CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Plastic waste management is a pressing global challenge, and Nigeria is no

exception. As one of the most populous countries in Africa, Nigeria faces
significant plastic waste generation and mismanagement issues. The inadequate
infrastructure, low awareness levels, and limited regulatory frameworks have
contributed to the escalating plastic waste crisis. This study aims to provide a
comprehensive overview of the strategies for managing plastic waste in Nigeria,
considering both environmental sustainability and socio-economic factors.
Plastic waste has become a ubiquitous part of modern life, with single-use plastics
and packaging contributing to its rapid proliferation. In Nigeria, the increasing
urbanization and population growth have led to a surge in plastic consumption and
waste generation. Commonly found plastics in Nigeria include polyethylene,
polypropylene, and polyethylene terephthalate, originating from various sources
such as household waste, industries, and commercial establishments.
Improper plastic waste management poses severe environmental threats. Open
dumping and inadequate disposal lead to visual pollution, clogged drainage
systems, and increased risk of flooding during the rainy season. Furthermore,
plastic waste finds its way into water bodies, contributing to marine pollution. The
ingestion of plastic debris by marine animals and birds, often mistaking them for
food, leads to entanglement and disruption of ecosystems.

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According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nigeria's
coastal areas are among the most plastic-polluted in Africa, underscoring the
urgency of addressing plastic waste management.
The mismanagement of plastic waste has socio-economic repercussions. The
informal waste sector, which includes waste pickers and small-scale recyclers,
plays a critical role in waste collection and recycling. However, the lack of proper
safety measures and protective gear exposes workers to health risks. Additionally,
plastic pollution affects tourism, a potential source of revenue for Nigeria, as
littered beaches deter tourists and tarnish the country's image. By taking action
now, Nigeria can pave the way for a cleaner, healthier, and more sustainable
future.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Plastic waste management has emerged as a critical challenge for Nigeria, a

country experiencing rapid urbanization, population growth, and increased
consumption of plastic products. The proliferation of plastic waste poses
significant environmental, social, and economic threats, necessitating urgent and
comprehensive strategies for effective management. This statement of the problem
highlights the key issues associated with plastic waste in Nigeria and underscores
the need for well-defined strategies to address this pressing concern.
The improper management of plastic waste has led to severe environmental
degradation in Nigeria. Inadequate disposal practices, including open dumping and
littering, result in the accumulation of plastic waste in urban and rural areas. These
discarded plastics find their way into water bodies, causing water pollution and
threatening aquatic ecosystems. Marine life is particularly vulnerable as marine

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animals ingest or become entangled in plastic debris, disrupting food chains and
ecosystem balance (UNEP, 2020).
The presence of unmanaged plastic waste contributes to the spread of diseases and
poses health risks to communities. Stagnant water trapped by plastic waste
becomes breeding grounds for disease-carrying mosquitoes, increasing the
incidence of vector-borne illnesses such as malaria and dengue fever. Moreover,
the burning of plastic waste releases toxic chemicals and pollutants into the air,
further compromising air quality and public health (Obaje et al., 2019).
Nigeria's mismanagement of plastic waste results in the loss of valuable resources
and economic opportunities. The informal sector, which plays a significant role in
waste collection and recycling, often operates in unsafe conditions without proper
infrastructure or regulatory support. This hinders the potential economic benefits
that a well-organized recycling industry could bring, including job creation and the
recovery of valuable materials (Aliyu et al., 2019).
The existing waste management infrastructure in Nigeria is inadequate to handle
the escalating volume of plastic waste. Collection, transportation, and recycling
facilities are often lacking, leading to improper disposal practices. The limited
access to recycling facilities contributes to a culture of disposability, where single-
use plastics are widely used and discarded (Chukwunonye et al., 2017).
While Nigeria has some regulations addressing waste management, there is a lack
of a comprehensive and coordinated regulatory framework specifically targeting
plastic waste. This regulatory gap results in inconsistent enforcement and a lack of
accountability among stakeholders, hindering the implementation of effective
strategies (Osuji et al., 2018).
In light of these challenges, the need for well-crafted and context-specific
strategies for the management of plastic waste in Nigeria is evident. The
development and implementation of effective strategies that address these issues
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holistically, while considering the socio-economic realities of the country, are
essential to mitigate the adverse impacts of plastic waste on the environment,
public health, and the economy.

1.3 Aims and Objectives

Aim:
The aim of this study is to develop comprehensive and effective strategies for the
management of plastic waste in Nigeria, addressing environmental degradation,
public health concerns, economic implications, and regulatory deficiencies
associated with plastic waste mismanagement.
Objectives:
1. Identify the Sources and Classifications of Plastic Waste

2. Evaluate the Socio-economic Implications of Plastic Waste

3. Assess the Current State of Plastic Waste Management in Nigeria

4. Examine Strategies for Plastic Waste Management in Global Context

5. Examine the Challenges and Barriers to Plastic Waste Management

1.4 Research Questions

To meet the objectives mentioned above, the following research questions were
asked:

1. What is the current status of plastic waste generation in Awka South, Anambra
State, Nigeria, in terms of volume, types, and sources?
2. How is plastic waste currently managed in the study area, including collection,
disposal, and recycling practices?

