enable contemporary devices, such as computers and phones, to function.
In addition, we will look at the function of semiconductors, transistors, and logic gates in
digital electronics, as well as their applications in computing.

Once you open the system unit, you will find different parts including a storage drive, power
supply, cooling fan, and electronic circuits. The main electronic circuit board that houses key
components and is connected with other components is called the motherboard. There are
different electronic components on the motherboard, including the microprocessor, which is
made up of many miniaturized electronic components such as transistors, diodes, resistors,
and so on. These electronic components are made up of semiconductors.

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Semiconductors

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Semiconductors are special materials used in building electronic systems. They have electrical
conductivity between that of conductors (like metals) and that of insulators (like plastic). The
atomic structure of the semiconductors renders them their unique properties. Silicon (Si) is
the most widely used semiconductor material since it is inexpensive and ample. Other than
that, the semiconductor Germanium (Ge) is also used extensively.

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The conductivity of semiconductors is modified by adding a small amount of a different
material, called an impurity. This process is called doping. Doping helps create useful
electronic devices from semiconductors.

There are two types of impurities: donor impurity and acceptor impurity. Donor impurity has
extra electrons (negatively charged particles) and is added to the semiconductor material to
make the n-type semiconductor. This makes the n-type semiconductor better at conducting
electricity as there are more electrons available to carry the electric current. Acceptor impurity
has less electrons and is added to the semiconductor material to make a p-type
semiconductor. The p-type semiconductor has holes (representing the absence of electrons),
which move through the material as neighboring electrons fill them.

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By combining the n-type and p-type semiconductors, diodes and transistors can be created,
which can be used to build logic gates and processors.
Semiconductor technology has evolved promptly over the years, making it possible to make
electronic devices that are smaller, faster, and more efficient. New technologies like artificial
intelligence, the Internet of Things (IoT), and 5G wireless networks have been made possible
by the continuous advancement of this technology.

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Transistors

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Transistor is an electronic component that can function as a switch to boost weak electrical
signals. It is an electronic device that can be in OFF or in an ON state. It is made by combining
p-type and n-type semiconductor materials. Transistors can control how electricity flows in a
circuit based on certain conditions.

Transistors, in combination with other electronic components, are used to build more
complex systems, such as logic gates, and help process and store information. Computers use
binary, a simple system of representing information using only two values (0 and 1) because it
works well with the nature of transistors and logic gates in electronics. This makes it easy to
design and build electronic circuits.

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Binary Addition

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Presentation title 13

introduction
Binary addition is the process of adding binary
numbers, which are numbers represented in
the base-2 numeral system.

Two binary digits (bits) are added, and if the

sum is greater than 1, a carry is generated.
Example
Presentation title 15

Logical circuit diagram

The logic diagram consists
of gates and symbols that
can directly replace an
expression in Boolean
arithmetic.
Logic gates

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At the core of computing is logic. Computing devices use logic to process and manipulate
data. This is accomplished by using electronic circuits called logic gates. They perform logical
operations on binary data. Transistors and other electronic components are the building
blocks of digital circuits, which are based on logic gates. They allow us to create logical
systems in hardware that can perform a wide range of functions.
Logic gates take one or more inputs and produce an output based on the logical operation.
There are several logic gates, such as AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, and XNOR. By
combining these logic gates, you can create complicated circuits that perform more advanced
logical operations and even arithmetic operations. Computers use these logic circuits to
perform calculations, store data, and execute instructions.

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Input and output pins

Each of the gates have input and output pins. They are essential components of the digital
circuits. Input pins receive electrical signals from external sources. Output pins send electrical
signals to other components; transmitting data or control signals from a component. In logic
gates, the input signals are processed, and an output signal is generated based on the function
of the logic gate.

Let’s take a look at each logic gate using truth tables. A truth table represents the output of a
logic gate for all possible input combinations. It is a helpful tool for understanding and
analyzing the behavior of logic gates.

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The NOT gate

The NOT gate is the simplest logic gate, with only one input and one output. It takes one input
and produces an output that is the opposite of the input. That means if the input is high (1), the
output will be low (0), and if the input is low (0), the output will be high (1).

Consider an example where you need to turn on the generator when the power is cut off. You
can use a NOT gate in this case.

Following is the diagram representing the NOT gate.

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This is expressed as Y = A. It is read as Y equals NOT A.

The truth table for the NOT gate is given below.

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The AND gate

The AND gate has two inputs and one output. It produces a high output (1) only if both inputs
are high (1). In all other cases, it produces low output (0).

