Development of Science and Technology Throughout History Lecturers

Module 1
1. Development of
Science & Technology
Throughout History
Learning Outcome:
At the end of the course, the student will be able to:
➢ Identify the important technological discoveries that influenced

human life and communities during the Ancient, Medieval,
Renaissance and Modern times.
PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

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Major References:
▪ Antoniadis, Christos. (2018). “Byzantine Philosophy, Technology, Science and Medicine.”
Retrieved from: https://medium.com/@christoss200/byzantine-philosophy-technology-and-
medicine-4b160952970b
▪ Balakrishnan, Janaki and B V Sreekantan., (2014). Nature’s Longest Threads: New Frontiers in
the Mathematics and Physics of Information in Biology, WorldScientific.
▪ Burke, J., Bergman, J., & Asimov, I., (1985). The Impact of Science on Society. Washington, D.C., U.S.A: U.S.:
Government Printing Office.
▪ Floridi, Luciano. (2014). The Fourth Revolution: How the Infosphere is Reshaping HumanReality:
Oxford University Press
▪ Henry, John. "Scientific Revolution ." Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the EarlyModern World.
Retrieved August 11, 2020 from
Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-
and-maps/scientific-revolution
▪ Kennedy, Lesley. "The Prehistoric Ages: How Humans Lived Before Written Records.” Retrieved
from History.com: https://www.history.com/news/prehistoric-ages-timeline#section_1
▪ Kiger, Patrick. “9 Ancient Sumerian Inventions That Changed the World”.

https://www.history.com/news/sumerians-inventions-mesopotamia
▪ Noble, Thomas. (2016). “Europe in the Middle Ages—Technology, Culture, and Trade.”
Retrieved from: https://www.thegreatcoursesdaily.com/rise-europe-middle-ages/

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▪ Osler, M., Spencer, B., & Brush, S., (2019). “Scientific Revolution.” Retrieved from:
https://www.britannica.com/science/Scientific-Revolution
▪ Vidal-Naquet, P. (ed.). (1992). The Harper Atlas of World History. Harper Collins, New York.
▪ Zalta, Edward. (2017). "Scientific Revolutions", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from:
https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/scientific -revolutions
Additional Readings:
▪ Buckley, C., and Boudot E., (2017). The evolution of an ancient technology. R. Soc open sci.4:170208.
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.170208
▪ Kelty, Christopher. (2009). “The Impact of the Scientific Revolution: A Brief History of the
Experimental Method in the 17th Century.” Retrieved from:
https://cnx.org/contents/Obp6KDON@1/The-Impact-of-the-Scientific-Revolution-A-Brief-
History-of-the-Experimental-Method-in-the-17th-Century
▪ “Scientific Revolutions.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Nov 28, 2017 Retrieved

from: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-revolutions/
▪ The Medieval Sourcebook, located at the Fordham University Center for Medieval Studies, includes
thousands of sources including full text articles, law texts, saint's lives, maps and other sources
related to the Medieval
Age. https://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook.html

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Module Outline
❖ Timeline of Human Development
I. Early Technology
A. The Stone Age D. The Iron Age
1. Paleolithic Period 1. The Persian Empire
2. Mesolithic Period 2. Persia: Cradle of Civilization
3. Neolithic Period E. The Greek Civilization
B. Stone Age Breakthroughs in 1. Greek Agriculture
Hunter-Gatherer Tools 2. Greek Architecture
C. The Bronze Age 3. Some Notable Greeks in the Field of
1. What is the Fertile Crescent? Science & Technology
2. Mesopotamia Civilization F. The Romans
1. The Sumerians 1. The Roman Engineering
2. Sumerian Inventions 2. The Roman Architecture
3. The Akkadians 3. Some Notable Romans in theField of
4. The Assyrians Science & Technology
5. The Assyrians Contributions 4. The Ancient View of Universe
6. The Babylonians 5. The Fall of Rome
7. Contributions of
Babylonian Civilization
8. The Egyptians
9. Ancient Egyptians Science
& Technology

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II. The Middle Ages IV. The Scientific Revolution
A. The Teutonic Tribe A. New Methods
B. The Middle Ages Arts and Architecture 1. The Scientific Method
C. Population Growth in the Middle Ages B. New Ideas
D. Technology in the Middle Ages drives Growth C. The Emergence of Modern
E. New Methods of Land Use in the Middle Ages Astronomy
F. Mining and Heavy Industry in the Middle Ages D. Unifying Astronomy and Physics
G. The Byzantine Empire E. Medicine
1. Byzantine Science and Technology F. Other Scientific Advances
2. Architecture
3. Mathematics V. Activity 1: “A picture is worth a
4. Astronomy thousand words: Using Infographic to
5. Medicine and Botany illustrate Science and Technology
development through theages”
III. The Renaissance
A. Humanism
B. Renaissance Geniuses
C. Renaissance Exploration
1. Famous Journey & Expedition that
Changed the World
D. The Reformation
E. End of Renaissance

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❖ A Timeline of Human Development
Homo habilis (Skillful human) Lived
1.5 to 2,4 million years ago Also
called “Handy Man”
Used stones as simple tools and ate a variety of foods
Homo erectus (Upright human)
Lived 300,000 to 1.6 million years ago Used
fire
Made stone axes and chopping tools
Homo sapiens (Wise human) Lived

30,000 to 230,000 years ago Could
speak
Made more complicated tools
Also called “the Neanderthals”
Homo sapiens sapiens (Modern human) Have

been around for 120,000 years
Became more advanced about 40,000 years ago

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I. Early Technology
A. The Stone Age (2.5 mya –3,000 BC)
▪ Because of the great span of time involved, the Stone Age is divided into
three periods: Paleolithic (or Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (or Middle Stone
Age), and Neolithic (or New Stone Age).
▪ These three periods refer to the gradual progress of tool-making from the
earliest coarse pebble tools to more advanced and refined tools.
▪ During these era an eventual transformation was seen from a culture of

hunting and gathering to farming and food production.

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A.1. Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age) 2.5 mya-10,000 BC
• Early humans lived in caves or simple

huts or tepees and were hunters and
gatherers. They used basic stone and
bone tools, as well as crude stone
axes, for hunting birds and wild
animals.
• They cooked their prey, including

woolly mammoths, dear and bison,
using
The early humans of Paleolithic period controlled fire. They also fished and
that dwell in the caves are hunters and collected berries, fruit and nuts.
gatherers .

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A.2. Mesolithic Period –(10,000 BC –8,000 BC)
• Humans used small stone tools, now

also polished and sometimes crafted
with points and attached to antlers,
bone or wood to serve as spears and
arrows.
• They often lived nomadically in camps

near rivers and other bodies of water.
• Agriculture was introduced

People of the Mesolithic period use
during this time, which led to more polished pointed tools during hunting
permanent settlements in villages.

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A.3. Neolithic Period (8,000 BC –3,000 BC)
• Ancient humans switched from hunter/gatherer mode to agriculture

and food production. They domesticated animals and cultivated cereal
grains.
• They used polished hand axes, adzes for ploughing and

tilling the land and started to settle in theplains.
• Advancements were made not only in tools but also in farming, home
construction and art, including pottery, sewing and weaving.

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A Neolithic period settlement
with domesticated animals
During the Neolithic period,

humans learned how to
cultivate cereals

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B. Stone Age Breakthroughs in Hunter-Gatherer Tools
o Sharpened stones (Oldowan tools): 2.6 million

years ago
These were basically stone cores with flakes removed from them to
create a sharpened edge that could be used for cutting, chopping
or scraping.
One of the earliest

examples of stone tools
found in Ethiopia
o Stone handaxe (Acheulean tools): 1.6

million years ago An Acheulan
handaxe from
Named for St. Acheul on the Somme River in France, where Swakscombe
the first tools from this tradition were found in the mid-19th , Kent
century. These tool is used for striking flakes off longer rock
cores to shape them into thinner less rounded implements.

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• A new kind of knapping (Levallois
technique): 400,000 to 200,00 years ago
Known as the Levallois, or prepared-core

technique, it involved striking pieces off a stone
core to produce a tortoise-shell like shape, then carefully
striking the core again in such a way that a single large,
sharp flake can be broken off. The method could produce
Stone tools found in a numerous knife-like tools of predictable size and shape.
Neanderthal flint workshop
discovered in Poland
• Cutting blades (Aurignacian

industry): 80,000 to 40,000 years ago
The central innovation of this type of tool making

involved detaching long rectangular flakes from a
stone core to form blades, which proved more
effective at
cutting. The blades’ shape also made them
easier to attach to a handle, which gave greater
An Aurignacian blade shown from three leverage and increased efficiency.
angles
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• Small, sharp micro blades (Magdalenian
culture): 11,000 to 17,000 years ago
characterized by small tools known as geometric microliths, or

stone blades or flakes that have been shaped into triangles,
crescents and other geometric forms. When attached to
handles made of bone or antler, these could easily be used as
projectile weapons, as well as for woodworking and food
preparation purposes.
Microliths were added to Late

Magdalenian bone tools like
these, including harpoons
and projectile points.

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• Axes, celts, chisels (Neolithic
tools): around 12,000 years ago
These tools, including axes, adzes, celts, chisels and

gouges, were not only more pleasing to look at;
they were also more efficient to use and easier to
sharpen when they became dull.
allowed humans to clear wide swathes of
woodland to create their agricultural
Jadeite axes from the
settlements.
Neolithic Period in central
Europe.

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C. The Bronze Age (3,000 B.C. to 1,300 B.C.)
• Metalworking advances were made, as bronze, a copper and tin alloy, was
discovered. Now used for weapons and tools, the harder metal replaced its
stone predecessors, and helped spark innovations including the ox-drawn
plow and the wheel.
Village life in Grimspound, a late Bronze Age

settlement situated on Dartmoor in Devon, England.

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• This time period also brought advances in architecture and art, including
the invention of the potter’s wheel, and textiles— clothing consisted of
mostly wool items such as skirts, kilts, tunics and cloaks. Home dwellings
morphed to so-called roundhouses, consisting of a circular stone wall with
a thatched or turf roof, complete with a fireplace or hearth, and more
villages and cities began to form.
• Humans may have started smelting copper as early as 6,000

B.C. in the Fertile Crescent, a region often called “the cradle of
civilization” and a historical area of the Middle East where agriculture
and the world’s first cities emerged.

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C.1. What Is the Fertile Crescent?
• The Fertile Crescent, often called the "Cradle of Civilization", is the region in
the Middle East which curves, like a quarter-moon shape, from the Persian
Gulf, through modern-day southern Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel and
northern Egypt.
• The region has long been recognized for its vital contributions to world culture
stemming from the civilizations of ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the
Levant which included the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Egyptians, and
Phoenicians, all of whom were responsible for the development of civilization.

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Virtually every area of human
knowledge was advanced by these
people, including: Science and
Technology Writing and Literature
Religion
• Agricultural Techniques
• Mathematics and Astronomy
• Astrology and the Development of the
Zodiac
• Domestication of Animals
• Long-Distance Trade
• Medical Practices (including
dentistry)
• The Wheel
• The Concept of Time
States of the Fertile Crescent

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C.2. Mesopotamian Civilization
• Is an ancient, historical region that lies between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
in modern-day Iraq and parts of Kuwait, Syria, Turkey and Iran.
• Part of the Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia was home to the earliest known
human civilizations. Scholars believe the Agricultural Revolution started here.
• The earliest occupants of Mesopotamia lived in circular dwellings made of mud

and brick along the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys.
• They began to practice agriculture by domesticating sheep and pigs around

11,000 to 9,000 B.C. Domesticated plants, including flax, wheat, barley and
lentils, first appeared around 9,500 B.C.

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Map of Mesopotamia. Shown are Washukanni, Nineveh, Hatra,
Assur, Nuzi, Palmyra, Mari, Sippar, Babylon, Kish, Nippur, Isin,
Lagash, Uruk, Charax Spasinu and Ur, from north to south.

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• Some of the earliest evidence of farming comes from the archaeological site
of Tell Abu Hureyra, a small village located along the Euphrates River in
modern Syria. The village was inhabited from roughly 11,500 to 7,000 B.C.
Inhabitants initially hunted gazelle and other game before beginning to
harvest wild grains around 9,700 BCE. Several large stone tools for grinding
grain have been found at the site.
• One of the oldest known Mesopotamian cities, Nineveh (near

Mosul in modern Iraq), may have been settled as early as 6,000
B.C. Sumerian civilization arose in the lower Tigris-Euphrates valley
around 5,000 B.C.
• In addition to farming and cities, ancient Mesopotamian societies developed

irrigation and aqueducts, temples, pottery, early systems of banking and
credit, property ownership and the first codes of law.