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3. What environmental impacts are associated with the improper management of
plastic waste in Awka South, considering factors such as water and soil
pollution?
4. What is the role of existing policies and regulations in governing plastic waste
management in Awka South, and how effectively are they enforced?
5. What lessons can be learnt from successful plastic waste management
initiatives in other regions or countries that can be applied to the context of
Awka South?

1.5 Research Hypotheses

H0: There is no significant difference in the environmental impact between areas

with high plastic waste accumulation and those with low plastic waste
accumulation in Awka South, Anambra State.
H1: Areas with high plastic waste accumulation exhibit a significantly greater
environmental impact compared to areas with low plastic waste accumulation.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This research is very important because the findings from it can be used to increase
awareness of the effects of Plastic wastes pollution among residents of Awka
South LGA and beyond. This will not only furnish them with information on how
to protect themselves from air pollutants in the region, but can also be used as a
basis for future research. More so, it will serve as a guide to the waste management
agencies and other government and non-government agencies in charge of
controlling matters of air pollution to checkmate the distribution level in this
region and other areas in Nigeria where industrial activities are carried out and to
identify avenues on how to mitigate the effects of air pollution distribution on the
residents of Nigeria and the world at large.
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1.7 Scope of the Study

In the current research, causes and effects of air pollution is the sole focus.
Specifically, impacts of air pollutants on the health, economic activities and living
environment of residents is carefully studied here.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

The researcher encountered various challenges during the course of this study. The
primary hurdle was insufficient funding, as the student researcher had to rely solely
on personal funds due to the absence of research grants or other financial support.
This financial constraint significantly impeded access to essential research
materials. Notably, while brief summaries of research papers (typically in the form
of abstracts) were available, accessing the complete papers required substantial
fees. Consequently, the literature survey for this research was confined to
publications with open access and older textbooks that were not available for
purchase. Despite these obstacles, considerable effort and diligence were invested
to ensure the scientific rigor and systematic approach of this study. The research
was conducted comprehensively, aiming to extract valuable insights into the
examination of plastic waste characterization and management in Awka South.

1.9 The Study Area

Enugu is the capital city of Enugu State in the southeast of Nigeria. The population
of Enugu city was estimated at 820,000 in the most recent national census and was
projected to increase to 910,003 in 2014. The city is located between Latitudes
06˚30'N and 06˚40'N and Longitudes 07˚20'E and 07˚35'E. Enugu city (also called

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Coal City or Enugu Urban) is comprised of three local government areas (Enugu
East, Enugu North, and Enugu South) and dozens of towns.

Before the Nigerian civil war and oil boom, this region was famous for its
production of cash crops such as palm kernels, as well as coal mining. However,
it is currently known for its three large urban markets (Ogbete Market, New
Market and Awkunanaw Market), as well as being the seat of administration of
Enugu State, a major hub of education institutions and manufacturing companies
(such as breweries and soft drink companies) in the southeast and the location of
Akanu Ibiam International airport.

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Fig. 1.1: Geographical map of Nigeria with expanded view of Enugu State
(Source: Chukwuone et al, 2020)

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Figure 1.2: Map of Enugu State with Study Area highlighted
Source: Obuka et al, 2019.

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 1.9.1 Geological Features

Geologically, Enugu city is in the eastern Nigeria sedimentary basin. The is

underlain by Enugu shales, lower coal measure (Mamu formation) and false
bedded sandstone (Ajali formation). Topological features in the region are grouped
in two:

(a) The plains and lowlands of the Cross River Basin and Benue Trough.
(b) The escarpment zone.

Major rivers in the region include the Ekulu, Asata, Ogbete, Aria, Idaw and
Nyaba rivers. The primary sources of drinking water used by residents of in this
study area are boreholes and shallow wells in Abakpa-Nike, Emene, New Haven,
and some parts of Independence Layout where the landscape may be favourable.

1.9.2 Climate

Enugu city has a tropical savannah climate, with high rainfall and nm,high
humidity between the months of March and November. The annual average
temperature of the region is about 26.7 ℃, but temperatures can rise as high as
36℃ in the early months of the year. The annual average rainfall of Enugu is
about 2,000mm, however it is worth noting that up to 70 percent of this rainfall
can occur between the months of June and September each year. Two distinct
seasons exist in the region: a long rainy season and a short dry (Harmattan)
season.

1.9.3 Conditions of Soil

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The landscape of Enugu is partly an extension of the Anambra basin which
consists of sedimentary rocks, silts, sandtone, mudstone and shales. The lower
Benue trough in Enugu is naturally endowed with sub-bituminous seams of coal,
mostly within the Mamu formation. Outcrops of Enugu shale are found in the
North-South trending escarpment. However, a most of this escarpment (from
Enugu to Orlu) has been ravaged by soil and gully erosion.

1.9.4 Physical Features

As the name Enugu (derived from the words ‘Enu’ and ‘Ugwu’, meaning ‘top of
hill’) implies, the topography of the region is hilly. The region and beyond is
dominated by prominent landforms such as the Udi Hills. The Udi hills bear the
false bedded sandstones of the ajali formation with some isolated gravels domes
and gradually merges into shale undulating flood plains of the Mamu-Adada River
complex.

1.9.5 Vegetation

Vegetation in Enugu city is of the guinea Savanna variety. Notwithstanding the

extensive erosion in the region, the soil is fertile enough for grasslands to exist in
many areas, as well as a wide variety of tropical trees. The soil type has
contributed in the formation of this grassland and occasional forest patches. Also,
the two farming seasons practiced in this region yields very large quantities of
annual crops like maize, cassava, and yams, among others.

