CC 103: BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MLS

College of Liberal Arts, Sciences and Education

Prepared by: Dennis M. Dimaranan, PhD.
Eigenn C. Loyola

MODULE 9
BIOCHEMICAL CHEMICAL ENERGY PRODUCTION – METABOLISM
Brief Introduction or Description
Eating is essential to life. Many of us look to eating as not only a necessity, but also a pleasure. You
may have been told since childhood to start the day with a good breakfast to give you the energy to get
through most of the day. You most likely have heard about the importance of a balanced diet, with plenty of
fruits and vegetables. But what does this all mean to your body and the physiological processes it carries out
each day? You need to absorb a range of nutrients so that your cells have the building blocks for metabolic
processes that release the energy for the cells to carry out their daily jobs, to manufacture new proteins, cells,
and body parts, and to recycle materials in the cell.
This module will take you through some of the chemical reactions essential to life, the sum of which is
referred to as metabolism. The focus of these discussions will be anabolic reactions and catabolic reactions.
You will examine the various chemical reactions that are important to sustain life, including why you must have
oxygen, how mitochondria transfer energy, and the importance of certain “metabolic” hormones and vitamins.
Learning Outcomes:
By the end of the module, you should be able to:
1. Describe the processes involved in catabolism and anabolism
2. Explain how metabolism is essential to maintaining body temperature (thermoregulation)
3. Describe the process by which polymers are broken down into monomers
4. Describe the process by which monomers are combined into polymers
5. Discuss the role of ATP in metabolism
6. Describe the hormones that regulate anabolic and catabolic reactions
Pre – Assessment. Below are pre – assessment questions on the molecular components of cells. Select the
correct letter of the best answer. Write it on the blank line before each number
1. The following are the characteristics of catabolic reactions except
a. Have energy poor products
b. Capture energy in the form of ATP
c. Require coenzyme like NAD +
d. Yield a greater number of products compared to anabolic reactions.
2. Which of the following is a reduced molecule?
a. FAD c. NAD +
b. FADH2 d. NADP +
3. Which is NOT a catabolic pathway?
a. Lipogenesis c. Glycolysis
b. Lipogenolysis d. β – oxidation of Fatty acids

4. Anabolic pathway takes place in the

a. Cytoplasm c. smooth ER
b. Mitochondrion d. Nucleus
5. The ribose sugar needed for the synthesis of nucleic acids are provided by
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 CC 103: BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MLS
College of Liberal Arts, Sciences and Education
Prepared by: Dennis M. Dimaranan, PhD.
Eigenn C. Loyola

a. Gluconeogenesis c. Glycolysis
b. Pentose phosphate pathway d. Krebs Cycle
Lesson 1: Metabolism

Hundreds of reactions simultaneously take place in a living cell, in a well-organized and integrated
manner. The entire spectrum of chemical reactions, occurring in the living system which collectively referred
to as metabolism.
Metabolism varies, depending on age, gender, activity level, fuel consumption, and lean body mass.
Your own metabolic rate fluctuates throughout life. By modifying your diet and exercise regimen, you can
increase both lean body mass and metabolic rate. Factors affecting metabolism also play important roles in
controlling muscle mass. Aging is known to decrease the metabolic rate by as much as 5 percent per year.
Additionally, because men tend have more lean muscle mass then women, their basal metabolic rate
(metabolic rate at rest) is higher; therefore, men tend to burn more calories than women do. Lastly, an
individual’s inherent metabolic rate is a function of the proteins and enzymes derived from their genetic
background. Thus, your genes play a big role in your metabolism. Nonetheless, each person’s body engages in
the same overall metabolic processes. Metabolic processes are constantly taking place in the body.
Metabolism is the sum of all of the chemical reactions that are involved in catabolism and anabolism. The
reactions governing the breakdown of food to obtain energy are called catabolic reactions. Conversely,
anabolic reactions use the energy produced by catabolic reactions to synthesize larger molecules from smaller
ones, such as when the body forms proteins by stringing together amino acids. Both sets of reactions are
critical to maintaining life.

Because catabolic reactions produce energy and anabolic reactions use energy, ideally, energy usage
would balance the energy produced. If the net energy change is positive (catabolic reactions release more
energy than the anabolic reactions use), then the body stores the excess energy by building fat molecules for
long-term storage. On the other hand, if the net energy change is negative (catabolic reactions release less
energy than anabolic reactions use), the body uses stored energy to compensate for the deficiency of energy
released by catabolism.
Lesson 2: Catabolism and Anabolism

A metabolic pathway (or metabolic map) constitutes a series of enzymatic reactions to produce specific
products. The term metabolite is applied to a substrate or an intermediate or a product in the metabolic
reactions. Metabolism is broadly divided into two categories
A. Catabolism
The very purpose of catabolism is to trap the energy of the biomolecules in the form of ATP and to
generate the substances (precursors) required for the synthesis of complex molecules.Catabolism occurs in
three stages (Fig.1).