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C.2.1. The Sumerian
• Sumer was first settled by humans from 4500 to 4000 B.C., though it is
probable that some settlers arrived much earlier.
• This early population—known as the Ubaid people—was notable for

strides in the development of civilization such as farming and raising
cattle, weaving textiles, working with carpentry and pottery and even
enjoying beer.
• Villages and towns were built around Ubaid farming communities. The
people known as Sumerians were in control of the area by 3000 B.C.

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• Their culture was comprised of a group of city-states, including Eridu, Nippur, Lagash,
Kish, Ur and the very first true city, Uruk. At its peak around 2800 BC, the city had a
population between 40,000 and 80,000 people living between its six miles of
defensive walls, making it a contender for the largest city in the world.
• Each city-state of Sumer was surrounded by a wall, with villages settled just outside
and distinguished by the worship of local deities.
Map of Ancient
Sumerian Empire

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C.2.2. Sumerian Invention
Mass-Produced Pottery
• Other ancient people made pottery by hand, but

the Sumerians were the first to develop the
turning wheel, a device which allowed them to
mass-produce it. That enabled them to churn out
large numbers of items such as containers for
workers’ rations, sort of the ancient forerunner
of Tupperware.
Bowl from the ancient

civilizations of
Mesopotamia.

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Writing
• The Sumerians were the first to develop a
writing system. Either way, it’s clear that they
were using written communication by 2800
B.C.
• But they didn’t set out to write great

literature or record their history, but rather to
keep track of the goods that they were making
and selling.
• Scribes used sharpened reeds to scratch the

symbols into wet clay, which dried to form
An early writing sample from tablets. The system of writing became known
Mesopotamia using as cuneiform,
pictographs to create a record of and as Kramer noted, it was borrowed by
food supplies. subsequent civilizations and used across the
Middle East for 2,000 years.

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Hydraulic Engineering
• The Sumerians figured out how to collect and channel the overflow of the Tigris
and Euphrates rivers—and the rich silt that it contained—and then use it to
water and fertilize their farm fields.
• They designed complex systems of canals, with dams constructed of reeds, palm
trunks and mud whose gates could be opened or closed to regulate the flow of
water.
A Mesopotamian relief
showing the agricultural
importance of the rivers.

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The Chariot
• The Sumerians didn’t invent wheeled vehicles, but they probably developed the
first two-wheeled chariot in which a driver drove a team of animals.
• The Sumerians had such carts for transportation in the 3000s B.C., but they were
probably used for ceremonies or by the military, rather than as a means to get
around the countryside, where the rough terrain would have made wheeled travel
difficult.
Scale model of a simple two-

wheeled chariot which was
invented by the Sumerians in
Mesopotamia.

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The Plow
• The Sumerians invented the plow, a

vital technology in farming.
• They even produced a manual that

gave farmers detailed instructions on
how to use various types of plows.
• They specified the prayer that should

be recited to pay homage to Ninkilim,
the goddess of field rodents, in
order to protect the grain from being Imitation of a Sumerian plow.

eaten.

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Textile Mills
• While other cultures in the
Middle East gathered wool and
used it to weave fabric for
clothing, the Sumerians were the
first to do weaving on an
industrial scale.
• The Sumerians’ innovation was

to turn their temples into huge
factories.
• They were the first to cross kin

lines and form larger working
organizations for making
textiles—the
predecessors of modern
manufacturing companies.
A Mesopotamian woman weaving.

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Mass-Produced Bricks
An archaeological site in Mari,

Syria (modern Tell Hariri) that was
an ancient Sumerian city on the
western bank of Euphrates river.
• To make up for a shortage of stones and timber for building houses and temples, the
Sumerians created molds for making bricks out of clay.
• While they weren’t the first to use clay as a building material but their innovation is their
ability to produce bricks in large amounts, and put them together on a large scale. Their
buildings might not have been as durable as stone ones, but they were able to build more of
them, and create larger cities.

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Metallurgy
• The Sumerians were some of the earliest

people to use copper to make useful items,
ranging from spearheads to chisels and
razors.
• They also made art with copper, including

dramatic panels depicting fantastical animals
such as an eagle with a lion’s head.
• Sumerian metallurgists used furnaces heated

by reeds and controlled the temperature
with a bellows that could be worked with
The lion-headed eagle made of
their hands or feet.
copper, gold, and lapis lazuli by
Sumerian civilization.

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Mathematics
Cuneiform
script, developed
by the
Sumerians.
• Primitive people counted using simple methods, such as putting notches on

bones, but it was the Sumerians who developed a formal numbering system
based on units of 60. At first, they used reeds to keep track of the units, but
eventually, with the development of cuneiform, they used vertical marks on the
clay tablets. Their system helped lay the groundwork for the mathematical
calculations of civilizations that followed.
•

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C.2.3. The Akkadians
• Located in the area to the north of Sumer, Akkadia became established and a dominant
force in Mesopotamia around 3000BC.
• The Akkadian empire is thought to be the first
dynastic rulership to have existed. It took over
control of Sumer and the Levant at around
2300BC.
• The Akkadians created the first united empire in
Ancient Mesopotamia. It was a hereditary
monarchy, meaning that the country was ruled by
a King who was succeeded by his sons upon his
death.
• The Akkadian king was credited with many

administrative firsts. These include the year name Map of the Akkadian Empire
system and a unified
• The Akkadians spanned into parts of Syria,
system of weights and measures. However, he
Iran, Jordan, Turkey, Kuwait and possibly
had difficulty controlling their empire and faced
even further to the south and into Cyprus.
frequent uprisings, especially among the
The empire would eventually collapse
Sumerian city-states.
sometime after 2150bc, just a few hundred
years after it was founded.

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C.2.4. The Assyrians
• Under the Assyrian Civilization, ancient Mesopotamia expanded from the
Persian Gulf to Egypt, to its Western borders of modern-day Turkey.
• After the Akkadian empire collapsed, the Assyrians were the powerhouse of Mesopotamia. For
over 1400 years, Assyria had control of parts of Egypt, Turkey, and modern day Iraq.
• It is thought the civilization became

wealthy enough to develop armies and
warriors through trading goods with
Anatolia (located in modern-day Turkey).
• Of all the cultures of the ancient

Mesopotamian civilizations,
Assyria is considered to be the greatest.
It developed advanced military and
bureaucratic systems,
which enabled it to expand and control

much of the ancient world. Map of the Assyrian Empire

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C.2.5. The Assyrian Contributions
Agricultural Technology
• The Assyrians were quite innovative when it came to agriculture, which was necessary
since they lived in an area where it was either extremely dry or flooded most of the
time.
• To make up for this, they built extensive canal systems out of mud. The canals would
collect the rainwater, helping to prevent flooding in rainy seasons. In dry seasons, the
farmers could release the stored water onto fields by digging into them.
• This was carried out by flood defense walls, which were used along the edges of the
canals to guide the water to where it was needed.

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Jerwan aqueduct, completed in 690 BC.
• Because of the importance of agriculture to the society, canals were built

along the edges of all farms and were well kept. Water systems were built to
supply water to cities by building slopes to conduct water from the hills to
the plains.

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Assyrian Architecture
• Major architectural works in ancient Assyria did not deviate much from the Babylonians. The
Assyrians built their temples and palaces primarily from stone and typically in a ziggurat, or
platform structure.
• Unlike the Babylonians, however, the Assyrians' homes were built mostly from stone rather than
clay or mud brick. Homes were rectangular, with beams on top to support an earthen roof.
• This structure and the lack of openings besides a door made the homes great for
defense - necessary for such a warring people.
Mud-brick ziggurats constructed by 2000

BC were in many Sumerian cities.

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C.2.6. The Babylonians
• Babylonia was a state in ancient Mesopotamia. The city of Babylon, whose ruins are
located in present-day Iraq, was founded more than 4,000 years ago as a small port town
on the Euphrates River. It grew into one of the largest cities of the ancient world under the
rule of Hammurabi.
• Hammurabi turned
Babylon into a rich,
powerful and influential
city. He created one of the
world’s earliest and most
complete written legal codes.
Known as the Code of
Hammurabi, it helped Babylon
surpass other cities in the
region.
• Babylonia, however, was short-
lived. The empire fell apart
after Hammurabi’s death
and reverted back to a small
kingdom for several centuries.
Babylonia at the time of Hammurabi

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C..2.7. Contributions of the Babylonian Civilization
Babylonian mathematics
• Babylonian mathematical texts are plentiful and well edited. Babylonian
mathematics remained constant, in character and content, for nearly two
millennia. In contrast to the scarcity of sources in Egyptian mathematics, our
knowledge of Babylonian mathematics is derived from some 400 clay
tablets unearthed since the 1850s.
• Written in Cuneiform script, tablets were inscribed while the clay was
moist, and baked hard in an oven or by the heat of the sun. The majority of
recovered clay tablets date from 1800 to 1600 BC, and cover topics which
include fractions, algebra, quadratic and cubic equations and the
Pythagorean theorem. The Babylonian tablet YBC 7289 gives an
approximation to accurate to five decimal places.

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Babylonian clay tablet YBC 7289 with annotations.
The diagonal displays an approximation of
the square root of 2 in four sexagesimal figures, which
is about six decimal figures.
• Babylonian numerals were written in cuneiform, using a

wedge-tipped reed stylus to make a mark on a
soft clay tablet which would be exposed in the sun to harden to create a
permanent record.

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Babylonian Architecture
• Among of this artistic progress it can be identified the improvement of

use given in architecture to the arch and the dome during the Babylonian
Empire; they were already used previously but was perfected during the
Neo Babylonian Empire. This is the time of the construction of the
fabulous palaces of Nebuchadnezzar.
Rebuilt Babylon Coliseum Stairs Rebuilt Walls of the Palace of King

Nebuchadneszzar (Present Day Iraq)
(Present Day Iraq)
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• Features of art in Babylonian culture
are closely related to building
materials available in their
environment. The stone was scarce of
course but the mud, abundant.
• Barely existed corpulent trees to build

the beams needed to use them
effectively in the construction of
architectural structure.
• Following these limitations, the

buildings are essentially cemented
with very similar stone brick and
adobe as the Sumerians did. The arch
and the dome roof are used mainly in
the construction of large palaces.

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• The adobe was used for terraces and thick external walls. The walls were
made of adobe or molded bricks (whose rear mounting made it possible to
build huge walls. Large ceramic reliefs made in terracotta and stone pieces
containing in some case inscriptions were used, receiving the name of
kuduroes this were stone blocks, generally in black diorite, which were
intended to delimit farms.
• The inscriptions made in this stones to describe the boundaries of the

property are intend also to throw terrifying spells for those who try to
change or alter their limited boundaries. The images of the gods or animals
representing them are carved in the relief so that they are more imposing
to the offenders who try to invade the property.
• In Babylonian architecture is observed essentially simplicity in the design of

the structures due to difficult terrain and poor materials.

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The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
• The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were the fabled gardens which adorned the capital of the Neo-
Babylonian Empire, built by its greatest king Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605-562 BCE). One of the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, they are the only wonder whose existence is disputed
amongst historians.
• Some scholars claim the gardens were actually at Nineveh, capital of the Assyrian Empire, some
stick with the ancient writers and await archaeology to provide positive proof, and still others
believe they are merely a figment of the ancient imagination.
• Archaeology at Babylon itself and ancient
Babylonian texts are silent on
the matter, but ancient writers describe the

gardens as if they were at
Nebuchadnezzar’s capital and still in
existence in Hellenistic times. The exotic nature
of the gardens compared to the more familiar
Greek items on the list and the mystery
surrounding their location and disappearance
have made the Hanging Gardens of Babylon the
most captivating of all the Seven Wonders. A representation of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the fabled gardens which
possibly adorned the capital of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, built by its greatest king
Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605-562 BCE). A 16th century CE engraving by Dutch artist
Martin Heemskerck.