1.10 Study Plan

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To enhance clarity and facilitate comprehension, this document is organized
sequentially and systematically. It comprises five distinct chapters. The initial
chapter serves as a comprehensive introduction to the pollution problem,
delineating the specific focus and scope of this research, along with the hypotheses
employed to scrutinize the gathered data. The second chapter delves more deeply
into air pollution, drawing insights from pertinent literature. Chapter three
meticulously outlines the research methodologies employed. Moving forward, the
fourth chapter centers on data analyses, discussions, and interpretations derived
from field data. Finally, the fifth chapter encapsulates a summary of this research
project, encapsulating conclusions and recommendations offered by the researcher.

1.11 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

In this work, the Systems Approach is used as a basis for holistically studying the
variety of natural and man-made components that contribute to air pollution. The
justification for using this approach is that air pollution is a complex phenomenon
created by a wide range of economic, climatic, political, and geographical factors
which can have negative effects on the health of human beings and other living
organisms, as well as our physical environment. A very useful way of
understanding the large numbers of causes and effects of air pollution is by
employing theoretical frameworks. Many theories have been proposed in the study
of air pollution, however in this research, only five of the most common are
considered. They are:

1.11.1 The Pollution Triangle theory

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One of the most frequently used frameworks in the study of air pollution is the
“Pollution Triangle.” Under this framework, the major factors contributing to air
pollution are grouped into three: Sources, Pathways, and Receptors. Sources of air
pollution are the specific origins of air pollutants released into the atmosphere.
These sources may include human activities (such as the combustion of petroleum
products or industrial processes releasing effluents) or natural sources (such as
wildfires, dust storms, and volcanoes).

Pathways are the routes through which pollutants are transported into and out of
the atmosphere. For instance, pathways of pollutants entering the atmosphere may
include vaporization of chemical solvents from industries into the air by the action
of heat and air pressure, or the transportation of soot from wildfires into the air by
the action of wind. Pollutants can be transported from water bodies and soil to the
atmosphere, by agents such as human activity, heat from the sun, wind, and
precipitation. Air pollutants may also be transported out of the atmosphere by
agents such as precipitation, wind, and gravity.

Receptors are human populations, other living organisms and physical

environments which are exposed to pollutants and may be significantly harmed by
them. Hence, receptors for air pollutants include all plants, animals, human beings,
man-made structures, soil, and water bodies. For instance, agricultural soil in
Nigeria can be a receptor for acid rain from the atmosphere, caused by the
introduction of nitrogen and sulphur compounds released into the air from our
petroleum industry. If these three factors in the pollution triangle are carefully
researched, it is then possible to gain a full understanding of the causes and effects
of air pollution within a particular ecosystem. In other words, the pollution triangle
theory proposes that air pollution is caused by various sources of pollutants which

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are transported through specific pathways and received by receptors which will
unavoidably be affected by them.

1.11.2 The Exposure-Response Theory

This is sometimes called the Dose-Response theory. It postulates that the effects of
air pollution on the health of living organisms heavily depends on the level
(quantity) of pollutants they are exposed to, as well as how susceptible an
organism might be to each pollutant. For instance, human beings with respiratory
problems (such as asthma) are more easily harmed by the same amounts of air
pollutants than other people without those health problems. The relationship
between dose and response also varies between different species of living things;
for instance, a tree will not be harmed by Carbon monoxide in the same way a
human being will be harmed. Thus, this theory proposes that the response (harm
inflicted) on an individual organism is equivalent to the dosage of pollutants it
receives, factoring in the specific nature of that organism that allows it to resist or
suffer that pollutant.

1.11.3 The Dirty Air, Dirty Water theory

This theory posits that, because the atmosphere covers the entire surface of the
earth and does not have physical boundaries, air pollution has direct negative
effects on the quality of surface water and groundwater. This is because air
pollutants can easily be deposited on surface water bodies (harming aquatic
organisms in the process) or deposited on land surfaces, thereby percolating into
groundwater under the action of gravity and rainfall; and groundwater is consumed
by human beings.
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 1.11.4 The Multiple-Hit theory

This theory is also called the Multiple-Hit hypothesis. It proposes that air pollution
has a cumulative effect on the health of human beings and other living receptors,
because repeated exposures to different pollutants increases the risk of negative
health impacts. Multiple-hit theory is often used by medical researchers when
considering the impact of cancer-causing pollutants on cells in the human body;
i.e., because cells can repair themselves, they must be exposed many times to toxic
chemicals that cause mutations before they become malignant or cancerous.