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 CC 103: BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MLS
College of Liberal Arts, Sciences and Education
Prepared by: Dennis M. Dimaranan, PhD.
Eigenn C. Loyola

Figure 1: The three stages of catabolism (ETC–Electron transport chain).

1. Conversion of complex molecules into their building blocks : Polysaccharides are broken down to
monosaccharides, lipids to free fatty acids and glycerol, proteins to amino acids.
2. Formation of simple intermediates : The building blocks produced in stage (1) are degraded to simple
intermediates such as pyruvate and acetyl CoA. These intermediates are not readily identifiable as
carbohydrates, lipids or proteins. A small quantity of energy (as ATP) is captured in stage 2.
3. Final oxidation of acetyl CoA : Acetyl CoA is completely oxidized to CO2, liberating NADH and FADH2 that
finally get oxidized to release large quantity of energy (as ATP). Krebs cycle (or citric acid cycle) is the common
metabolic pathway involved in the final oxidation of all energy-rich molecules. This pathway accepts the
carbon compounds (pyruvate, succinate etc.) derived from carbohydrates, lipids or proteins.

B. Anabolism

For the synthesis of a large variety of complex molecules, the starting materials are relatively
few. These include pyruvate, acetyl CoA and the intermediates of citric acid cycle. Besides the availability of
precursors, the anabolic reactions are dependent on the supply of energy (as ATP or GTP) and reducing
equivalents (as NADPH + H+). The anabolic and catabolic pathways are not reversible and operate
independently. As such, the metabolic pathways occur in specific cellular locations (mitochondria, microsomes
etc.) and are controlled by different regulatory signals. The terms—intermediary metabolism and energy
metabolism—are also in use. Intermediary metabolism refers to the entire range of catabolic and anabolic
reactions, not involving nucleic acids. Energy metabolism deals with the metabolic pathways concerned with
the storage and liberation of energy.

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 CC 103: BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MLS
College of Liberal Arts, Sciences and Education
Prepared by: Dennis M. Dimaranan, PhD.
Eigenn C. Loyola

Figure 2: The Anabolism

C. Comparison of Catabolism and Anabolism

Difference Between Catabolism and Anabolism

Catabolism Anabolism

Catabolism breaks down big complex molecules into Anabolism builds molecules required for the body’s
smaller, easier to absorb molecules. functionality.

The process of catabolism releases energy. Anabolic processes require energy.

Hormones involved in the processes are adrenaline, Hormones involved in the process are estrogen,
cytokine, glucagon, and cortisol. testosterone, growth hormones and insulin.

Examples of catabolic processes are proteins

Examples include the formation of polypeptides
becoming amino acids, glycogen breaking down into
from amino acids, glucose forming glycogen and
glucose and triglycerides breaking up into fatty
fatty acids forming triglycerides.
acids.

In catabolism, potential energy is changed into In anabolism, kinetic energy is converted into
kinetic energy. potential energy.

It is required to perform different activities in living It is required for maintenance, growth, and
entities. storage.

Lesson 3 - Regulations of Metabolism

Why is there a need to regulate the metabolic activities of the cell? The answer is so that the amount
of energy released and the substance that are biosynthesized are just enough to meet the needs of the cell. In
addition, different chemical reactions occur spontaneously in the cell. That is one, chemical reaction is not
isolated from the other and some of the intermediates of a particular pathway will be needed by other
metabolic reactions. The reactions governing the breakdown of food to obtain energy are called catabolic
reactions. Conversely, anabolic reactions use the energy produced by catabolic reactions to synthesize larger

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 CC 103: BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MLS
College of Liberal Arts, Sciences and Education
Prepared by: Dennis M. Dimaranan
Erwin R. Abrencillo, PhD

molecules from smaller ones, such as when the body forms proteins by stringing together amino acids. Both
sets of reactions are critical to maintaining life.
Because catabolic reactions produce energy and anabolic reactions use energy, ideally, energy usage
would balance the energy produced. If the net energy change is positive (catabolic reactions release more
energy than the anabolic reactions use), then the body stores the excess energy by building fat molecules for
long-term storage. On the other hand, if the net energy change is negative (catabolic reactions release less
energy than anabolic reactions use), the body uses stored energy to compensate for the deficiency of energy
released by catabolism.