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C.2.8 The Egyptians (3100 B.C. to 332 B.C.)
• For almost 30 centuries—from its unification around 3100 B.C. to its conquest by Alexander
the Great in 332 B.C.—ancient Egypt was the preeminent civilization in the Mediterranean
world.
• From the great pyramids of the Old Kingdom through the military conquests of the New
Kingdom, Egypt’s majesty has long entranced archaeologists and historians and created a
vibrant field of study all its own: Egyptology.
• The main sources of information

about ancient Egypt are the many
monuments, objects and artifacts
that have been recovered from
archaeological sites, covered with
hieroglyphs that have only recently
Map of
been deciphered. The picture that
ancient
emerges is of a culture with few Egypt
equals in the beauty of its art, the
accomplishment of its architecture or
the richness of its religious traditions.

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C.2.9 Ancient Egyptian Science & Technology
Engineering & Construction
• The great temples of ancient Egypt arose from the same technological skill one
sees on the small scale of household goods. The central value observed in
creating any of these goods or structures was a careful attention to detail.
• The Egyptians are noted in many aspects of their culture as a very conservative
society, and this adherence to a certain way of accomplishing tasks can clearly be
seen in their construction of the pyramids and other monuments.
• The creation of an obelisk, for example, seems to have always involved the exact
same procedure performed in precisely the same way. The quarrying and
transport of obelisks are well documented (though how the immense
monuments were raised is not) and shows a strict adherence to a standard
procedure.

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Egyptian Obelisk in Step Pyramid Complex at Saqqara (2670-
Karnak (1493–1482 BCE) 2650 BCE)

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• The Step Pyramid of Djoser was successfully built according to the precepts of
the vizier Imhotep and when his plans were deviated from by Sneferu during
of the Old Kingdom (c. 2613- c. 2181 BCE), the result was the so-called
'collapsed pyramid' at Meidum.
• Sneferu returned to Imhotep's original engineering plans for his next projects
and was able to create his Bent Pyramid and Red Pyramid at Dashur,
advancing the art of pyramid building which is epitomized in the Great
Pyramid at Giza.
The Great Pyramids of Giza

(2550 to 2490 BCE)

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Agriculture & Architecture
• Ancient Egypt was an agricultural society and so naturally developed

innovations to help cultivate the land. Among the many inventions or
innovations of the ancient Egyptians was the ox-drawn plow and improvements
in irrigation. The ox-drawn plow was designed in two gauges: heavy and light.
The heavy plow went first and cut the furrows while the lighter plow came
behind turning up the earth.
• Once the field was plowed then workers with hoes

broke up the clumps of soil and sowed the rows
with seed. To press the seed into the furrows,
livestock was driven across the field and the
furrows were closed. All of this work would have
been for nothing, however, if the seeds were
denied sufficient water and so regular irrigation of
the land was extremely important.
Wooden model of a man
ploughing with oxen

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• Egyptian irrigation techniques were so effective they were implemented by the cultures of
Greece and Rome.
• New irrigation techniques were introduced during the Second Intermediate Period by the people
known as the Hyksos, who settled in Avaris in Lower Egypt, and the Egyptians improved upon
them; notably through the expanded use of the canal.
• The yearly inundation of the Nile overflowing its banks and depositing rich soil throughout the
valley was essential to Egyptian life but irrigation canals were necessary to carry water to
outlying farms and villages as well as to maintain even saturation of crops near the river.
Present day
irrigation system
built by ancient
Egyptians along
the Nile river
Egyptian irrigation system

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• Shadoofs: The ancient Egyptians also used water wheels. The
water wheels worked the shadoofs. A shadoof was simply a
counterweight system, a long pole with a bucket on one end
and a weight on the other. Buckets were dropped into the Nile,
filled with water, and raised with water wheels. Then oxen
swung the pole so that the water could be emptied into narrow
canals or waterways that were used to irrigate the crops. It was
a clever system, and it worked very well.
A shadoof was used to raise water
above the level of the Nile.
• Nilometers: They also invented what is called a

nilometer. A nilometer was used to predict
flood levels. This instrument was a method of
marking the height of the Nile over the years.
Nilometers were spaced along the Nile River.
They acted as an early warning system, alerting
these early people that waters were not as high
as usual, so they could prepare for a drought or
for unusually high flood waters.
The nilometer on Elephantine Island, Aswan,
consists of stairs and staff gauges.

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• Rameses II (1303-1213 B.C.)
made an outstanding architectural
marvel, the Abu Simbel. which was
precisely designed so that, twice a
year on 21 February and 21
October, the sun shines directly
into the sanctuary of
the temple to illuminate the

Abu Simbel (1244 B.C.)
statues of Ramesses and the god
Amun.
• This kind of precision in design and construction can be seen in temples

throughout Egypt which were all built to mirror the afterlife. The
courtyard of the temple with its reflecting pool would symbolize the Lake
of Flowers in the next world and the temple itself would stand for various
other aspects of the afterlife and the final paradise of the Field of Reeds.

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Medicine & Dentistry
• Medicine in ancient Egypt was intimately tied to magic. The three best-
known works dealing with medical issues are the Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550
BCE), the Edwin Smith Papyrus (c. 1600 BCE), and the London Medical
Papyrus (c. 1629 BCE) all of which, to one degree or another, prescribe
the use of spells in treating diseases while at the same time exhibiting a
significant degree of medical knowledge.
• The Ebers Papyrus is a text of 110 pages treating ailments such as

trauma, cancer, heart disease, depression, dermatology, gastrointestinal
distress, and many others.
• The Edwin Smith Papyrus is the oldest known work on surgical

techniques and is thought to have been written for triage surgeons in
field hospitals. This work shows detailed knowledge of anatomy and
physiology.

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• The London Medical Papyrus combines practical medical skill with
magical spells for the treatment of conditions ranging from eye
problems to miscarriages.
The London Medical Papyrus

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D. The Iron Age (1200 B.C. and 900 B.C.)
• During the Iron Age, people across much of Europe, Asia and parts of
Africa began making tools and weapons from iron and steel.
• The discovery of ways to heat and forge iron kicked off the Iron Age
(roughly 1,300 B.C. to 900 B.C.). At the time, the metal was seen as
more precious than gold, and wrought iron (which would be replaced by
steel with the advent of smelting iron) was easier to manufacture than
bronze.
• Along with mass production of steel tools and weapons, the age saw
even further advances in architecture, with four- room homes, some
complete with stables for animals, joining more rudimentary hill forts,
as well as royal palaces, temples and other religious structures. Early
city planning also took place, with blocks of homes being erected along
paved or cobblestone streets and water systems put into place.

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D.1. Persian Empire
• During the Iron Age in the Near East, nomadic pastoralists who raised sheep, goats and cattle on
the Iranian plateau began to develop a state that would become known as Persia.
• The Persians established their empire at a time after humans had learned to make steel. Steel
weapons were sharper and stronger than earlier bronze or stone weapons.
• The ancient Persians also fought on horseback. They may have been the first civilization to
develop an armored cavalry in which horses and riders were completely covered in steel armor.
• The First Persian Empire,

founded by Cyrus the Great
around 550 B.C., became one of the

largest empires in history, stretching Map of Ancient
from the Balkans of Eastern Europe Persia
to the Indus Valley in India.

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D.2. Persia: Cradle of Science & Technology
• Persia was a cradle of science in ancient times. Persian scientists

contributed to the current understanding of nature, medicine,
mathematics, and philosophy.
• Persians made important contributions to algebra and chemistry,

invented the wind-power machine, and the first distillation of
alcohol.

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Qanat
• A water management system used for irrigation originated in pre- Achaemenid Persia. The
oldest and largest known qanat is in the Iranian city of Gonabad which, after 2,700 years, still
provides drinking and agricultural water to nearly 40,000 people.
The Persian Qanat: Aerial View, Jupar, Bagh-e

Shahzadeh (Mahan) © S.H. Rashedi
The qanat water system of ancient Persia

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Battery
• Persian philosophers and inventors may have created the first batteries
(sometimes known as the Baghdad Battery) in the Parthian or Sassanid eras.
Some have suggested that the batteries may have been used medicinally.
• Other scientists believe the batteries were used for electroplating-- transferring
a thin layer of metal to another metal surface--a technique still used today and
the focus of a common classroom experiment.
Baghdad Battery in the National Museum of Iraq

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Windmill
• Wind wheels were developed by the Babylonians ca. 1700 BC to pump water for
irrigation. In the 7th century, Persian engineers in Greater Iran developed a more
advanced wind-power machine, the windmill, building upon the basic model
developed by the Babylonians.
The earliest
known windmill
design dates
back 3000 years
to ancient Persia
where they
were used to
grind grain and View of the ancient - more than 1000 years old -
pump water. Persian windmills at Nashtifan, Khorasan, Iran,
some of which are operational.

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Mathematics
• The 12th century

mathematician Muhammad
Ibn Musa-al- Khwarazmi
created the Logarithm
table,
developed algebra and
expanded upon Persian
and Indianarithmetic
systems.
Muhammad Ibn Musa-al-
• The works of Khwarazmi Khwarazmi
exercised a profound
influence on the
development of
mathematical thought in the
medieval West.

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Medicine
• The practice and study of medicine in Iran has a long and prolific history. Situated
at the crossroads of the East and West, Persia was often involved in developments
in ancient Greek and Indian medicine; pre- and post-Islamic Iran have been
involved in medicine as well.
• For example, the first teaching hospital where medical students methodically
practiced on patients under the supervision of physicians was the Academy of
Gundishapur in the Persian Empire. The idea of xenotransplantation dates to the
days of Achaemenidae (the Achaemenian dynasty), as evidenced by engravings of
many mythologic chimeras still present in Persepolis.
• Several documents still exist from which the definitions and treatments
of the headache in medieval Persia can be ascertained.

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• These documents give detailed and precise clinical information on the
different types of headaches. The medieval physicians listed various signs
and symptoms, apparent causes, and hygienic and dietary rules for
prevention of headaches. The medieval writings are both accurate and
vivid, and they provide long lists of substances used in the treatment of
headaches.
• In the 10th century work of Shahnameh, Ferdowsi describes a Caesarean

section performed on Rudaba, during which a special wine agent was
prepared by a Zoroastrian priest and used to produce unconsciousness for
the operation. Although largely mythical in content, the passage illustrates
working knowledge of anesthesia in ancient Persia.

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Astronomy
• In 1000 AD, Biruni wrote an astronomical

encyclopedia which discussed the possibility
that the earth might rotate around the sun.
Abu Arrayhan
• This was before Tycho Brahe drew the first Muhammad ibn
Ahmad
maps of the sky, using stylized animals to
al-Biruni
depict the constellations. In the tenth century,
the Persian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi
cast his eyes upwards to the awning of stars
overhead and was the first to record a galaxy
out with our own.
• Gazing at the Andromeda galaxy he called it a

“little cloud” --an apt description of the
slightly wispy appearance of our galactic
neighbor.
An illustration from al-Biruni's
astronomical works, explains the
different phases of the moon.

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Physics
• Abu Ali al-Hassan ibn al-Haytham is known in the West as

Alhazen, born in 965 in Persia and dying in 1039 in Egypt. Abu Ali al-
He is known as the father of optics for his writings on, and Hassan ibn
experiments with, lenses, mirrors, refraction, and al-Haytham
reflection.
• He correctly stated that vision results from light that is

reflected into the eye by an object, not emitted by the eye
itself and reflected back, as Aristotle believed.
The structure
• He solved the problem of finding the locus of points on a of the human
spherical mirror from which light will be reflected to an eye accordin g
observer. From his studies of refraction, he determined to Ibn al-
that the atmosphere has a definite height and that twilight Haytham.
is caused by refraction of solar radiation from beneath the Note the
horizon. depiction of
the optic
chiasm.

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E. The Greek Civilization
The Ancient Greeks are

seen, in the west, as our
intellectual forefathers.
From Greece was born

philosophy, drama,
western artistic aesthetics,
geometry, natural science,
mathematics, astronomy
and architecture.
A representation of an ancient Greek City

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E.1. Agriculture
• The prosperity of the majority of Greek city-states was based on agriculture and
the ability to produce the necessary surplus which allowed some citizens to
pursue other trades and pastimes and to create a quantity of exported goods so
that they could be exchanged for necessities the community lacked.
• Cereals, olives, and wine were the three most produced foodstuffs suited as they
are to the Mediterranean climate. With the process of Greek colonization in such
places as Asia Minor and Magna Graecia Greek agricultural practice and products
spread around the Mediterranean.
The people who did the most agriculture work were

people in the middle class social class, also known as
the Perioeci. These people were typically farmers or
peasants.