1.11.5 The Environmental Justice (EJ) theory

This theory posits that communities made up of ethnic minorities and low-income
people are disproportionately harmed by air pollution because polluting industries
are usually located where they live and they usually do not have the political power
(in governments) to correct this problem. EJ theory emerged in the United States
during the civil rights movement of the 1960s, when African-American
communities were protesting the dumping of toxic pollutants (wastes) on the land
in which they lived, a well as the siting of heavy polluting industries very close to
their homes. These industries frequently polluted their land, groundwater, and air,
causing severe health impacts on black communities. Thus, Environmental Justice
theory brings together political, economic, civil rights and ethical factors in
considering how each population is affected by pollution. EJ is very useful because
it helps policymakers in government and researchers to understand the variety of
intentional causes and victims of air pollution, in efforts to develop strategies for
correcting each air pollution case.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Air Pollution

Air pollution is the release into the atmosphere of particulate, biological or
chemical materials which can cause harm or discomfort to living organisms, or
damage to the natural or built environment (Tawari & Abowei, 2012). In other
words, it is the presence in the atmosphere (either outdoors or indoors) of gaseous
or particulate pollutants in sufficient amounts, characteristics, and durations as can
cause injury to human beings, plant life, or animals as well as man-made
structures, or which significantly interferes with the comfortable enjoyment of life
and property (Odigure, 1998). Air pollution is a major problem affecting the
growing populations of cities around the world. This problem has increased rapidly
with urbanization, industrial development and an increase in mobility which have
all reduced air quality and intensified air pollution in highly populated areas. The
severity of air pollution problems in cities is a direct reflection of their level and
speed of development (APMA, 2002; Molina et al., 2004; Grutter et al., 2014).
Most air pollutants are released from fugitive sources such as the evaporation of
solvents or leakages at industries. waste incinerators and flare stacks are also major

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sources of atmospheric emissions. The primary objective of this paper is to present
a broad overview of the causes, effects, and remediations of air pollution, with a
small focus on Nigeria.

Pollution is one of the worst environmental difficulties the world is undergoing

today. The environment (air, land, and water) was relatively pure in the past, a
clean and most hospitable home for all living organisms, but mainly on account of
human activities, the situation is now reversed. Currently, the environment has
become foul, heavily contaminated, uncomfortable to most species on earth and
thus harmful for to the health of all living organisms.

2.2 Air Pollutants and their Classifications

Air pollutants are gaseous, liquid (vapours or aerosols) and solid matter which are
present in the atmosphere at sufficiently high concentrations at which they can
cause injury to human beings and other living organisms, as well as physical
damage to the environment. In other words, they are substances in the air which
can cause harm to humans and the environment. Pollutants may occur in the form
of gases (such as Carbon dioxide and Sulphur dioxide), solid particles (such as soot
and dust) or liquid droplets (such as sprayed insecticides).

There are multiple ways of classifying air pollutants. These include:

2.2.1 Primary and Secondary Pollutants

This classification is based on the way they enter the atmosphere. Primary
pollutants are usually materials released directly from a process, such as Carbon
monoxide released from the exhausts of vehicles, ash released from volcanic

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eruptions, or Sulphur dioxide released from large-scale combustion in industries.
The main difference between primary and secondary pollutants is that secondary
pollutants are not released directly, but instead, they are formed in the atmosphere
when primary products react or combine with each other. they form in the air when
primary pollutants react or interact. A good example of a secondary pollutant is
ground level ozone; this is one of the secondary pollutants which are found in
photochemical smog.

However, it is worth noting that some pollutants may be both primary and
secondary; they can be either emitted directly or formed from primary pollutants.

2.2.2 Classification based on Sources

Based on their sources (origins), pollutants can be classified as either Natural or

Anthropogenic (man-made). The most common Natural pollutants include volcanic
ash, smoke and ash from wildfires, and dusts and other particulate matter from
exposed land surfaces. Anthropogenic pollutants are all harmful chemicals,
biological matter and particulates produced by human beings. It is however
important to remember that a pollutant is not yet an air pollutant until it has caused
a significant alteration to the natural composition of the atmosphere. Thus, broadly
speaking, all naturally-occurring materials and synthetic chemicals that enter the
atmosphere in amounts greater than what the earth can absorb and sustain
indefinitely are pollutants. It is also worth remembering that before they become
pollutants, all chemicals are useful.

2.2.3 Classification based on Chemical Composition

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According to the most significant chemical compounds they contain, pollutants are
often classified as follows:

i. Nitrogen-containing compounds
ii. Carbon-containing compounds
iii. Sulphur-containing compounds
iv. Halogen-containing compounds
v. Toxic substances
vi. Radioactive compounds

2.2.4 Classification based on Physical State

According to their physical states, pollutants are often classified as:

i. Gaseous pollutants
ii. Liquid (aqueous) pollutants
iii. Solid pollutants

2.2.5 Classification based on Location and Scale of their Effects

i. Indoor (or local) pollutants

ii. Regional pollutants
iii. Global pollutants

2.3 Major Primary Pollutants Released from Anthropogenic Sources

2.3.1 Sulphur oxides (SOX):

Sulphur oxides are compounds made of combinations of sulphur and oxygen.

There are many different sulphur oxides (including SO3, SO, S7O2, S2O2 and S6O2),
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but the most frequently occurring Sulphur pollutant is Sulphur dioxide, a chemical
compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is naturally produced by volcanic eruptions
as well as a wide variety of industrial processes. Fossil fuels such as coal and
petroleum usually contain sulphur compounds, and as such whenever they are
combusted, they produce Sulphur dioxide. Thus, a very common source of SO 2 is
the exhausts of almost all transport vehicles using fuels such as gasoline, diesel,
and aviation kerosene. In the presence of catalysts such as NO 2, Sulphur dioxide
usually oxidizes to form H2SO4, a compound often found in Acid Rain (Anderson,
2005). Acid rain, resulting from the use of fuels in power generation and
transportion, is a major cause of concern because of its negative impacts on the
environment which can range from the destruction of agricultural crops to
damaging of structures such as bridges, buildings, and roads.