A. Catabolic Reactions
Catabolic reactions break down large organic molecules into smaller molecules, releasing the
energy contained in the chemical bonds. These energy releases (conversions) are not 100 percent
efficient. The amount of energy released is less than the total amount contained in the molecule.
Approximately 40 percent of energy yielded from catabolic reactions is directly transferred to the high-
energy molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP, the energy currency of cells, can be used
immediately to power molecular machines that support cell, tissue, and organ function. This includes
building new tissue and repairing damaged tissue. ATP can also be stored to fulfill future energy
demands. The remaining 60 percent of the energy released from catabolic reactions is given off as
heat, which tissues and body fluids absorb.
Structurally, ATP molecules consist of an adenine, a ribose, and three phosphate groups. The
chemical bond between the second and third phosphate groups, termed a high-energy bond,
represents the greatest source of energy in a cell. It is the first bond that catabolic enzymes break
when cells require energy to do work. The products of this reaction are a molecule of adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) and a lone phosphate group (Pi). ATP, ADP, and Pi are constantly being cycled
through reactions that build ATP and store energy, and reactions that break down ATP and release
energy.

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 CC 103: BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MLS
College of Liberal Arts, Sciences and Education
Prepared by: Dennis M. Dimaranan
Erwin R. Abrencillo, PhD

Figure 3. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the energy molecule of the cell. During catabolic reactions, ATP is
created and energy is stored until needed during anabolic reactions.

The energy from ATP drives all bodily functions, such as contracting muscles, maintaining the electrical
potential of nerve cells, and absorbing food in the gastrointestinal tract. The metabolic reactions that produce
ATP come from various sources.

Figure 4. During catabolic reactions, proteins are broken down into amino acids, lipids are broken down into
fatty acids, and polysaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides. These building blocks are then used
for the synthesis of molecules in anabolic reactions.

Of the four major macromolecular groups (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids) that are
processed by digestion, carbohydrates are considered the most common source of energy to fuel the body.
They take the form of either complex carbohydrates, polysaccharides like starch and glycogen, or simple
sugars (monosaccharides) like glucose and fructose. Sugar catabolism breaks polysaccharides down into their
individual monosaccharides. Among the monosaccharides, glucose is the most common fuel for ATP

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 CC 103: BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MLS
College of Liberal Arts, Sciences and Education
Prepared by: Dennis M. Dimaranan
Erwin R. Abrencillo, PhD

production in cells, and as such, there are a number of endocrine control mechanisms to regulate glucose
concentration in the bloodstream. Excess glucose is either stored as an energy reserve in the liver and skeletal
muscles as the complex polymer glycogen, or it is converted into fat (triglyceride) in adipose cells (adipocytes).

Among the lipids (fats), triglycerides are most often used for energy via a metabolic process called β-
oxidation. About one-half of excess fat is stored in adipocytes that accumulate in the subcutaneous tissue
under the skin, whereas the rest is stored in adipocytes in other tissues and organs.

Proteins, which are polymers, can be broken down into their monomers, individual amino acids. Amino
acids can be used as building blocks of new proteins or broken down further for the production of ATP. When
one is chronically starving, this use of amino acids for energy production can lead to a wasting away of the
body, as more and more proteins are broken down.

Nucleic acids are present in most of the foods you eat. During digestion, nucleic acids including DNA
and various RNAs are broken down into their constituent nucleotides. These nucleotides are readily absorbed
and transported throughout the body to be used by individual cells during nucleic acid metabolism.

B. Anabolic Reactions
In contrast to catabolic reactions, anabolic reactions involve the joining of smaller molecules into larger
ones. Anabolic reactions combine monosaccharides to form polysaccharides, fatty acids to form triglycerides,
amino acids to form proteins, and nucleotides to form nucleic acids. These processes require energy in the
form of ATP molecules generated by catabolic reactions. Anabolic reactions, also called biosynthesis
reactions, create new molecules that form new cells and tissues, and revitalize organs.
C. Hormonal Regulations of Metabolism
Catabolic and anabolic hormones in the body help regulate metabolic processes. Catabolic
hormones stimulate the breakdown of molecules and the production of energy. These include cortisol,
glucagon, adrenaline/epinephrine, and cytokines. All of these hormones are mobilized at specific times to
meet the needs of the body. Anabolic hormones are required for the synthesis of molecules and include
growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor, insulin, testosterone, and estrogen. The following table
summarizes the function of each of the catabolic hormones and the subsequent table summarizes the
functions of the anabolic hormones.