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emmer durum hulled barley
• The most widely cultivated crop was wheat - especially emmer (triticum dicoccum)
and durum (triticum durum) –and hulled barley (hordeum vulgare).
• Millet was grown in areas with greater rainfall. Gruel from barley and barley-cakes
were more common than bread made from wheat. Pulses were grown such as
broad beans, chickpeas, and lentils.
• Vines to make wine and olives to produce oil completed the four main types of
crops in the Greek world. Fruit (e.g. figs, apples, pears, pomegranates, quinces,
and medlars), vegetables (e.g. cucumbers, onions, garlic, and salads) and nuts (e.g.
almonds and walnuts) were grown by many private households.

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• Equipment used in Greek agriculture was basic with digging, weeding, and
multiple ploughing done by hand using wooden or iron-tipped ploughs,
mattocks, and hoes (there were no spades). Richer farmers had oxen to help
plough their fields.
• Sickles were used to harvest crops, which were then winnowed using a flat
shovel and baskets. Grains were then threshed on a stone floor which was
trampled on by livestock (and which might also have dragged sledges for the
purpose too). Grapes were crushed underfoot in vats while olives were crushed
in stone presses.
olive oil
extractor
juicer
iron-tipped ploughs used infarming

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E.2. Architecture
• Greek architects provided some of the finest and most distinctive buildings in the entire
Ancient World and some of their structures, such as temples, theatres, and stadia, would
become staple features of towns and cities from antiquity onwards.
• In addition, the Greek concern with simplicity, proportion, perspective, and harmony in
their buildings would go on to greatly influence architects in the Roman world and provide
the foundation for the classical architectural orders which would dominate the western
world from the Renaissance to the present day.
• The Greeks certainly had a preference for marble, at least for their public buildings.
Initially, though, wood would have been used for not only such basic architectural
elements as columns but the entire buildings themselves.
• Early 8th century BCE temples were so constructed and had thatch roofs. From the late
7th century BCE, temples, in particular, slowly began to be converted into more durable
stone edifices; some even had a mix of the two materials.

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• Some scholars have argued that certain decorative features of stone
column capitals and elements of the entablature evolved from the skills of
the carpenter displayed in more ancient, wooden architectural elements.
• The stone of choice was either limestone protected by a layer of marble

dust stucco or even better, pure white marble. Also, carved stone was
often polished with chamois to provide resistance to water and give a
bright finish. The best marble came from Naxos, Paros, and Mt.
Pentelicon near Athens.
East facade of the Parthenon, Athens, 5th

century BCE.

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Some of Ancient Greek Architectural Remains
Marble column from the Temple Marble akroterion of

Terracotta architectural tile 6th
of Artemis at Sardisca. 300 B.C. the grave monument of
century B.C.
Timotheos and
Nikonca. 350–325 B.C.

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• One of the cultural developments of Greek thought was
the museum, originally the Temple of the Muses
Modern Remains of Temple of the Muses

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• The museum became part of the palace, “the palace of culture,” and
later a kind of medieval college and research institute.
• The development of the concept of organized centers of learning (the

University) descend from this period.
Reconstruction of the Greek Discussion of ideas is perceived to

Parthenon happen inside the Parthenon

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E.3. Some Notable Greeks in the field of
Science and Technology
Thales of Miletus (c. 620 B.C.E.—c. 546
B.C.E.)
• Is considered by some to be the "first scientist“
• Thales as the first person to investigate the basic

principles, the question of the originating substances of
matter and, therefore, as the founder of the school of
natural philosophy.
• Thales was interested in almost everything, investigating

almost all areas of knowledge, philosophy, history,
science, mathematics, engineering, geography, and
politics.
• He proposed theories to explain many of the events of

nature, the primary substance, the support of the earth,
and the cause of change.

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Democritus of Abdera (ca. 470–362 BCE)
Founder of the Atomic Theory.

Also had theories on the nature of
plants; thought plant diversity was due
to differences in the atoms of which
they were composed.
The
contemplating
Democritus

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Hippocrates (460–359 BCE)
Disciple of Democritus
Greek physician who is now considered the

“Father of Medicine.”
• Hippocrates, considered the originator of a Greek

school of healing, was the first to clearly expound
the concept that diseases had natural causes.
• Various works attributed to him and his school is

contained in the Hippocratic Collection, which
includes The Hippocratic Oath, Aphorisms, and
various medical works. He was an expert in
diagnosis, predicting the cause of disease.

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• Hippocrates particularly noted the influence of food and diet on health, recommending
moderation.
• In the work On Ancient Medicine, differences in individual response to food are noted such
that some can eat cheese to satiety while others do not bear it well, a diagnosis of lactose
intolerance.
• The use of drugs was not ignored and between 200 and 400 herbs were mentioned by the
school of Hippocrates.
A copy of
Hippocratic
Collection
Hippocrates, diagnosing a patient

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“Let your food be your
medicine and your
medicine be your food…
Leave your drugs in the
chemist’s pot you can cure
the patient withfood”
-Hippocrates, the “Father of

Medicine.”
-420 BC

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Plato (427–327 BCE)
• Considered the pre-eminent Greek philosopher, known for his
Dialogues and for founding his Academy north of Athens,
traditionally considered the first university in the western world.
• The Akademia or the Academy was established outside the city

limits of old Athens and offered a wide range of subjects taught
by experts in their field. The Academy was thought to be the
principal college in Europe that attracted scholars.
• Plato played a vital role in encouraging the Greek intelligentsia to

regard science as a theory. His Academy taught arithmetic as part
of philosophy, as Pythagoras had done, and the first 10 years of a
course at the Academy included the study of geometry,
astronomy, and music.
• Plato has been described as the “producer of

mathematicians,” and his Academy boasted some the most
conspicuous mathematicians of the ancient world such as
Eudoxus, Theaetetus, and Archytas.
•

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Aristotle (384–323 BCE) of Macedonia
• proposed a coherent and common- sense vision

of the natural world that stood for 2,000 years
• studied and wrote on a cosmology,

physics, biology, anatomy and logic.
• placed greater emphasis on observation

than Plato, but still not experimental
• tutored Alexander the Great

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Aristotle’s writings includes descriptive
writings in biology:
• Histories of Animals,
•Generation of Animals,
•Parts of Animals
• He developed the concept of life force

or vitalism, the idea that life is due to a
force beside the ordinary workings of
chemistry and physics.
A compilation of
Aristotle’s writing

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Theophrastus of Eresus, city of Lesbos (371–287 BCE)
The founder of the botanical sciences and

thus
known as the “Father of Botany”
Writer of
227 treatises, (on religion, politics,
ethics, education, rhetoric,
mathematics, astronomy, logic,
meteorology,
natural history; had over 2000 disciples
or students, averaging 60 per year).

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Two botanical works survived:
• History of Plants and Causes of Plants
History of Plants (Historia de plantes) Largely descriptive,

Distinguishes parts of plants. Nine
books:
1. parts of plants and their nature; classification;

2. propagation (especially trees);
3. wild trees;
4. geographic botany, trees related to districts;
5. timber of various trees;
6. Undershrubs;
7. herbaceous plants;
8. cereals, pulses, summer crops;
9. juices of plants.

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Causes of Plants (De causis plantarum) More philosophicbut
still full of facts. Six books:
1. Generation and propagation of plants;

2. Things which help the increase of plants;
3. Plantation of shrubs and preparation of
the soil, viticulture;
4. Goodness of seeds and their degeneration;
5. Diseases;
6. Savors and odors.
A detailed collection of
Theophrastrus writings

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Greek natural philosophy is sometimes
called
"pre-scientific", since it relied on
contemplation or observation, but not
experimentation
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F. The Romans
Roman civilization was built upon the tradition of
Greek natural philosophy
the Romans are better known for engineering than
theoretical science
Building of Roman Aqueduct 312 B.C. to A.D. Ancient Roman Colosseum

226. A.D. 70 and 72

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F.1. The Roman Engineering
• The Romans were
responsible, through
the application and
development of
available machines, for
an important
technological
transformation: the
widespread
introduction of rotary
motion.
The Roman rotary wheel 3rd Century BC

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• This was exemplified in the use of the treadmill for powering cranes and
other heavy lifting operations, the introduction of rotary water-raising
devices for irrigation works (a scoop wheel powered by a treadmill), and
the development of the waterwheel as a prime mover.
Construction of the Roman Watermill around1st century BC

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• The 1st-century-BCE Roman engineer Vitruvius gave an
account of watermills, and by the end of the Roman era
many were in operation.
The present day

Roman watermill
constructed
around 1st century
BCE still in use
today
Vitruvius

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F.3. The Roman Architecture
• The Romans copied the Greek style for most ceremonial
purposes, but in other respects they were important
innovators in building technology.
Greek Architecture Roman Architecture

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The Roman Coloseum A.D. 70 and 72
• They made extensive use of fired

brick and tile as well as stone; they
developed a strong cement that
would set The Arch of Constantine 312 and 315 AD
under water; and they explored the
architectural possibilities of the
arch, the vault, and the dome.

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• They then applied these techniques in amphitheatres, aqueducts, tunnels, bridges,
walls, lighthouses, and roads. Taken together, these constructional works may fairly be
regarded as the primary technological achievement of the Romans.
Roman Theatre of Orange (1st Tower of Hercules 2nd centuryAD

century AD)
Pont du Gard Aqueduct 1st

century AD

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• The Romans made good
quality pottery available
throughout their empire
through the manufacture
and trade of the
standardized red ware terra sigillata
called terra sigillata, which was
produced in large quantities at
several sites in Italy and Gaul.

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F.3. Some Notable Romans in the field of
Science and Technology
Cato (b. 234 BCE)

• The famous orator also
wrote a valuable treatise
(De
agricultura) which gave
advice on how to run a
good estate with notes
on wine and oil
production and various
remedies for crop
diseases.
A copy of Cato’s book on
farming

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Varro (b. 116 BCE)
• Was the most prolific scientific author,

although very little of his work
survives. One exception is the Res
Rusticae, which describes the best
ways to manage a large estate.
• His other works on mathematics,

geography, biology, and more, live on
through his immense influence on
later authors such as Vitruvius, Pliny,
Augustine, and Martianus Capella.
Varro’s Res
Rusticae

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Lucretius (b. c. 94 BCE)
• Wrote De rerum
natura on the major
Greek works of atomist
philosophy and was
especially interested in
optics and biology.
Vitruvius (1st century BCE)

• Wrote an influential work on architecture
(De architectura) which included
surveying, town planning, mathematics,
principles of proportion,
materials, astronomy, and mechanics.

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Galen (b. 129 CE)
Galen’s
Surgery Book
• Of Greek origin who became a

physician to emperors after starting
his career administering medical aid
to gladiators. He is an invaluable Galen treating a
source on earlier medical matters, wounded soldier
notably Hippocrates, but was also a
successful practitioner of complex
surgeries himself.

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Claudius Ptolemy (85–165 CE)
• Tweaked the Plato/Aristotle cosmology to
match observations of the planets
• Ptolemy taught that the Earth was the

center of the universe.
• People felt this was common sense, and the

geocentric theory was supported by the
Church.
• The Earth was the center of the

Universe according to Claudius Ptolemy,
whose view of the cosmos persisted for 1400
years until it was overturned — with
controversy — by findings from Copernicus,
Galileo, and Newton.

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Ptolemaic System
Also called geocentric

system or geocentric
model proposed by
Claudius Ptolemy by
assuming that Earth is
stationary and at the
center of the universe.
Ptolemy geocentric model depicts the earth as

stationary with the planets, moon, and sun moving
around it in small, circular orbits called epicycles.

