GOLDEN GATE COLLEGES

P. Prieto St., Batangas City

College of Engineering and Technology
Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

LOGIC CIRCUIT SWITCHING AND THEORY

Submitted to:
ENGR. JECSON ABANTE

Submitted by:
LUMANGLAS, OBRIEN M.

August 29, 2023

Introduction

A logic circuit is a circuit that executes a processing or controlling function in a

computer. This circuit implements logical operations on information to process it.

Logic circuits utilise two values for a given physical quantity (voltage, for example) to
denote the Boolean values true and false or 1 and 0 respectively. Logic circuits have
inputs, as well as having outputs that can be dependent on the inputs. In logic circuit
diagrams, the connection from one circuit’s output to another circuit’s input is displayed
as an arrowhead at the input end.
When it comes to performance, logic circuits are similar to programming language
functions. The inputs are similar to function parameters while the outputs are similar to
function returned values. A logic circuit can accommodate multiple outputs.

Two Types of Logic Circuitry

Combinational circuitry – operates like a simple function. The output is based on the
present values of the input.

 Combinational circuitry is theoretically built from basic logic gates, which are
AND gates, OR gates, XOR gates, and inverters. The outputs of gates in
combinational circuitry is never sent directly back to earlier inputs.
 An AND gate can conceivably have any number of inputs. Its output is true when
all of its inputs are true.
 An AND gate is frequently used to control a signal – that is, to turn it on or off,
depending on the value of control signals.
 An OR gate can conceivably have any number of inputs. Its output is true when
any one of its inputs is true.
 An XOR gate has two inputs. Its output is true when only of its inputs are true. It
will return false otherwise.
  An XOR gate is sometimes used to control a signal – that is, either to invert it or
not, depending on the value of a control signal.

Basic logic gates can be combined to form a variety of higher-level units:

Routing

 Multiplexers – these have several data input signals, as well as a control input.
The output is identical to one of the inputs. The value of the control signal
determines which input to take into account.
 Demultiplexers – these gates have one data input signal, a control input, and
several output signals. All of the output signals are 0 (false) except for the one
selected by the control input. The selected output is identical to the data input.

Computational

 Full adders – this kind of gate performs a single column of a binary addition. Full
adders are the primary building block for multi-bit adders and subtracto
 Adders and Subtractors – these work to add or subtract two binary or two
complement numbers. A subtractor is just an adder with extra circuitry, which
allows it to perform a two-complement operation on one of the inputs. They are
typically designed to do either addition or subtraction, as directed by a control
signal.
 Comparators – these compare either two binary or two complement numbers.

State circuitry – this kind of gate performs like an object method. The output is not only
based on the input. It is also based on the historical inputs. This is made possible by
the memory embedded in the circuitry.
  This is similar to an object method with values depending on the object’s state, or
depending on its instance variables.
 State circuitry contains anything that can recollect bits of information, including
memory, registers, and program counters.
 The basic element of state circuitry is a flip-flop. A flip-flop stores one bit of data.
Multiple flip-flops can be combined to form a multi-bit state element called a
register. Multiple registers can be combined into a register bank.

These two types of logic circuitry work hand in hand to form a processor data path.

Processor Datapath

A processor’s data path is conceptually organized into two parts:

 Combinational logic determines the state of the processor for the next clock
cycle. The ALU is combinational logic.
 State elements hold information about the state of the processor during the
current clock cycle. All registers are state elements.

https://teachcomputerscience.com/logic-circuits/

History
Logic circuits or Digital logic as we know it today required collaboration from thousands
of people over thousands of years.
Before electronic devices were ever created, mathematicians and philosophers were
unknowingly creating the language of binary and laying the foundation for modern
computing devices. These concepts were later applied to similar communication
systems like Morse Code and the binary that we’re familiar with today. Mathematicians
like George Boole and Charles Babbage applied these concepts to mechanical devices
to automate them. While computing has a rich history, the logic gates that allow
computers to function get less attention.