Catabolic Hormones Functions

Cortisol Released from the adrenal gland in response to
stress; its main role is to increase blood glucose levels
by gluconeogenesis (breaking down fats and proteins)

Glucagon Released from alpha cells in the pancreas either when

starving or when the body needs to generate
additional energy; it stimulates the breakdown of
glycogen in the liver to increase blood glucose levels;
its effect is the opposite of insulin; glucagon and
insulin are a part of a negative-feedback system that
stabilizes blood glucose levels

Epinephrine/Adrenaline Released in response to the activation of the

sympathetic nervous system; increases heart rate and

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 CC 103: BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MLS
College of Liberal Arts, Sciences and Education
Prepared by: Dennis M. Dimaranan
Erwin R. Abrencillo, PhD

heart contractility, constricts blood vessels, is a

bronchodilator that opens (dilates) the bronchi of the
lungs to increase air volume in the lungs, and
stimulates gluconeogenesis

Anabolic Hormones Functions

Growth Hormone Synthesized and released from the pituitary gland;
stimulates the growth of cells, tissues, and bones
Insulin – like growth factor (IGF) Stimulates the growth of muscle and bone while also
inhibiting cell death (apoptosis)
Insulin Produced by the beta cells of the pancreas; plays an
essential role in carbohydrate and fat metabolism,
controls blood glucose levels, and promotes the
uptake of glucose into body cells; causes cells in
muscle, adipose tissue, and liver to take up glucose
from the blood and store it in the liver and muscle as
glucagon; its effect is the opposite of glycogen;
glucagon and insulin are a part of a negative-feedback
system that stabilizes blood glucose levels
Testosterone produced by the testes in males and the ovaries in
females; stimulates an increase in muscle mass and
strength as well as the growth and strengthening of
bone
Estrogen Produced primarily by the ovaries, it is also produced
by the liver and adrenal glands; its anabolic functions
include increasing metabolism and fat deposition

Lesson 4 – Disorders of Metabolic Process

As might be expected for a fundamental physiological process like metabolism, errors or malfunctions
in metabolic processing lead to a pathophysiology or—if uncorrected—a disease state. Metabolic diseases are
most commonly the result of malfunctioning proteins or enzymes that are critical to one or more metabolic
pathways. Protein or enzyme malfunction can be the consequence of a genetic alteration or mutation.
However, normally functioning proteins and enzymes can also have deleterious effects if their availability is
not appropriately matched with metabolic need. For example, excessive production of the hormone cortisol
gives rise to Cushing syndrome. Clinically, Cushing syndrome is characterized by rapid weight gain, especially
in the trunk and face region, depression, and anxiety. It is worth mentioning that tumors of the pituitary that
produce adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which subsequently stimulates the adrenal cortex to release
excessive cortisol, produce similar effects. This indirect mechanism of cortisol overproduction is referred to as
Cushing disease.
Patients with Cushing syndrome can exhibit high blood glucose levels and are at an increased risk of
becoming obese. They also show slow growth, accumulation of fat between the shoulders, weak muscles,
bone pain (because cortisol causes proteins to be broken down to make glucose via gluconeogenesis), and
fatigue. Other symptoms include excessive sweating (hyperhidrosis), capillary dilation, and thinning of the

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 CC 103: BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MLS
College of Liberal Arts, Sciences and Education
Prepared by: Dennis M. Dimaranan
Erwin R. Abrencillo, PhD

skin, which can lead to easy bruising. The treatments for Cushing syndrome are all focused on reducing
excessive cortisol levels. Depending on the cause of the excess, treatment may be as simple as discontinuing
the use of cortisol ointments. In cases of tumors, surgery is often used to remove the offending tumor. Where
surgery is inappropriate, radiation therapy can be used to reduce the size of a tumor or ablate portions of the
adrenal cortex. Finally, medications are available that can help to regulate the amounts of cortisol.

Insufficient cortisol production is equally problematic. Adrenal insufficiency, or Addison’s disease, is

characterized by the reduced production of cortisol from the adrenal gland. It can result from malfunction of
the adrenal glands—they do not produce enough cortisol—or it can be a consequence of decreased ACTH
availability from the pituitary. Patients with Addison’s disease may have low blood pressure, paleness,
extreme weakness, fatigue, slow or sluggish movements, lightheadedness, and salt cravings due to the loss of
sodium and high blood potassium levels (hyperkalemia). Victims also may suffer from loss of appetite, chronic
diarrhea, vomiting, mouth lesions, and patchy skin color. Diagnosis typically involves blood tests and imaging
tests of the adrenal and pituitary glands. Treatment involves cortisol replacement therapy, which usually must
be continued for life.
Learning Tasks:
A. The Overview of Metabolism. Refer to Figure 5 and 6 below and answer the following questions

Figure 5 – Catabolism and Anabolism (Garret & Grisham, 2008)

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 CC 103: BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MLS
College of Liberal Arts, Sciences and Education
Prepared by: Dennis M. Dimaranan
Erwin R. Abrencillo, PhD

Figure 6 – Stages of Catabolism ( Garret & Grisham, 2005)

Questions:
1. What is Metabolism?
2. What are the two types of Metabolism?
3. Which metabolic reaction requires an input of energy?