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F.4. The Ancient View of the Universe
• The Earth was:

– immovable
– the center of the universe.
• Everything revolved around the Earth.
– This view is known as geocentric
theory.
• Aristotle’s idea
• Ptolemy expanded the theory.
• Christianity taught that God had
deliberately placed the earth at
the center.
A depiction of ancient universe and
medieval structure

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F.5. The Fall of Rome (in 476)
• Rome’s fall ended the ancient world and the Middle Ages were borne. These “Dark
Ages” brought the end to much that was Roman.
• In western Europe, population dropped, literacy virtually disappeared,

and Greek knowledge was lost.
• In eastern Europe, Greek knowledge was suppressed by orthodox

Christianity in the Byzantine Empire (which finally fell in 1453)
Sack of Rome by the Visigoths ledby Alaric I Vandals sacking Rome

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II. Middle Ages 476 CE -14th century
• The millennium between the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the
5th century CE and the beginning of the colonial expansion of western
Europe in the late 15th century has been known traditionally as the Middle
Ages, and the first half of this period consists of the five centuries of the
Dark Ages (476-918 AD).
• Many of the institutions of the later empire survived the collapse and
profoundly influenced the formation of the new civilization that developed
in western Europe. The Christian church was the outstanding institution of
this type.
• Roman conceptions of law and administration also continued to exert an

influence long after the departure of the legions from the western
provinces.

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A. The Tuetonic Tribe
• Teutonic tribes who moved into a large part of Teutonic tribe

western Europe did not come empty-handed, and in
some respects their technology was superior to that of
the Romans.
• these tribes appear to have been the first people with
sufficiently strong iron ploughshares to undertake the
systematic settlement of the
forested lowlands of northern and western Europe, the
heavy soils of which had frustrated the agricultural
techniques of their predecessors.
Land preparation before planting.
Teutonic way of cultivation using strong iron ploughshares

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• The invaders came thus as
colonizers. They may have been
regarded as “barbarians” by the
Romanized inhabitants of western Weaving
Europe who naturally fabrics during
resented their intrusion, and the effect the middle
ages
of their invasion was certainly to
disrupt trade,
industry, and town life. But
the newcomers also provided an
element of innovation and vitality.
• About 1000 CE the conditions of comparative
political stability necessary
for the reestablishment of a vigorous commercial

and urban life had been secured by the success of
Town life the kingdoms
during the of the region in either absorbing or keeping out
middle ages the last of the invaders from the East, and
thereafter for 500 years the new civilization grew
in strength and began to experiment in all aspects
of human endeavour.

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• The history of medieval technology is thus largely the story of the preservation,
recovery, and modification of earlier achievements. But by the end of the period
Western civilization had begun to produce some remarkable technological
innovations that were to be of the utmost significance.
B. The Middle Ages: Art and Architecture

• Another way to show devotion to the Church was to build grand cathedrals and
other ecclesiastical structures such as monasteries. Cathedrals were the largest
buildings in medieval Europe, and they could be found at the center of towns and
cities across the continent.
• Between the 10th and 13th centuries, most European cathedrals were built in the
Romanesque style. Romanesque cathedrals are solid and substantial: They have
rounded masonry arches and barrel vaults supporting the roof, thick stone walls and
few windows. (Examples of Romanesque architecture include the Porto Cathedral in
Portugal and the Speyer Cathedral in present-day Germany.)

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• Around 1200, church builders began to embrace a new architectural style, known as the
Gothic. Gothic structures, such as the Abbey Church of Saint- Denis in France and the rebuilt
Canterbury Cathedral in England, have huge stained-glass windows, pointed vaults and arches
(a technology developed in the Islamic world), and spires and flying buttresses.
• In contrast to heavy Romanesque buildings, Gothic architecture seems to be almost

weightless. Medieval religious art took other forms as well. Frescoes and mosaics decorated
church interiors, and artists painted devotional images of the Virgin Mary, Jesus and the
saints.
Romanesque cathedrals
Porto Cathedral in Portugal

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Romanesque cathedrals
Speyer Cathedral in present-day Germany
• Also, before the invention of the printing press in the 15th century, even books were works
of art. Craftsmen in monasteries (and later in universities) created illuminated manuscripts:
handmade sacred and secular books with colored illustrations, gold and silver lettering and
other adornments. Convents were one of the few places women could receive a higher
education, and nuns wrote, translated, and illuminated manuscripts as well.
• In the 12th century, urban booksellers began to market smaller illuminated manuscripts,
like books of hours, psalters and other prayer books, to wealthy individuals.

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Gothic Style Cathedrals
Abbey Church of
Saint-Denis in
France
Canterbury Cathedral in England

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C. Population Growth in the Middle Ages
• Europe witnessed massive population growth in the High Middle Ages, from 1000 to 1300.
This growth was largely due to the refinement of medieval farming technology, such as the
plow, which improved upon previous models, and resulting in increased efficiency and
output to feed more people than ever before.
• Certain indicators lend clues to this expansion. Wherever we have evidence of family size,
families appear to be larger. It does not appear that more babies are being born, but rather
that more of them are surviving and people were living longer.
• Generally speaking, this was a period of warm, dry climate

through much of Europe, when enormous amounts of new
land were brought under cultivation. People did not bring
new land under cultivation for no reason. There were mouths
to feed and diets improved.
• More and more land was given over to crops that were rich in
iron and protein so that people were simply eating better.
They were healthier; they
could do more work; they were more productive; they lived Although census records do not exist for most of medieval
longer—the population curve marched upward due to these Europe, much information about population size can be
gleaned contextually by studying families and other
gains. records.

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D. Technology in the Middle Ages Drives Growth
• The medieval period, on the other hand, was one that was fairly rich in technological
innovation. Stereotypes contribute to the idea of the Middle Ages as the Dark Ages, as having
descended from the heights of classical antiquity. If we were talking about technology, we’d
have to flip the polarity of that old equation and say that the Middle Ages were rather cleverer.
• The clearest indicator we have of medieval technology, of its application and its connection to
this population increase, is in the realm of cereal production, where medieval farmers vastly
expanded it
• They laid down most of the fundamental ways: By getting maximum cereal production out of
the soil, before the advent of modern chemical fertilizers. This has been the greatest change in
modern times, not anything else—not even, for example, the use of motor-driven tractors.
Using horses rather than an ox as draft animal in farming has increased cereal production in the
middle ages.
• A horse is significantly more efficient than an ox. It does more work for the same amount of
food, perhaps even a little bit less. It is stronger, thus larger fields can be plowed, or fields can
be plowed more times, and the soil can be turned more carefully.

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• The heavy, wheeled plow played a significant role
in changing how farming was conducted. Once
again, using horses to pull it allowed more work
to be completed. A heavy iron plowshare can cut
much more deeply into the soil than can the
older forms of the aratrum, the Roman scratch
plow, which didn’t do much more than just
disturb the surface.
The horse collar was a key invention that allowed
medieval Europeans to make use of the horse as a
draft animal, rather than the ox
• The soils of northern Europe are very good, but

they’re damp and heavy. The heavy, wheeled
plow was able to turn
the soil, which aerates it. This new plow with its
iron plowshare also called for a greater
proliferation of iron in this society leading to
more smithing. We can see connections between
The heavy, wheeled plow allows for deeper plowing and
the use of the plow, the advantages that it
aerates the soil better, a key need in making rich, wet
brought, and then some of the requirements that European soil as productive as possible.
flowed from its development.

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• Watermills were widely used in the 11th century. In some parts of northern Europe, for example,
in the Low Countries windmills were used, but watermills were fairly common.
Water mills required complicated gears

that had to be built and maintained
which, in turn, drove advances in
engineering.
• Engineers had to make the water go past the water wheel, whether the water wanted to or not, to
do the milling at the convenience of the miller, and not by the movements of the river naturally. A
variety of technologies were spawned by the need to use more mills.
• Mills were imperative because there was an increase in grain. As more and more land was brought
under cultivation, the new technological inputs made the land that was being plowed and farmed
more productive, producing yet more grain.

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E. New Methods of Land Use in the Middle Ages
• Farmers began to use the land more efficiently. In early European history—northern Europe at the
time of the Romans and the Greeks—agricultural communities would often farm a particular area
quite intensively for a brief period, and then move.
• For a long time, they tended to

practice what we would call
two-field
agriculture. About half of your In the three-field
system, land is
land was plowed, and about half divided into three
of it was left fallow. On that parts and used for
fallow land, you would also run crop-rotation.
your animals, so that animal
manure would provide some
enrichment to the soil. By the
High Middle Ages, after the year
1000 to 1050, a three-field • What exactly is the three-field system? You divide
system widely used across the available land of an estate into three roughly
Europe. equal parts. One of these is left fallow, one of
these is planted in winter crops and one of these
is planted in spring crops. You work your way
through a rotation this way.

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• With more land under the plow, a greater variety of
crops, and greater insurance against individual seasons of
bad weather, we also see a growing tendency towards
agricultural specialization. People in particular regions
understood how to grow certain crops very well.
• This produces a situation where if a given region

concentrates on particular kinds of crops, then those
regions rely on other places and trade to get the things
that they do not themselves produce. In turn, they have
to be able to move the goods that they do produce to
other places.
• This requires improved roads and improved

transport vehicles to move more goods, farther The spread of four-wheeled wagons
increased the carrying capacity for
horse-drawn wagons, a feature that helped to
and faster. Again, the use of horses as draft animals boost trade between communities.
pulling wagons: They can pull heavier loads and they can
pull those loads farther. The use of large four-wheeled
wagons becomes widespread, instead of two-wheeled
carts, so that more can be moved in one trip.

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F. Mining and Heavy Industry in the Middle Ages
• By this time there were greater efficiencies in surface mining. In the Middle Ages, deep
mining was impossible because you couldn’t get the water out of the shafts, or out
of the mine galleries. Thus, most mining tended to be surface mining, focusing on
stone, called quarrying, the most prominent kind.
• Some famous churches were built were built out

of stone in the 12th and 13th centuries. These
vast stone buildings required ever more efficient
mining. As they were often built long distances
from the sources of the stone, once again, better
roads and more efficient vehicles of
transportation played a significant role in the
functioning of medieval society.
• There was a certain amount of surface mining for

iron, a necessary resource for all the new
horseshoes and heavy iron plows, not to mention Notre-Dame de Paris is one of many European
the traditional mix of weapons: Swords, armor, cathedrals built of stone during the 12th and 13th
centuries.
spear tips, arrow tips, and so on.

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G. Byzantine Empire
• The immediate eastern neighbour of the new civilization of medieval Europe was Byzantium,
the surviving bastion of the Roman Empire based in Constantinople (Istanbul), which endured
for 1,000 years after the collapse of the western half of the empire.
• Apart from the influence on Western architectural style of such Byzantine masterpieces as the
great domed structure of Hagia Sophia, the technological contribution of Byzantium itself was
probably slight, but it served to mediate between the West and other civilizations one or
more stages removed, such as the Islamic world, India, and China.
Map of the Byzantine Empire
• The Byzantines made numerous contributions to philosophy, science and

medicine while also making innovations and inventions.

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G.1. Byzantine Science and Technology
Warfare
• The hand-trebuchet, a staff sling mounted on a pole
using a lever mechanism to propel projectiles. It was
used by Emperor Nicephorus Phocas’ army in his
campaigns to disrupt enemy lines.
• The Counterweight trebuchet, which was far more

powerful than the normal traction trebuchet. It was used
by Emperor Alexios I Komnenos and it is said that it
impressed his crusader allies during the siege of Nicaea.
Byzantine Counterweight trebuchet
• The famous Greek Fire. Invented by Kallinikos, it

was the flamethrower of the era. It was liquid fire
Cheirosiphōn. Detail used by the Byzantine navy to inflame the enemy
from the medieval
manuscript Codex
Vaticanus Graecus 1605
ships. It played a crucial role in saving
Constantinople from the Arab onslaught.
Cheirosiphōn, an early version of the
flamethrower used by the ground troops.

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• Grenades. They appeared during the
reign of Leo III (717–741). Byzantine
Byzantine Greek Fire
soldiers threw ceramic jars with Greek fire. They hand grenade
set them alight by fire arrows or ignited them
before throwing them at the enemy.
• The Beacon System. The Byzantines used a system of

beacons to transmit messages from the border with
the Caliphate across Asia Minor to Constantinople
during the 9th century. The system was devised
during the reign of Emperor Theophilos (829–842) by
Leo the Mathematician. The main line of beacons
stretched over some 450 miles and it functioned
through two identical water clocks placed at the two
terminal stations.
The lighting of beacon

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G.2. Architecture
• The cross-in-square architectural form Panagia Chalkeion,
appeared first in the late 8th century. It 11th-century Byzantine
was used in the construction of church in the northern
Greek city of
churches Thessaloniki.
Karamagara Bridge, • The pointed arch bridge, which first

Cappadocia appeared in the 5th century.
• The pendentive dome, which placed a circular Pendentive

dome of
dome over a square room. The first (and most Hagia
famous) example of a pendentive dome is Hagia Sophia.
Sophia, designed by Isidore of Miletus and Istanbul,
Turkey
Anthemius of Tralles.