In a security system, an AND gate can be used to ensure that two conditions are met before
granting access. For instance, a door may unlock only if a valid access card is scanned (input A)
as well as the correct pin code is entered (input B).

Following is the diagram representing the AND gate.

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This can be expressed as Y = A ᐧ B, read as Y equals A and B. The truth table for the AND gate is
given below.

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The OR gate

The OR gate has two inputs and one output. It produces a high output (1) if either of the inputs
is high (1). If both the inputs are low (0), the output is also low (0).

A fire alarm system uses an OR gate to activate the alarm when either the smoke detector
(input A) or heat detector (input B) is triggered. The alarm sounds if either of the detectors
senses a fire, ensuring that the system responds to multiple types of fire hazards.

Following is the diagram representing the OR gate.

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The boolean expression of OR gate is Y = A+B, read as Y equals A or B. The truth table for the
OR gate is given below.

The logic gates can be combined to create more complex logic.

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We can combine the NOT, AND, and OR logic gates to create more complex gates such as
NAND, NOR, XOR, and XNOR.

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Other logic gates Study the gates and their
symbols

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Processors

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Processors are also known as Central Processing Units (CPUs). They are the brain of a
computer. They can do calculations, execute instructions, manage data flow, and control the
input and output devices. Modern processors are highly sophisticated. With advanced
architecture and processing power, they can handle complex tasks like machine learning,
gaming, and high-speed data processing.

The main parts of a processor are the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), the control unit, the
memory (registers), the bus, and the clock.

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Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
As the name suggests, the ALU is responsible for performing arithmetic and logical
operations on data. It can add, subtract, multiply, divide, perform logical operations and do a
lot of other tasks. The ALU receives input data, performs the required operation, and then
stores the result.

Control unit
The control unit orchestrates the data movement within the processor. It oversees the ALU's
operations, retrieves instructions from memory, and guarantees their accurate execution.
Additionally, the control unit facilitates communication between the processor and other
elements, including memory and input/output devices.

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Registers
Registers are small, fast storage locations within the processor. They temporarily hold data
and instructions that are being processed. Registers can store operands for the ALU, hold
intermediate results, and provide storage for the results of operations.

Clock
In a processor, a clock serves as an electronic oscillator that assists in coordinating and
regulating the timing of different actions executed by the processor. The clock creates a
steady sequence of pulses or ticks at fixed intervals, functioning as a cue for the processor to
carry out tasks. Its pace is quantified in hertz (Hz), denoting the frequency of pulses in each
second.

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Bus
A bus in a processor refers to a set of parallel electrical connections (wires or conductive
traces) that transmit data, instructions, or power between different components of the
computer system, including the processor, memory, and input/output devices.

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Motherboard

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Power connectors: On the motherboard, there are power connectors that take power from
the Power Supply Unit (PSU) and distribute it to the processor, memory, and other
components, ensuring that they all have the right amount of power to work correctly.

Processor socket: The motherboard comes with a designated socket designed to hold the
processor. This socket guarantees proper electrical and physical connections between the
processor and the motherboard, supplying power and enabling communication with other
components via the motherboard's wiring.

Memory slots: The motherboard is equipped with slots for adding RAM (Random Access
Memory) modules. RAM temporarily stores data while the processor performs tasks.

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These memory slots are linked to the processor through the memory bus, enabling the
processor to read from and write on RAM.

Expansion slots: These are slots on the motherboard for adding expansion cards such as
graphics cards, sound cards, or network cards, allowing users to customize their computer's
capabilities.

Storage connectors: Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) is a connector for various

devices, including hard drives, solid-state drives (SSDs), and optical drives, enabling the
processor to access and manage the data stored on these devices.

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Input/output (I/O) ports: Various I/O ports are available on the motherboard, like the USB,
HDMI, audio jacks, and ethernet ports. These ports enable connections for external devices
such as keyboards, mice, monitors, speakers, and network cables, allowing the processor to
send and receive data from these devices.

BIOS firmware: A small amount of non-volatile memory on the motherboard stores the BIOS
(Basic Input/Output System) firmware. This firmware is responsible for initializing and
configuring the hardware components during the startup process, which allows the processor
to communicate with the rest of the computer before the operating system is loaded.

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Activity - 3

Consider the following combination of gates. Create the truth table for it.

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Challenge 2

Design a logic circuit, using only AND, OR, and NOT gates that implement the boolean
expression: (A OR B) AND (NOT C). Create a truth table for it.

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