George Boole Inventor of the idea of logic gates. He was born in Lincoln; England and
he was the son of a shoemaker in a low-class family.

Ancient Logic and Binary

In the 10th century in ancient China, a scholar named Shao Yong rearranged the
hexagrams from the I Ching into a format similar to binary. Some scholars even suggest
that the I Ching was Gottfried Leibniz’s inspiration for binary code.
There were also truth tables in ancient Greece with YES and NO functioning like ON
and OFF in the case of transistors. Leibniz most likely found inspiration from Greek
mathematicians because their works were the most accessible for scholars in Europe
during the 17th and 18th centuries.

From Mechanical to Digital Logic

Although Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz is credited with inventing binary as we know it today,
the first logic-based devices were created by Charles Babbage. His first Difference
Engine was a mechanical calculator designed to tabulate polynomial equations and
print the results on a roll of paper.
In Babbage’s design, mechanical gears served the function of logic gates. He designed
a second Difference Engine, also referred to as the Analytical Engine, but could never
obtain funding to make it. His designs were later noticed in the 1980s and a fully
functional model was finally created to his specifications.

The first common logic gates were electromagnetic relays, which were basically ON-
OFF switches. The electromechanical relay was invented by Joseph Henry in 1835.
After the invention of the rotary dial in 1890, more complex relays with 10 positions were
developed. In 1898, Nikola Tesla filed a patent for an invention he called “tele
automation”.

Digital Logic Today

Centuries of innovation have led to tiny and powerful logic devices like FPGAs, PLCs,
and Pico Gates, which allow tiny devices to have computing power and control
functionality that dwarfs the massive computers of old. These days, there are tiny logic
packages for just about every function imaginable, whether it comes in an array or a
discrete package.

Binary Number System

All digital circuits and systems use this binary number system. The base or radix of this
number system is 2. So, the numbers 0 and 1 are used in this number system.

The part of the number, which lies to the left of the binary point is known as integer part.
Similarly, the part of the number, which lies to the right of the binary point is known as
fractional part.
In this number system, the successive positions to the left of the binary point having
weights of 20, 21, 22, 23 and so on. Similarly, the successive positions to the right of
the binary point having weights of 2-1, 2-2, 2-3 and so on. That means, each position
has specific weight, which is power of base 2.
Example

Consider the binary number 1101.011. Integer part of this number is 1101 and fractional
part of this number is 0.011. The digits 1, 0, 1 and 1 of integer part have weights of 20,
21, 22, 23 respectively. Similarly, the digits 0, 1 and 1 of fractional part have weights of
2-1, 2-2, 2-3 respectively.

Mathematically, we can write it as

1101.011 = (1 × 23) + (1 × 22) + (0 × 21) + (1 × 20) + (0 × 2-1) +

(1 × 2-2) + (1 × 2-3)

Decimal Number System

The base or radix of Decimal number system is 10. So, the numbers ranging from 0 to 9
are used in this number system. The part of the number that lies to the left of the
decimal point is known as integer part. Similarly, the part of the number that lies to the
right of the decimal point is known as fractional part.
In this number system, the successive positions to the left of the decimal point having
weights of 100, 101, 102, 103 and so on. Similarly, the successive positions to the right
of the decimal point having weights of 10-1, 10-2, 10-3 and so on. That means, each
position has specific weight, which is power of base 10.

Example

Consider the decimal number 1358.246. Integer part of this number is 1358 and
fractional part of this number is 0.246. The digits 8, 5, 3 and 1 have weights of 100, 101,
102 and 103 respectively. Similarly, the digits 2, 4 and 6 have weights of 10-1, 10-2 and
10-3 respectively.

Mathematically, we can write it as

1358.246 = (1 × 103) + (3 × 102) + (5 × 101) + (8 × 100) + (2 × 10-1) +

(4 × 10-2) + (6 × 10-3)