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G.3. Mathematics
• One of the earlier and most important work on arithmetic was the papyrus of Akhmin
(seventh century), which dealt with fractions and problems in the Egyptian tradition.
• In the seventh and eighth centuries, young people would study arithmetic though no texts
survive from before the eleventh century. It was during the end of the thirteenth and the
first half of the fourteenth century that arithmetic was shown the most interest.
• Both George Pachymeres and Maximos Planoudes (1260–1310) studied the work of
Diophantus of Alexandria, the “father of algebra”. On arithmetical manuals of this
period, theoretical works were often liked to astronomy with many chapters devoted to
sexagesimal calculations, while practical manuals regarding daily problems could also be
found.
• The Stoicheiosis (Elements) of Theodore Metochites is an immense astronomical work

which opens with a long arithmetical introduction while the Astronomical Tribiblos of
Theodore Meliteniotes also devoted an important part of the book on arithmetical
procedures.

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G.4. Astronomy
• The first Byzantine book on astronomy was the Commentary to the Handy Tables of Stephanos
of Alexandria (c.617). In the eighth century, John of Damascus, in his De Fide Orthodoxa, gave
basic notions of cosmology and astronomy.
• The eleventh century was the most important for Byzantine astronomy. Aside from books based
on the Ptolemaic tradition, one can find good knowledge of Islamic astronomy. In 1062, a
Byzantine astrolabe was created for a man of Persian origins. The texts of the eleventh and
twelfth centuries reveal a very high scientific level.
• Nikephoros Gregoras, pupil of Metochites, was able to use Ptolemaic astronomical tables to
predict solar and lunar eclipses. Barlaam of Calabria was also skilled in astronomy and able to
calculate the solar eclipses of 1333 and 1337.
• During this period, Persian astronomy was introduced in Byzantium. George Chioniades
acquired knowledge of astronomy in Persia and he returned to Trebizond and Constantinople
with Persian works translated into Greek.

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G.5. Medicine and Botany
• The ancient sources of Byzantine botanology can be found in the poems of Nicander of
Colophon (second century BC) and the Materia Medica of Dioskorides (first century AD).
• The Byzantines had much interest in the medical use of plants. They had institutionalized
hospitals which favored the growth of medicine and pharmacy. This was especially true for
the era of the Komnenoi Dynasty (eleventh-twelfth centuries), when the Hospital of
Pantokrator included a pharmacy. The hospitals in Byzantium were the beginnings of
modern hospitals. Many of them were designed for the poor, funded by the Church and
became part of civic life.
• Separation of conjoined twins: The first known example of separating conjoined twins
happened in the Byzantine Empire in the 10th century. A pair of conjoined twins lived in
Constantinople for many years when one of them died, so the surgeons in Constantinople
decided to remove the body of the dead one. The result was partly successful as the
surviving twin lived three days before dying. The fact that the second person survived for
few days after separating him was mentioned a century and half years later again by
historians. The next recorded case of separating conjoined twins was 1689 in Germany.

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III. The Renaissance (14th-16th century)
• The Renaissance was a fervent period of European cultural, artistic, political and
economic “rebirth” following the Middle Ages. Generally described as taking place
from the 14th century to the 16th century, the Renaissance promoted the rediscovery
of classical philosophy, literature and art.
• Some of the greatest thinkers, authors, statesmen, scientists and artists in human
history thrived during this era, while global exploration opened up new lands and
cultures to European commerce. The Renaissance is credited with bridging the gap
between the Middle Ages and modern- day civilization.
Leonardo da Vinci's 16th Century painting of the Mona Lisa is Detail of a ceiling fresco by Michelangelo, 1508–
perhaps one of the most famous visual art pieces from the 12; in the Sistine Chapel, Vatican City.
Renaissance.

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A. Humanism
• During the 14th century, a cultural movement called humanism began to gain momentum in
Italy. Among its many principles, humanism promoted the idea that man was the center of his
own universe, and people should embrace human achievements in education, classical arts,
literature and science.
• In 1450, the invention of the Gutenberg printing press
allowed for improved communication throughout Europe
and for ideas to spread more quickly.
• As a result of this advance in communication, little-known

texts from early humanist authors such as those by
Francesco Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio, which
promoted the renewal of traditional Greek and Roman
culture and values, were printed and distributed to the
masses.
Francesco Petrarch Poet (1304–c. 1374) Father
• Additionally, many scholars believe advances in of Humanism
international finance and trade impacted culture in Father of the Renaissance
Europe and set the stage for the Renaissance.

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B. Renaissance Geniuses
• Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was a painter, architect,
inventor, and student of all things scientific. His natural
genius crossed so many disciplines that he epitomized the
term “Renaissance man.”
• Today he remains best known for his art, including two

paintings that remain among the world’s most famous
and admired, Mona Lisa and The Last Supper.
Leonardo da
Vinci's 16th
Century
painting of the
Mona Lisa
Last Supper, wall painting by Leonardo da Vinci, c.

1495–98

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• Michelangelo (1475–1564) was a sculptor,
painter and architect widely considered to be one
of the greatest artists of the Renaissance — and
arguably of all time. His work demonstrated a
blend of psychological insight, physical realism
and intensity never before seen.
The Creation of Adam

(1508-12) at Sistine
Chapel
Pietà 1498-99
Statue of David (1501-04)

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• Desiderius Erasmus (c. 1466–1536) of Rotterdam was
one of Europe's most famous and influential scholars. A
man of great intellect who rose from meager
beginnings to become one of Europe's greatest
thinkers, he defined the humanist movement in
Northern Europe. His translation to Greek of the New
Testament brought on a theological revolution, and his
views on the Reformation tempered its more radical
elements.
• Dante Alighieri (c. 1265–c. 1321) was an Italian

poet and moral philosopher best known for the
epic poem The Divine Comedy, which comprises
sections representing the three tiers of the
Christian afterlife: purgatory, heaven and hell. This
poem, a great work of medieval literature and
considered the greatest work of literature
composed in Italian, is a philosophical Christian
vision of mankind’s eternal fate.

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• René Descartes (1596–1650) was a French scientist,
mathematician, and philosopher. Emphasized human
reasoning as the best road to understanding.
• Like Bacon, Descartes also believed that truth was only

found after a long process of studying and investigation.
Believed everything should be doubted until proven by
reason.
• Regarded as the father of modern philosophy for defining a

starting point for existence, “I think; therefore I am.”
• Giotto di Bondone (1266-1337):

Italian painter and architect whose
Giotto di
more realistic depictions of human Bondone: St.
emotions influenced generations of artists. Francis of Assisi
Receiving the
Stigmata
• Best known for his frescoes in the

Scrovegni Chapel in Padua.

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Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543)
•Copernicus was a Polish astronomer who studied in Italy. In

1543 Copernicus published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres.
•In his book, Copernicus made two

conclusions:
1. The universe is heliocentric, or sun-centered.
2. The Earth is merely one of several planets
revolving around the sun.
• Copernicus’ model of the solarsystem:
1. Sun
2. Moon
3. Mercury
4. Venus
5. Earth The Copernican Model:A
Sun-Centered SolarSystem
6. Mars
7. Jupiter
8. Saturn
• Notice, the sun is first, not the Earth,as
Ptolemy believed.
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Reaction to Copernicus
• Most scholars rejected his theory because it went against Ptolemy, the Church, and because
it called for the Earth to rotate on its axis.
• Heliocentric theory was dismissed in Copernicus' era because Ptolemy's ideas were far
more accepted by the influential Roman Catholic Church, which adamantly supported the
earth-based solar system theory. Still, Copernicus' heliocentric system proved to be more
detailed and accurate, including a more efficient formula for calculating planetary positions.
• Many scientists of the time also felt that if Ptolemy’s reasoning about the planets was wrong,
then the whole system of human knowledge could be wrong.
• In 1513, Copernicus' dedication prompted him to build his own modest observatory.
Nonetheless, his observations did, at times, lead him to form inaccurate conclusions,
including his assumption that planetary orbits occurred in perfect circles. As German
astronomer Johannes Kepler would later prove, planetary orbits are actually elliptical in
shape.

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Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
• Considered the father of modern science and made

major contributions to the fields of physics,
astronomy, cosmology, mathematics and philosophy
• Galileo Galilei was an Italian astronomer who built

upon the scientific foundations laid by Copernicus and
Kepler.
• He also observed four moons rotating around Jupiter

– exactly the way Copernicus said the Earth rotated
around the sun.
• Galileo also discovered that objects fall at the same

speed regardless of weight.
• Galileo ’s discoveries caused an uproar. Other scholars

came against him because like Copernicus, Galileo was
contradicting Ptolemy.

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• The Church came against Galileo because it claimed that
the Earth was fixed and unmoving.
• Challenged by the church because it supported the

heliocentric theory & it went against church teaching.
• When threatened with death before the Inquisition in

1633, Galileo recanted his beliefs, even though he knew
the Earth moved.
Galileo was summoned before the

• Galileo was put under house arrest, and was Roman Inquisition in 1633
not allowed to publish his ideas.
Galileo was right all along…
• In 1992, the Roman Catholic Church finally

repealed the ruling of the inquisition against
Galileo. The church gave a pardon to Galileo and
admitted that heliocentric theory was correct.
This pardon came 350 years after Galileo’s
death.

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C. Renaissance Exploration
While many artists and thinkers used their talents to express new ideas, some Europeans took
to the seas to learn more about the world around them. In a period known as the Age of
Discovery, several important explorations were made.
Voyagers launched expeditions to travel the entire globe. They discovered new shipping routes
to the Americas, India and the Far East, and explorers trekked across areas that weren’t fully
mapped.
Famous journeys were taken by Ferdinand Magellan, Christopher Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci
(after whom America is named), Marco Polo, Ponce de Leon, Vasco Núñez de Balboa,
Hernando De Soto and other explorers.
“The First Voyage” A scene of Christopher

Columbus bidding farewell to the Queen of
Spain on his departure for the New World,
August 3, 1492.

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C.1 Famous Journey and Expeditions that changed the World
A Venetian merchant and adventurer, Marco
Marco Polo (1254-1324) Polo travelled along the SilkRoad from Europe
to Asia between 1271 and 1295.
Often called the “discoverer” of the New

Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)
World, Christopher Columbus embarked on 4
voyages across the Atlantic Ocean between 1492
and 1504.
In 1497, the Portuguese explorer set sailfrom
Lisbon towards India. His voyage made him the first
Vasco da Gama (c. 1460-1524)
European to reach India by sea, and opened up the
first sea route connecting Europe to Asia.
The Venetian explorer became known for his 1497

voyage to North America under the commission of
Henry VII of England.
John Cabot (c. 1450-1498) Upon landing in what he called “New-
found-land” in present-day Canada – which
he mistook for being Asia –Cabot claimed land
for England.
Regarded as the “discoverer” of Brazil, the
Pedro Álvares Cabral (c. 1467-1520)
Portuguese navigator was the first European to
reach the Brazilian coast, in 1500.

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Around 1501-1502, the Florentine navigator Amerigo
Vespucci embarked on a follow-up expedition to
Cabral’s, exploring the Brazilian coast.
As a result of this voyage, Vespucci demonstrated that Brazil
Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512) and the West Indies were not the eastern outskirts of Asia –
as Columbus had thought –but a separate continent, which
became described as the “New World”.
The Portuguese explorer was the first European to cross

the Pacific Ocean, and organised the Spanish expedition
Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521)
to the East Indies from 1519 to 1522.
A Spanish conquistador (soldier and explorer), Hernán

Cortés was best known for leading an expedition that
Hernán Cortés (1485-1547)
caused the fall of the Aztec Empire in 1521 and for winning
Mexico for the Spanish crown.
A key figure of the Elizabethan era, Sir Walter Raleigh

Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618) carried out several expeditions to the Americas
between 1578 and 1618.
A British Royal Navy captain, James Cook embarked on

James Cook (1728-1779)
ground-breaking expeditions that helped map the
Pacific, New Zealand and Australia.