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 CC 103: BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MLS
College of Liberal Arts, Sciences and Education
Prepared by: Dennis M. Dimaranan
Erwin R. Abrencillo, PhD

4. Which metabolic reaction releases energy?

5. Which reaction yields a more complex molecules and is reductive?
6. Which reaction yields a simpler molecule and is oxidative?
7. What are the products of catabolism? In which part of the cell does this pathway take place?
8. What are the products of anabolism? In which part of the cell does this pathway take place?
9. Which reaction is divergent? Why?
10. Which reaction is convergent? Why?
11. Explain the stages of catabolism?
12. What is the common pathway of the degraded complex molecules ?
B. Refer to Figure 7, and answer the following questions.

Figure 7. Some mechanisms of cell signaling (Harvey & Ferrier, 2010)

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 CC 103: BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MLS
College of Liberal Arts, Sciences and Education
Prepared by: Dennis M. Dimaranan
Erwin R. Abrencillo, PhD

Questions:
a. Why is there need to regulate the metabolic activity?
b. What are the two main mechanisms by which cell signaling is regulated? What are the differences
between the two?
c. Why is it that the secondary messenger system is named as such? What is the two most common
secondary messenger system on energy metabolism?
d. Explain the mechanism of action of the adenyl cyclic system using a schematic diagram.
e. Cite a metabolic pathway where active protein kinase is needed and explain its mechanism of
action.

C. Complete the table below

Anabolic Hormone Function Disorder/Diseases due to
abnormal activity

Catabolic Hormone Function Disorder/Diseases due to

abnormal activity

D. Word Pool: Identify the following statement and choose your answer on the word pool then write on
the space provided before each number

Cushing Syndrome FADH2 NADH

Addison Syndrome Metabolic reaction Anabolic hormones
Anabolic reaction Catabolic hormones Catabolic reaction
Oxidation Reduction biosynthesis reactions
flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) oxidation-reduction reaction Cell signaling
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) Metabolism Metabolic pathway

1. hormones that stimulate the synthesis of new, larger molecules

2. reactions that build smaller molecules into larger molecules

3. reactions that create new molecules, also called anabolic reactions

4. hormones that stimulate the breakdown of larger molecules

5. reactions that break down larger molecules into their constituent parts

6. high-energy molecule needed for glycolysis

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 CC 103: BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MLS
College of Liberal Arts, Sciences and Education
Prepared by: Dennis M. Dimaranan
Erwin R. Abrencillo, PhD

7. Coenzyme used to produce FADH2

8. sum of all catabolic and anabolic reactions that take place in the body

9. high-energy molecule needed for glycolysis

10. coenzyme used to produce NADH

11. loss of an electron

12. (also, redox reaction) pair of reactions in which an electron is passed from one molecule to
another, oxidizing one and reducing the other

13. gaining of an electron

14. reduced production of cortisol from the adrenal gland. It can result from malfunction of the adrenal
glands

15. characterized by rapid weight gain, especially in the trunk and face region, depression, and anxiety

References:
Biochemistry and Agricultural Chemistry Division. (2009). Lecture Booklet in Biochemistry. Los Baños, Laguna:
UPLB Institute of Chemistry.
Chua, J.M.T (2022). Biological chemistry. Lorimar Publishing House Inc.
Satyanarayana U and Chakrapani U. (2013). Biochemistry. New Delhi, India: Elsevier.

Stoker, S. H (207). General, Organic and Biochemistry. Houghton Mifflin College Div; 4th edition
https://slideplayer.com/slide/5090011/

https://www.andrew.cmu.edu/course/03-231/MCQF05/MCQLec32.htm

https://www.google.com/search?q=cell+signaling+regulation+of+metabolism+harvey

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Overview-of-the-major-metabolic-pathways-in-pluripotent-stem-cells-and-
their_fig2_339573392

https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Lumen_Learning/Book%3A_Anatomy_and_Physiology_II_(Lumen)/10%3A_Module_8
-_Metabolism_and_Nutrition/10.02%3A_Overview_of_Metabolic_Reactions

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