2.3.2 Nitrogen oxides (NOX)

Although there are many different compounds made up of nitrogen and oxygen
(including NO, NO2, NO3, N2O, N2O2, N2O3, N2O4, N2O5, N4O and others), the term
NOX usually refers to NO and NO2 only, not just because they are the most
abundant in the atmosphere, but also because they are major culprits in air
pollution. The most common of these two is Nitrogen dioxide (with a chemical
formula of NO2), and it is frequently released from combustion at high
temperatures. NO2 can often be observed as a brownish haze in the air above cities.
This toxic reddish-brown gas has a sharp biting odour. It is one of the most
abundant air pollutants and is introduced into the air from many sources, including
exhaust pipes of automobiles, gas stoves and heaters, wood-burning stoves, and
kerosene heaters, among others.

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 2.3.3 Carbon monoxide (CO)

Although this is a colourless, odourless, non-irritating gas, it is a very poisonous

pollutant. It is formed by incomplete combustion of fuels such as petrol, kerosene,
diesel, natural gas, and wood. It is a major cause of deaths in Nigeria resulting
from exhausts of generator sets entering people’s homes. Also, exhausts from
vehicles are a major source of carbon monoxide worldwide.

2.3.4 Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Carbon dioxide is a colourless, odourless, non-toxic greenhouse gas associated

with ocean acidification, emitted from sources such as combustion, cement
production and respiration. Although CO2 is not the only cause of climate change,
it is often cited as the primary cause by virtue of its abundance in the atmosphere
and the extremely large numbers of anthropogenic sources of this gas.

2.3.5 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

VOCs are important pollutants that occur outdoors. These are often grouped into
three categories: Methane (CH4), Ammonia (NH3), and Non-methane (NMVOCs).

Of these, CH4 is perhaps the most harmful to the environment, mainly because it
contributes greatly to global warming – it is a highly efficient greenhouse gas, even
more efficient than CO2. The other VOCs are also important greenhouse gases,
playing various roles such as creating ozone and prolonging the lifetime of CH 4 in
the atmosphere. Their effects however depend on air quality in different localities.

Most frequently, Ammonia it is released from agricultural activities. It usually

occurs as a gas with a pungent smell, and plays important roles in the nutrition of
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different organisms, such as being a precursor to synthetic fertilizers and foodstuff.
In direct or indirect ways, NH3 also serves as a building block for the manufacture
of many pharmaceutic products (medicines). As a widely-used chemical in
industries which has caustic and hazardous properties, Ammonia is therefore an
abundant pollutant released from large numbers of sources into the air.

Some of the most common NMVOCs (including aromatic compounds such as

benzene, xylene and toluene) are believed to be causes of cancers. Prolonged
exposure to NMVOCs (as suggested by the multiple Multiple-Hit theory) is a
likely cause of leukemia. Another notorious NMVOC is 1,3-Butadiene a dangerous
pollutant that is frequently released from industrial processes.

2.3.6 Particulate Matter

Particulates, which are often called Particulate Matter (PM) or fine particles, are
very small particles of solid or liquid materials suspended in a gas. When the term
“aerosol” is used, it refers to particulates and the gas combined. There are many
different sources of particulate matter, including natural sources (such as sea
sprays, volcanic eruptions, dust storms, wildfires in forests and grasslands) as well
as man-made sources. Anthropogenic activities, such as the combustion of fossil
fuels in power plants and vehicles, and different industrial processes also produce
large quantities of aerosols. It is estimated that human activities contribute about
10% of all aerosols released into the atmosphere globally (Molles, 2005). Research
has often linked particulates in the air, especially fine particles smaller than 10
micrometers in diameter (PM10) to health hazards such as lung cancers, altered
lung functions and heart disease. Some persistent free radicals connected to fine

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particles in the air can cause cardiopulmonary disease (Bronwen, 1999). These
include fine particles of toxic metals, such as copper, cadmium, and lead.

2.3.7 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

These synthetic organic compounds were frequently used as coolants, refrigerants,

and solvents in most countries, until they began to be banned following the
Montreal Protocol. They are very harmful to the ozone layer (they attack and break
ozone molecules in the atmosphere), thus exposing living organisms to harmful
ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Although the use of CFCs is banned, monitored
and restricted in most developed countries, many developing countries still use
them in large quantities.

2.3.8 Radioactive Pollutants

These are extremely harmful isotopes of Uranium, Plutonium, and other

radioactive compounds. They may be released into the atmosphere from nuclear
accidents (such as the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear disasters), testing of
nuclear weapons, war (in Hiroshima and Nagasaki), or more frequently from the
natural radioactive decay of Radon (a common indoor air pollutant).

2.4 Major Secondary Pollutants from Anthropogenic Sources

2.4.1 Particulate Matter

Primary pollutants in the air may react or combine to form particulate matter and
other harmful pollutants found in photochemical smog. Smog is an important form

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of air pollution which usually occurs in large urban environments. The term
“smog” was coined from the words “smoke” and “fog.” Historically, it frequently
occurred in regions where large quantities of coal were burned for power
generation and transportation, resulting in a mixture of smoke and Sulphur dioxide.
In modern environments, smog is not usually generated by burning of coal but
instead from emissions from industries and vehicles. In the atmosphere, these
emissions are acted upon by ultraviolet light from the sun, forming secondary
pollutants which combine with primary emissions to form photochemical smog.