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D. The Reformation
• Humanism encouraged Europeans to question the role of the Roman Catholic church
during the Renaissance.
• As more people learned how to read, write and interpret ideas, they began to closely
examine and critique religion as they knew it. Also, the printing press allowed for texts,
including the Bible, to be easily reproduced and widely read by the people, themselves, for
the first time.
• In the 16th century, Martin Luther, a German monk, led the Protestant Reformation – a
revolutionary movement that caused a split in the Catholic church. Luther questioned many
of the practices of the church and whether they aligned with the teachings of the Bible.
Martin Luther (1483–1546) was

a German monk who forever Martin Luther,
changed Christianity when he nailed his 95
nailed his '95 Theses' to a Theses to a
church door in 1517, sparking church door
the Protestant Reformation. 1517

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E. End of the Renaissance
• By the end of the 15th century, numerous wars had plagued the Italian peninsula. Spanish,
French and German invaders battling for Italian territories caused disruption and instability
in the region.
• Also, changing trade routes led to a period of economic decline and limited the amount of
money that wealthy contributors could spend on the arts.
• Later, in a movement known as the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic church censored

artists and writers in response to the Protestant Reformation. Many Renaissance thinkers
feared being too bold, which stifled creativity.
• Furthermore, in 1545, the Council of Trent established the Roman Inquisition, which made
humanism and any views that challenged the Catholic church an act of heresy punishable by
death.
• By the early 17th century, the Renaissance movement had died out, giving way to the Age of
Enlightenment.

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IV. The Scientific Revolution (17th-18th Century)
• The scientific revolution was the emergence of modern science during the early modern
period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human
anatomy), and chemistry transformed societal views about nature.
• The change to the medieval idea of science occurred for four reasons: collaboration, the
derivation of new experimental methods, the ability to build on the legacy of existing
scientific philosophy, and institutions that enabled academic publishing.
• Under the scientific method, which was defined and applied in the 17th century, natural and
artificial circumstances were abandoned and a research tradition of systematic
experimentation was slowly accepted throughout the scientific community.
• During the scientific revolution, changing perceptions about the role of the scientist in
respect to nature, and the value of experimental or observed evidence, led to a scientific
methodology in which empiricism played a large, but not absolute, role.

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• As the scientific revolution was not marked by any single change, many new ideas
contributed. Some of them were revolutions in their own fields.
• Science came to play a leading role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many
Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences, and associated
scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favor
of the development of free speech and thought.
The change to the medieval idea of science occurred for four reasons:
1. Seventeenth century scientists and philosophers were able to collaborate with members of the
mathematical and astronomical communities to effect advances in all fields.
2. Scientists realized the inadequacy of medieval experimental methods for their

work and so felt the need to devise new methods (some of which we usetoday).
3. Academics had access to a legacy of European, Greek, and Middle Eastern scientific philosophy
that they could use as a starting point (either by disproving or building on the theorems).
4. Institutions (for example, the British Royal Society) helped validate science as a field by providing
an outlet for the publication of scientists’work.

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A. New Methods
• Under the scientific method that was defined and applied in the 17th century, natural
and artificial circumstances were abandoned, and a research tradition of systematic
experimentation was slowly accepted throughout the scientific community.
• During the scientific revolution, changing perceptions about the role of the scientist in
respect to nature, the value of evidence, experimental or observed, led towards a
scientific methodology in which empiricism played a large, but not absolute, role.
• The term British empiricism came into use to describe philosophical differences
perceived between two of its founders—Francis Bacon, described as empiricist, and
René Descartes, who was described as a rationalist. Bacon’s works established and
popularized inductive methodologies for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian
method, or sometimes simply the scientific method.
• His demand for a planned procedure of investigating all things natural marked a new turn
in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, much of which still surrounds
conceptions of proper methodology today.

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Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
• Francis Bacon was an English philosopher who
wrote Advancement of Learning.
• Bacon popularized the scientific method and used it

with philosophy and knowledge.
• Bacon argued that truth could not be known at the

beginning of a question, but only at the end after a long
process of investigation.
• Urged scientists to experiment & draw

conclusions. Not rely on medieval scholars.
• Called empiricism
Empiricism: A theory stating that knowledge comes

only, or primarily, from sensory experience. It
emphasizes evidence, especially the kind of evidence
gathered through experimentation and by use of the
scientific method.

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A.1 The Scientific Method
• By the early 1600s, a new approach to science had emerged, known as
the Scientific Method.
• Scientific Method – painstaking method used to confirm findings and to prove or

disprove a hypothesis.
• Scientists observed nature, made hypotheses, or educated guesses, and then tested
these hypotheses through experiments. Unlike earlier approaches, the scientific
method did not rely on the classical thinkers or the Church, but depended upon a step-
by-step process of observation and experimentation.
The Scientific Method • Scientists soon discovered

that the movements of bodies
1. State the problem in nature closely followed what
2. Collect information could be predicted by
3. Form a hypothesis mathematics.
4. Test the hypothesis
5. Record & analyze data
• The scientific method set
6. State a conclusion
7. Repeat steps 1 –6 Europe on the road to rapid
technological progress.

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B. New Ideas
Many new ideas contributed to what is called the scientific revolution. Some of them were
revolutions in their own fields. These include:
• The heliocentric model that involved the radical displacement of the earth to an orbit around
the sun (as opposed to being seen as the center of the universe). Copernicus’ 1543 work
on the heliocentric model of the solar system tried to demonstrate that the sun was the
center of the universe. The discoveries of Johannes Kepler and Galileo gave the theory
credibility and the work culminated in Isaac Newton’s Principia, which formulated the laws
of motion and universal gravitation that dominated scientists’ view of the physical universe
for the next three centuries.
• Studying human anatomy based upon the dissection of human corpses, rather than the
animal dissections, as practiced for centuries.
• Discovering and studying magnetism and electricity, and thus, electric properties of various
materials.

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• Modernization of disciplines (making them more as what they are today), including
dentistry, physiology, chemistry, or optics.
• Invention of tools that deepened the understating of sciences, including mechanical

calculator, steam digester (the forerunner of the steam engine), refracting and
reflecting telescopes, vacuum pump, or mercury barometer.
C. The Emergence of Modern Astronomy

• While astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, its
development during the period of the scientific revolution entirely transformed the views
of society about nature.
• The publication of the seminal work in the field of astronomy, Nicolaus Copernicus ‘ De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) published
in 1543, is, in fact, often seen as marking the beginning of the time when scientific
disciplines, including astronomy, began to apply modern empirical research methods, and
gradually transformed into the modern sciences as we know them today.

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Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
• From 1543 until about 1700, few astronomers were
convinced by the Copernican system. Forty-five years
after the publication of De Revolutionibus, the
astronomer Tycho Brahe went so far as to construct a
cosmology precisely equivalent to that of Copernicus,
but with Earth held fixed in the center of the celestial
sphere instead of the sun.
• However, Tycho challenged the Aristotelian model

when he observed a comet that went through the
region of the planets.
• This region was said to only have uniform circular

motion on solid spheres, which meant that it would be
impossible for a comet to enter into the area. Brahe set
up an astronomical observatory.
• Every night for years he carefully observed the sky,

accumulating data about the movement of the stars
and planets.

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Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
• After Brahe’s death, his assistant, the German astronomer

and mathematician Johannes Kepler, used Brahe’s data to
calculate the orbits of the planets revolving around the
sun.
• In 1596, he published his first book, the Mysterium

cosmographicum, which was the first to openly endorse
Copernican cosmology by an astronomer since the 1540s.
• Expanded on Copernicus’ ideas and proved that

planets revolved around the sun elliptically not in circular
orbits as Copernicus and Ptolemy claimed.
• Kepler’s finding help explain the paths followed

by man-made satellites today.

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D. Uniting Astronomy and Physics
Isaac Newton (1643-1727)
• Isaac Newton developed further ties between physics and
astronomy through his law of universal gravitation.
• Realizing that the same force that attracted objects to the

surface of Earth held the moon in orbit around the Earth,
Newton was able to explain, in one theoretical framework,
all known gravitational phenomena and formulated the
laws of motion:
1. A body at rest stays at rest

2. Acceleration is caused by force
3. For every action there is an equal
opposite reaction
• He discovered laws of light and color
• He invented calculus: a method of mathematical analysis.

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E. Medicine
Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)

• In1543 Andreas Vesalius published On the
Structure of the Human Body.
• Vesalius’ book was the first accurate and detailed

book on human anatomy.
• Through his publication he demonstrated the

mistakes in the Galenic model.
• His anatomical teachings were based upon the

dissection of human corpses, rather than the animal
dissections that Galen had used as a guide.

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• Vesalius’ work emphasized the priority of
dissection and what has come to be called the
“anatomical” view of the body, seeing human
Galen and his
internal functioning as an essentially corporeal colleagues
structure filled with organs arranged in three- dissecting a
dimensional space. human corpse
Human anatomy drawing of Vesalius (On the

Structure of the Human Body, 1543)
Human anatomy drawing before Vesalius

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William Harvey (1578-1657)
• Venal valves had

already been
discovered, but here
Harvey shows that venal
blood flows only
toward the heart. He
ligatured an arm to make
obvious the veins and their
valves, then pressed blood
away from the heart and
showed that the vein would
• An English physician remain empty because it
and the first to describe was blocked by the valve.
completely and in detail the
systemic circulation and
properties of blood being
pumped to the brain and Harvey’s depiction of
systemic circulation
body by the heart.

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Ambroise Paré (1510-1590)
• A French surgeon who is considered one of the

fathers of surgery and modern forensic
pathology, and a pioneer in surgical techniques
and battlefield medicine, especially in the
treatment of wounds.
• He developed a new and more effective ointment
for preventing infection and introduce a technique
for closing wounds and stitches.
Paré performing an operation at an injured Cauterizing Instruments of Ambroise Paré

soldier

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• Herman Boerhaave (1668-1738), a Dutch botanist, chemist, Christian humanist and
physician of European fame, is regarded as the founder of clinical teaching and of the
modern academic hospital. He is sometimes referred to as “the father of physiology.”
• Santorio Santorio (1561-1636), Venetian physician who introduced the quantitative

approach into medicine.
• Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777), a pupil of Santorio, best known for demonstrating the
relation of symptoms to lesions and, in addition, he was the first to isolate the chemical
urea from urine. He was the first physician that put thermometer measurements to
clinical practice.
• Pierre Fauchard (1678-1761), started dentistry science as we know it today, and he has
been named “the father of modern dentistry.” He is widely known for writing the first
complete scientific description of dentistry, Le Chirurgien Dentiste (“The Surgeon
Dentist”), published in 1728. The book described basic oral anatomy and function, signs
and symptoms of oral pathology, operative methods for removing decay and restoring
teeth, periodontal disease (pyorrhea), orthodontics, replacement of missing teeth, and
tooth transplantation.

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F. Other Scientific Advances
Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)

▪ ModernGenetics. When he wrote “Experiments on Plant
Hybridization”, he paved the way for biology students to
study genetic traits in peas. During his experiments, Gregor
found that a specific trait would be dominant over other
traits in the same species. This became to be recognized
as the Mendelian inheritance.
Robert Hooke (1635–1703)

▪ Coined the term “cell”
Born on 1635 in the Isle of Wight, England, Robert
Hooke received his higher educationat Oxford
University where he studied physics and chemistry. His
work included the application what is known today
as Hooke’s law, his use of microscopy, and for
the discovery of the “cell”
in 1665 using cork and a microscope.

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Robert Boyle (1627-1691)
▪ In the 1600s Robert Boyle distinguished between individual

elements and chemical compounds.
▪ Boyle also explained the effect of temperature and

pressure on gases.
▪ Founder of modern chemistry.
Joseph Priestley (1733-1804)

▪ Regarded by many as the one who discovered oxygen.
▪ He published six volumes of ‘Experiments and

Observations on Different Kinds of Air’ between 1772 and
1790. In this work, he wrote about the experiments he made
using different kinds of air. It was these experiments that
established his reputation as a
chemist.

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Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794)
▪ Identified the significance of this gas in the process of
combustion.
▪ He stated that during the process of combustion, not only is a

substantial quantity of air used, but there is also a visible gain in
the mass of thesubstance.
▪ His contribution to the field of chemistry, in particular, is

extremely indispensable, and forms the basis of several present
day scientific theories.
Henry Cavendish (1731-1810)

▪ British scientist of the eighteenth century who is credited with
discovery of the element hydrogen. His scientific experiments
were instrumental in reformation of chemistry and heralded a
new era in the field of theoretical chemistry.
▪ He is also renowned as one of the first scientists who

propounded the theory of Conservation of mass and heat.

