DSD/unit_2/digital_integrated_circuits/logic_families/

*Introduction :

Digital Integrated Circuit

Functions of digital integrated circuits to handle discrete signals such as binary values in which
“true/false” logical operations are used. Basic Boolean functions such as AND, OR, and NOT are
essential in building functionality for modern digital systems. These Boolean functions are
implemented using transistors. For example, internal transistor structure of a NAND gate is given
in following figure.

There might ten billion or more transistors in modern digital circuit. So, we need Integrated Circuits
(ICs) that combine a small or large number of these transistors to achieve particular functionality.
These circuits provide benefiting students, very low cost and higher level of reliability. Examples of
integrated circuits are MOS, CMOS, TTL etc. CMOS ICs are fault tolerant, reduce risk of chip
failure, use of anti-static foam for storage and transport of ICs. TTL technology requires regulated
power supply of 5 volts.

Families of Integrated Circuits

A logic family is a group of electronic logic gates. A family has its own discrete logic level, power
supply, individual components, characteristic, advantages and disadvantages. Within each family,
there is a range of voltage which may be low level or high level.
These families are listed as following below:
Diode Logic (DL)
Registers and diodes are used to implement logic. The purpose of diode is to perform OR and
AND operation, and logic switch. It is essential that diode is forward biased so that it can conduct.
Disadvantages: diodes can not perform NOT operation, diode cannot work for multiple states, only
one stage at a time, tend to degrade signals quickly.
Resistor-Transistor Logic (RTL)
Registers and transistors are used to implement logic. Transistors are used to combine signals
which are inverted and amplified inputs. These are economical and easy to design but slower in
speed. These require great amount of current from supply. RTL gates can be used as interface
between linear circuits and digital.
Diode Transistor Logic (DTL)
Registers and diodes are used to implement logic. It has advantages over DL and RTL. Diode can
perform AND and OR operation along with a transistor and output signal can be amplified. It has
logic inversion which is signal can be restored to full logic level, if we add a transistor at output of
logic gates. OR operation can be performed using diodes instead of resistors which removes
interaction between input signals. Since input resistor to transistor, switching speed of transistor is
limited. DTL was used in tube computers.
Transistor - Transistor Logic (TTL)
Transistors are used to implement logic and Bipolar transistors to contract integrated circuits.
There are standard TTL, high speed TTL, low power TTL, and schottky TTL. It is popular logic
family.
Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL)
ECL is a non-structured logic. Advantages of this logic are speed, and very low propagation delay.
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Logic (CMOS)
It is known for high fan-out, low power consumption and most reliable logic family.

Types of logic circuits:

Logic circuit for digital system is categorized into two main categories;

 Computational logic circuit

  Sequential logic circuit

Computational logic circuits:
Computational logic circuits consist of logic gates whose outputs at any time are
determined directly from the present combination of inputs without regard to previous
output.

Sequential logic circuits:

Sequential circuits employ memory elements i.e. binary cells in addition to logic gates.
The output of an sequential circuits are a function of the inputs and the state of the
memory elements. The state of an memory elements, in turn, is a function of previous
outputs.

Logic Representation:
As we know that logic circuits are normally composed of ‘gates’. It is that the logic gates
produce pulses of electrical current (1s and 0s). Below we are explaining about the logic
representation techniques that help you to express the working of a logic circuit. There
are three common ways in which to represent the working of a logic circuit.

1. Truth Tables
2. Logic Circuit Diagram
3. Boolean Expression
We will discuss each herein and demonstrate ways to convert between them.

Truth Tables:
A truth table is a chart of Boolean values (1s and 0s) arranged to indicate the results (or
outputs) of all possible inputs combinations.  The lists of all possible inputs combination
are arranged in columns on the left and the resultant outputs are listed in columns on the
right side of the table. If there are n inputs then there are maximum 2 n (2 to the power
n) possible states or unique combination of inputs.  For example with three inputs there
are 23=8 possible combination of inputs.

Logic Circuit Diagram:

A logic circuit diagram uses the graphical representation or description of logic gates in
combination to represent a logic expression.  An example of logic circuit diagram, shows
below with three inputs (A, B, and C) and one output (Y).  The interpretation of this will
become clear in the following sections.
 Logic circuit diagram

Boolean Expression:
Boolean algebra can be used to write a logic expression in the form of an equation. There
are a few symbols and operators that are uses to express the output of a logic circuit.

‘+’ means OR, So P+Q is same as P OR Q

‘*’ means AND, So P*Q is same as P AND Q
A ̅ means NOT A, Sometimes it is called complement of A
⨁ means XOR, So P ⨁ Q means P XOR Q

Application of Logic circuits:

In modern technology logic circuits are found in several high-tech devices including
arithmetic logic units, computer memory and registers, multiplexers and
decoder/encoder. Logic circuits are also used in upgraded technical microprocessors,
some of which can contain over 100 million gates. Also, logic gates are the building
blocks of digital electronics and are formed by the combination of transistors in order to
realize some digital operations. Every digital product, including personal computers,
mobile phones, tablets, calculators and digital watches also uses logic gates.

Advantages of Logic circuits:

Logic circuits perform logical operations on the behalf of Boolean logics. Logic circuits are
primarily implemented electronically using semiconductor diodes or transistors, but it can
be constructed using different basic logic gates which are implemented by
electromagnetic relays, fluidics, molecules, optics or even mechanical elements.

In real world technology are highly uses various types of logic circuits to solve the
complex real time problems. There are different types of advantages those are provides
an positive edge for using logic gates. Various advantages of logic circuits are as follows;

 Logic circuits have the ability to rectify noise on the input that results in the
signal not correctly switching from 0V to 5V for 0 and 1 respectively. This is an
ability that desired in Logic circuits, and why they are commonly used
throughout the industry.
 Since basic logics gates like AND, OR, NOT, TTL etc. are no more expensive so
the use of logic gates is less expensive in design and use.
  Logic circuits are more precise representation of a signal can be obtained by
using more binary digits to represent it.
 Modern technology uses logic circuits to be control the operation. The operations
of logic circuits are controlled by software, so new functions to be added without
changing hardware.
 The switching time is much faster than analog circuits.

Disadvantages of Logic circuits:

As logic circuits are the best utilities devices in the modern technology, but there have
some disadvantages are as follows;

 Logic circuits uses more energy than other circuits like analog circuits to
accomplish the same tasks resultant circuit produces more heat. This can be
limit use of logic circuits.
For activation, logic circuits require power system i.e. portable or battery power systems
which are limited in power.