2.4.2 Ground Level Ozone (O3)

Ground level ozone is also called Tropospheric Ozone or Surface Layer Ozone. It
is formed by chemical reactions between Nitrogen oxides and VOCs. It is
important to distinguish between ground level ozone and stratospheric ozone.
There are several layers of the atmosphere, and the Troposphere is the layer closest
to the ground – it starts from the ground up to a height of 18 km in tropical regions
such as Nigeria. The stratosphere is the layer of the atmosphere directly above the
troposphere. The stratosphere contains the ozone layer, which protects life on earth
by preventing the entry of harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Although
ozone in the troposphere plays many vital roles in atmospheric chemistry (driving
many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night),
in large concentrations it is a harmful pollutant which can irritate the respiratory
systems of human beings and other animals, aggravate asthma, reduce lung
functions, increase risks of lung infections, and inflame pathways leading to the
heart, causing heart disease. Thus, it is important to control sources of pollution
that release Nitrogen oxides and VOCs, to indirectly control concentrations of
ground level ozone. At very high concentrations caused by human activities
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(especially the burning of fossil fuels), ground level ozone is also a constituent of
smog.

2.4.3 Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN)

This is a secondary pollutant often found in photochemical smog. The formation of

PAN is like that of NO and VOCS. PAN is an unstable compound which can easily
decompose to form NO2 in the atmosphere. This compound is more toxic than
ozone, and at high concentrations it easily irritates the eyes, skin, and lungs. It is a
suspected carcinogen and mutagen, potentially involved in skin cancers.

2.5 Minor Air Pollutants

There are large numbers of minor air pollutants. Although they are toxic, they are
considered “minor” pollutants because they occur in lower quantities than other
pollutants mentioned above. These minor air pollutants are often regulated by
legislation in developed countries. For instance, in the United States they are
controlled under the Clean Air Act and in the European Union they are controlled
under the Air Framework Directive. Most of them are persistent organic pollutants
attached to particulate matter. Minor air pollutants include:

2.5.1 Minor Hazardous Air Pollutants:

These include a wide variety of hazardous chemicals that occur in the atmosphere
in relatively low concentrations. Examples include Benzene, Chlorine, Butadiene,
Hydrogen fluoride, Cyanide, Naphthalene, and hundreds of others.

2.5.2 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPS)

These organic compounds are called “persistent” or “forever” pollutants because

once they enter the environment, they cannot be degraded (destroyed) by natural
25
chemical, photolytic or biological agents. Thus, they can be transported for
centuries through every section of the biosphere, often entering and accumulating
in the bodies of human beings and other animals where they cause health
problems. Because they are indestructible, one POPs enter a food chain, they are
“biomagnified” with time, having negative impacts on the health of all living
organisms in the food chain.

2.6 The Fate of Pollutants in the Atmosphere

In the earth’s atmosphere, majority of the pollutants that occur are particulates,
gases and hydrocarbons which can be disposed of easily by biological processes
and agents in water bodies and land surfaces. These biological processes usually
involve water. Unfortunately for us, most pollutants escape into the atmosphere
where they cannot be degraded by biological processes. In the atmosphere carbon
monoxide is oxidized to carbon dioxide. Many hydrocarbons are also oxidized to
yield carbon dioxide and water. Similarly, nitrous, and nitric oxides are changed to
nitrogen dioxide (Marland et al., 2005). These oxides often dissolve in tiny
droplets of water or thin films of water on aerosol surfaces to yield their
corresponding acids. When ammonia is present in the atmosphere, it readily
dissolves in water to form ammonium hydroxide. A range of chemical reactions
occur on aerosol surfaces in the atmosphere between these reactants. Aerosols
containing other constituents such as chlorides, carbonates and other salts also take
part in the atmospheric reactions (Fuggle, 2004). Depending on quantities of
various constituents present in the atmosphere and the extent of atmospheric
reactions, aerosols containing various acids (such as carbonic, nitric and sulphuric
acids) and their salts (such as carbonates, nitrates and sulphates) are formed. Under
the action of gravity, wind and atmospheric pressure, these acids and salts fall to
26
the ground as acid rains, snows or dews. Gases present in amounts larger than
those needed to saturate the carrying medium (Water) are left in the atmosphere
(Milton, 2005).

2.7 Air Pollution in Nigeria

Currently, atmospheric pollution is a significant problem in Nigeria in general, and

Enugu city in particular. This problem is most severe in metropolitan areas where
inefficient combustion of fuels in transportation systems generates high levels of
localized air pollution. The rapid increase in importation of second-hand cars and
the widespread adoption of the single-engine “okada” and “keke napep” motor-
cycles for transporting passengers all over Nigerian cities have exacerbated our
levels of air pollution. It has been reported that motor vehicles produce more air
pollution than any other single human activity (World Resources Institute, 1992).
Almost 50% of global Carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxide
emissions come from burning of gasoline and diesel in engines. In major Nigerian
cities such as Abuja and Lagos, especially on highly-congested streets, traffic can
generate as much as 90 to 95 percent of ambient carbon monoxide levels, 80 to 90
percent of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons, and a significant portion of the
particulate matter in the atmosphere, posing a significant threat to human health
and natural resources (Savile, 1993). Nigeria’s heavy reliance on biomass materials
as a primary source of energy in domestic settings, especially by citizens with very
low incomes, has also been identified as partly responsible for a variety of health
problems suffered by Nigerians, particularly among women.