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Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778)
▪ The father of modern biological classification systems.
▪ Published a series of scientific masterpieces, outlaying his system

for dividing animal and plant kingdoms into a nested series of
categories and sub-categories.
▪ First printed in 1735, the book “Systema Naturae” was the

complete description of how Linnaeus had classified more than
7,000 species of plants and 4,000 species of animals.
Charles Darwin (1809–1882)

▪ Proposed the “Theory of Evolution”, After attending the
University of Cambridge and taking up medicine at the
University of Edinburgh in Scotland, Darwin was considered a
naturalist.
▪ As a biologist, he proposed the concept that “all species of

life” came from a single source. His theory of evolution marked
the beginning of the discussion on natural selection.

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Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723)
▪ The Father of Microbiology. Antoine Philips

van Leeuwenhoek was born in Delft,
Netherlands in 1632. His interest in
lensmaking and curiosity led him to be the first
to observe single cell organisms. He is
considered a biologist and microscopist which
has earned him the distinction of being the
father of microbiology.
Edward Jenner (1749–1823)

▪ Creating the first effective vaccine for smallpox Edward
Jenner is considered as the “father of immunology”
mainly because of his pioneering work on the smallpox
vaccine and the use of vaccination. Born in Berkeley,
England in 1749, he specialized in microbiology at the
University of St. Andrews and the University of London.

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Claude Bernard (1813–1878)
▪ Blind experimental method for objective results Born in

Saint Julien, France in 1813, Claude Bernard has been
considered “one of the greatest of all men of science.”
He fostered the use of blind experiments in order to
produce objective results. He also believed that
vivisection, the use of surgery on a living thing for
knowledge, was useful in the study and practice of
medicine.
Louis Pasteur (1822–1895)
▪ Created the process of pasteurization for treating milk

and wine. As one of the founders of medical
microbiology, Louis Pasteur’s education in the field
of chemistry and microbiology may be credited with
his success. His germ theory of disease became the
catalyst to his process we know as pasteurization.

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Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859)
▪ Humboldtian science. Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich

Alexander von Humboldt was born in 1769. He was an
explorer, geographer, and naturalist. His work in
biogeography paved the way to the idea that the land in
Africa, South America, and those along the Atlantic
Ocean were once joined together. He believed in the
approach of combining the different branches of the
physical sciences, such as biology, geology, and
meteorology, this we know today as Humboldtian
science.
Joseph Lister (1827–1912)
▪ Using antiseptics for cleaning and sterilizing wounds.

Joseph Lister was born in 1827 in the city of Upton,
Essex, England where he attended the University of
London, and later in Scotland at the University of
Edinburgh and University of Glasgow. He became a
surgeon and pioneered the work of antiseptic or sterile
surgery. He used carbolic acid to cleanse wounds and to
sterilize instruments used for surgery.

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Robert Brown (1773–1858)
▪ Discovered the cell nucleus. Specializing in botany,
Scottish born Robert Brown introduced the model that
help describe random movements of cells which is
known as particle theory, or more aptly, Brownian
motion. Among his contributions to the world of science
was his description in detail of the cell nucleus in all
living things.
Marie Curie (1867-1934)

▪ Made history in 1903 as the first woman to receive a
Nobel Prize in Physics. Not only that, she received the
same prestigious award in Chemistry in 1911. She has
collaborated lots of scientific work with her husband
Pierre. Marie Curie, who explored much on radioactivity,
is most remembered for her discovery of radium and
polonium. She also conducted her own experiments on
uranium rays which eventually led her to coin the term
radioactivity.

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Ada Lovelace (1815-1852)
▪ Lovelace wrote instructions for solving a complex math

problem, should the machine ever see the light of day.
Many historians would later deem those instructions the
first computer program, and Lovelace the first
programmer.
Nikola Tesla (1856-1943)

▪ A brilliant scientist who developed the alternating-current electrical system
and discovered the rotating magnetic field. He also invented the Tesla coil,
still being used in radio technology today. He did not have any formal
scientific education but that did not stop him from delving into science, so
he tinkered in machinery.
▪ He worked with Thomas Edison, improving the latter’s ideas; but they
eventually fell apart because of the differences and clash in methods and
ideas. He established his own laboratory wherein he experiment with early
X-ray technology, electrical resonance, arc lamps and others. Tesla was a
magnificent man of science but unable to take his gift to his advantage,
because he was said to be a terrible businessman and never saw the
commercial value behind his ideas.

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Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
▪ In 1905, Einsteein published his four most important papers
One of them described the relationship between matter and
energy, neatly summarized E = mc2. Other papers that year
were on Brownian motion, suggesting the existence of
molecules and atoms, and the photoelectric effect, showing
that light is made of particles later called photons. His fourth
paper, about special relativity, explained that space and time
are interwoven, a shocking idea now considered a
foundational principle of astronomy. Einstein expanded on
relativity in 1916 with his theory of gravitation: general
relativity.
Rosalind Franklin (1920-1958)

▪ Franklin was also a brilliant chemist and a master of X-ray
crystallography, an imaging technique that reveals the
molecular structure of matter based on the pattern of
scattered X-ray beams. Her early research into the
microstructures of carbon and graphite are still cited, but her
work with DNA was the most significant — and it may have
won three men a Nobel.

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▪ The defining feature of the scientific revolution lies in how much scientific thought
changed during a period of only a century, and in how quickly differing thoughts of
different natural philosophers condensed to form a cohesive experimental method that
chemists, biologists, and physicists can easily utilize today.
▪ The sudden emergence of new information during the Scientific Revolution called into
question religious beliefs, moral principles, and the traditional scheme of nature. It also
strained old institutions and practices, necessitating new ways of communicating and
disseminating information.
▪ Prominent innovations included scientific societies: which were created to discuss and
validate new discoveries;
▪ Scientific papers: which were developed as tools to communicate new information

comprehensibly and test the discoveries and hypothesesmade by their authors.

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V. Activity 1: “A picture is worth a thousand words: Using
Infographic to illustrate Science and
Technology development through the ages”
▪ The history of S&T stretch back from the ancient times were our primitive ancestors had lived in
nomadic way as “hunters and gatherers”. Following through the course of technological
development the way they live had arguably changed. They learn to cultivate the lands, plant
crops, domesticate animals and use the existing resources around them. Through these changes
that society develops, influx of knowlegde and ways flooded the early settlements and thus
creating civilizations. The development of S&T has come a long way, in the modern era there is
an explosion of information and these information has been utilize to create advancements in
different fields.
▪ The task of presenting how S&T develops through the ages and putting it in one frame studded
with relevat images and information is way more challenging. Information graphics (Infographics)
reveal the hidden, explain the complex and illuminate the obscure. Constructing visual
representation of information is not mere translation of what can be read to what can be seen. It
entails filtering the information, establishing relationships, discerning patterns and representing
them in a manner that enables the reader of that information construct meaningful knowledge.

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WHAT IS AN INFOGRAPHIC?
Infographics are traditionally viewed as visual elements such as charts, maps, or diagrams that aid
comprehension of a given text-based content. Infographic makes minimal use of text and can be a powerful
tool for displaying data, explaining concepts, simplifying presentations, mapping relationships, showing
trends and providing essential insights. The use of compelling images on an infographic can make what is
an abstract idea that much easier to understand (hence infographics popularity in marketing and
instruction). Infographics simplify large data sets providing a high-level view and making them easier to
digest at first glance. They help convey data in a compact and shareableform.
Instructions:
1. Create an infographic that depicts the development of S&T through the ages.
Infographic must include images and written descriptions. All information
must be in a visual and concise way.
2. Collect and organize all the content and data you'll use in the infographic.
3. When collecting your information, make sure you know what story you want
to tell.
4. Choose an infographic template appropriate for your gathered information.
The important thing is to choose a template that specifically works for the
type of content you want to present.
For more information please visit this website: https://visme.co/blog/infographic-examples-for-students/

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How to create
an 1
Infographic
Outline?
For more information please

visit: https://www.easel.l
y/introduction-to-
infographics
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2020-2021 MSU-GSC 169
1. The Visual Article: A long piece of writing made morevisual
2.The Flowchart: Answers a specific question by giving readers choices 3.The
Timeline: Tells a story through the use of chronological data 4.The List: Supports a
claim or view through steps, rules, or reasons 5.Number Love: Lots and lots of
charts, graphs, and stats
For more information: 6.Versus Comparison: Studies two things in a head-to-head comparison 7.Data Viz:
https://www.schrockg
Pulls lots of complex data into a clean, uniquedesign
uide.net/infographics- as-
an-assessment.html 8.The Map: Shows cultural/behavioral/other trends by location

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1. Useful Bait: Works well with
most of the data; Easy to read
and good usability
2. Versus/ Comparison: Works well
with a lot of information;
Design(visual) is very important;
Informations have to be very
interesting
3. Heavy Data (numbers porn):
Works well with marketing
strategy; TImeline for project; Can
extend to a flowchart
4. Road Map: Good for
storyline/journey; Can be
used as a timeline too
5. Timeline: Can be a
comparison; Good for
timeline and journey too;
From simple to complex
(depends on your data)
6. Visualized Article: Needs strong
title; Works well with heavy
content; Easy to read and
understand
PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

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Submission:
• Infographic output submission is on October 10/11, 2023 (11:59PM)

• Late submission: minus 1 per whole hour.
• Submit your output in the Moodle platform.
Rubrics for Grading (Activity 1)

30 Exemplary Admirable Acceptable Attempted
Criteria
points 10-9 8-7 6-5 4-1
 Factual information is  Most information can be  Some errors in  Numerous errors in
Research and Content
accurate confirmed information information

 Addresses topic  Addresses topic  Barely addresses topic  Does not adequately
completely and in depth  Content is mostly  Content is somewhat address topic
10  Content is readily understandable understandable  Content is confusing
understandable
 Logical sequencing of  Somewhat logical  Sequencing is poorly  Sequencing is

information sequencing planned confusing
 Original and creative  Original work  Little originality  Inconsistent
 All sources are correctly  Most sources are  Some sources are information is
Organization
cited correctly cited incorrectly cited presented

10  Other people’s ideas
presented as own
 Sources are not
cited
 Graphics effectively  Visuals and images are  Use of visuals and  Use of visuals and
Graphic Design
entice audience; attractive; adequately images is limited; images is confusing

10 accurately convey conveys message message is conveyed or absent; message
message is confusing

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Development of Science and Technology Throughout History Lecturers

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Module 1

At the end of the course, the student will be able to:

➢ Identify the important technological discoveries that influenced

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

▪ Kiger, Patrick. “9 Ancient Sumerian Inventions That Changed the World”.

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

▪ “Scientific Revolutions.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Nov 28, 2017 Retrieved

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

Homo sapiens (Wise human) Lived

Homo sapiens sapiens (Modern human) Have

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

▪ During these era an eventual transformation was seen from a culture of

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

• Early humans lived in caves or simple

• They cooked their prey, including

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

• Humans used small stone tools, now

• They often lived nomadically in camps

• Agriculture was introduced

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

• Ancient humans switched from hunter/gatherer mode to agriculture

• They used polished hand axes, adzes for ploughing and

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

During the Neolithic period,

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

o Sharpened stones (Oldowan tools): 2.6 million

One of the earliest

o Stone handaxe (Acheulean tools): 1.6

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

Known as the Levallois, or prepared-core

• Cutting blades (Aurignacian

The central innovation of this type of tool making

characterized by small tools known as geometric microliths, or

Microliths were added to Late

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

These tools, including axes, adzes, celts, chisels and

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

Village life in Grimspound, a late Bronze Age

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

• Humans may have started smelting copper as early as 6,000

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

• The earliest occupants of Mesopotamia lived in circular dwellings made of mud

• They began to practice agriculture by domesticating sheep and pigs around

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

• One of the oldest known Mesopotamian cities, Nineveh (near

• In addition to farming and cities, ancient Mesopotamian societies developed

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

• This early population—known as the Ubaid people—was notable for

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

• Other ancient people made pottery by hand, but

Bowl from the ancient

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

• But they didn’t set out to write great

• Scribes used sharpened reeds to scratch the

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-

Scale model of a simple two-