Industrial energy use contributes to the overall level of air pollution. In this regard,
gas flaring in oil-producing regions of the country represent perhaps the most

27
pernicious form of atmospheric pollution in Nigeria. This has heightened the level
of airborne emissions of such pollutants as sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide and
nitrogen oxides, all of which pose serious health hazards in urban areas. It is
claimed that Nigeria’s carbon dioxide emissions from industrial processes
(estimated at 96,513 million metric tons in 1992) was the highest in sub-Saharan
Africa, excluding the Republic of South Africa. The emission from flared gas
alone accounted for more than one half of this figure. Ever since the discovery of
oil in Nigeria in the 1950’s, the country has been suffering the negative
environmental consequences of oil development. The growth of the country’s oil
industry, combined with a population explosion and a lack of environmental
regulation, led to substantial damage to Nigeria’s environment especially in the
Niger Delta region, the center of the country’s oil industry (Oyekunle, 1999). The
country also faces environmental challenges from air pollution and desertification,
with the encroachment of the Sahara Desert in north and severe air pollution in
overcrowded cities such as Kaduna, Lagos, and Abuja (Ifeanyichukwu, 2002). The
Niger Delta’s main environmental challenges result from oil spillage, gas flaring
and deforestation. Gas flaring is the one the hottest environmental issues in
Nigeria. Flaring is the controlled burning of the waste natural gas associated with
oil production (Bassal, 1981).

In Nigeria, from the release of large concentrations of oxides of nitrogen and

sulphur in the Niger delta environment it is glaring that cases of acid rain have
occurred in the region. Although literature is scarce in this area, it is obvious the
phenomenon continues to occur. Olobaniyi and Efe (2007) have demonstrated
elevated levels of lead (0.56 mg/L) and low pH values ranging from 5.10-6.35 in
rain water collected in Warri and its environs. Akpoborie et al. (2000) also reported
low pH values from water obtained from shallow hand dug wells in Ughelli, Warri

28
and Okurekpo, all in the oil-producing Delta State. Most combustion processes
lead to the release of oxides of nitrogen and lower fractions of hydrocarbons and in
the presence of UV radiation the resultant smog could lead to a decrease in
visibility. Although not often reported, this is a common phenomenon in regions
like the Niger Delta which have large hydrocarbon deposits and very large
numbers of petroleum combustion processes.

Roughly 45.8 billion Kw of heat are discharged into the atmosphere of the Niger-
Delta from 1.8 billion ft3 of gas everyday (Aaron, 2006). Ogbuigwe (1998)
reported that temperatures produced at flare sites could be as high as 1,600°C.
Temperatures as high as 400°C at an average distance of 43.8 m from flare sites in
Isoko, Delta State have also been recorded. Studies by Alakpodia (1980, 1995)
showed that flaring of petroleum has negative effects on vegetation growth, animal
life and ecological equilibrium in the Niger Delta area. Heat generated by flaring
kills vegetation around the heated area. It suppresses the growth of flowering
plants, reduces agricultural productivity, and significantly reduces availability of
wild life.

The occurrence of acid rain in the Nigerian environment has increased the
corrosion rate of roofing sheets, monuments, domestic accommodations, and other
economic structures. In the Niger delta, there is glaring evidence of the impacts of
corrosion on many structures.

2.8 The Most Common Causes of Air Pollution.

2.8.1 Combustion of Biomass

Apart from petroleum products, the most common fuels used in cooking in Nigeria
are biomass such as firewood (and charcoal), bamboo trunks, coal, and dead
29
leaves. These are mainly used in rural areas. Out of these, the most frequently used
is firewood. These fuel woods are frequently logged from nearby bushes and
forests or are collected as dead branches near residential areas by women and
sometimes children and are used to generate energy for cooking. The combustion
of firewood releases gaseous pollutants and particulate matter. The gaseous
pollutants from cooking emissions are carbon monoxide CO, carbon dioxide CO 2,
sulphur dioxide SO2, nitrogen dioxide NO2, volatile organic compounds VOCs and
particulate matter. The particulate matter generated is in the form of carbon black,
sooth and fly ash which are major components of smoke and are most often within
the 10μm size range.

2.8.2 Burning of Refuse

Refuse disposal is a major environmental problem in Nigeria, especially in the

urban areas. Refuse is generated by multiple sources including domestic,
municipal, agricultural, and industrial activities. Large populations of Nigerians
incorrectly believe that one of the most environmentally friendly options for
disposing of refuse is open burning, either on nearby lands or open refuse dumps
within the residential areas. The nature of air pollutants released from refuse
dumps depends on the composition of the refuse, age of the dump and intensity of
flames. Often, the air within refuse burning sites is saturated with VOCs, CO, SO,
NO, Total Hydrocarbons (THCs), as well as various classes of toxic and hazardous
compounds such as Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), dioxins, furans,
Polychloro Biphenyls (PCBs) and heavy metals such as lead, nickel and mercury.
Refuse burning is by far the most frequent used method of refuse disposal in
Nigeria and it is a major cause of air pollution.

30
 2.8.3 Emissions from Traffic

Globally, more than 600 million people are exposed to hazardous level of traffic-
generated pollutants (United Nation, 1998). Human exposure to these air pollutants
poses severe health problems, especially in urban areas where pollution levels are
on the increase. Pollution resulting from traffic emissions constitutes up to 90 –
95% of the ambient CO levels, 80-90% of NO, hydrocarbon and particulate matter
in the world, posing a serious threat to human health (Savile, 1993). Unfortunately,
in Nigeria more attention is given to industrial pollution and pollution from the oil
industries than the effects of air pollution from mobile transportation sources
(Faboya, 1997). Pollution from mobile (non-point) sources is on the increase with
a per capita increase in vehicle ownership among Nigerians. This has resulted in
the congestion of most Nigerian city roads and a corresponding increase in the
burden of air pollutants and their associated effects. Research conducted by Akpan
and Ndoke, (1999) in Northern Nigeria showed higher values of CO 2
concentrations (1780 – 1840 ppm) in heavily congested areas in Kaduna and (1160
– 1530 ppm) in Abuja. A study of the impacts of urban road transportation on the
ambient air was conducted by Osuntogun and Koku (1999) in three cities in south
western Nigeria. Air quality indicators (namely CO, SO 2, NO2) and Total
Suspended Particulates (TSP) were determined. The highest levels obtained for the
air pollution indicators were CO-233 ppm, SO 2-2.9 ppm and NO2. In Ibadan the
highest levels obtained were CO-271 ppm, SO-1.5 ppm and total particulates 852
ppm. In Lagos, NO2-1.44 ppm and NO2-1.0 ppm. In Ado-Ekiti the highest levels
obtained were CO-317 ppm, NO2-0.6 ppm and SO2-0.8 ppm. These results were
found to be higher than Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) limits
for CO-10 ppm, SO2-0.01 ppm, and NO2-0.04-0.06 ppm. A comparative study of
emission levels in Lagos and the Niger Delta area was reported by Jerome (2000).

31
Two major cities, Port-Harcourt and Warri were considered for the NDA. Results
obtained showed that the concentrations of TSP, NO, SO 2 and CO in Lagos and the
Niger Delta communities were above FEPA’s recommended limits. The CO levels
for Lagos 10-250ppm were higher than the levels (5.0-61.0 and 1.0-52ppm)
recorded in two selected communities in the Niger Delta. The TSP concentrations
were also high for both locations when compared to WHO standards.

At the National level, available data on the total number of vehicles registered in
Nigeria shows an increase from 38,000 to 1.6 million between 1950 and 1992
(Enemari, 2001). Data from the Federal Road Safety Commission (FRSC) of
Nigeria however, indicates that between 1999 and 2004, roughly six million
vehicles (6,000,000) were registered in Nigeria, out of which 70% of the registered
vehicles were cars and 30% busses and trucks. The reason for the large increase of
registered vehicles in 1999 was the deadline given for the registration of all
vehicles in the country by FRSC. The subsequent years indicate vehicles coming in
for the first time into the country.

The increase recorded in 2002 was the climax due to favourable government
policies on importation of fairly-used vehicles at the inception of democratic rule
in Nigeria. Although there was a decline in 2004, it is obvious that numbers of
vehicles travelling Nigeria’s roads had continued to rise. In Lagos alone, about
223,764 vehicles were registered in 2008 compared to 160,134 vehicles registered
in 2007. In addition, in the first quarter of 2009 more than 58,000 vehicles were
registered and a total of 27,587 motorcycles were also registered between July
2006 and July 2009. From the data above, it is obvious that average concentrations
of pollutants emitted by motor vehicles and motorcycles in Nigeria is in the rise.

32
 2.8.4 Bush Burning

Bush burning is a common human activity in Nigeria. Quite often, the bushes are
burned prior to cultivation of land, as one of the initial steps of land preparation.
Culturally, this is part of the pre-planting preparation. The process of bush burning
leads to the release of various types of gaseous pollutants and particulate matter.
Most often, flue gases from bush burning is saturated with volatile organics and
oxides of carbon (CO), Sulphur (SO) and nitrogen (NO), depending on the
composition of fuels used and intensity of the flames. Particulate matter usually
within the 10μm size range (PM10) is often generated during the burning process.

2.8.5 Emissions from Industries

Apart from Lagos (which was the former political capital of Nigeria, but still
regarded as Nigeria’s economic capital), the most industrialized part of the country
is the Niger Delta Area. The region has large numbers of oil and non-oil related
industries including three petroleum refineries, petrochemical, liquefied natural
gas, chemical fertilizer, aluminum smelting, paper, cement, flour, wood, battery,
and textile industries, to mention a few. These industries all emit various kinds of
air pollutants. Pollution from these industries adds to the burden of gaseous and
particulate pollutants in the air, from transportation and domestic sources. In the
era of textile industries in Kaduna, there was a high level of air pollution in areas
around the industries.

i. Chemical Fertilizer Industries: The chemical fertilizer industry in Nigeria

is still in its infant stage. It utilizes a variety of raw materials such as natural
or synthetic gas (methane), ammonia from petroleum refining, atmospheric

33
 nitrogen, steam, and sand (as a filler material) in the production of various
formulations.
ii. Refineries and Petrochemical Industries: Nigeria is a country endowed
with large reserves with crude oil. In the late nineties, there were three
functional refineries where Nigeria’s crude oil was refined. These refineries,
which are partially operational today, were a major cause of air pollution in
the country. It is especially so as they are located within residential areas in
Port Harcourt, Kaduna, and Warri.
iii. Gas Flaring: According to Cedigaz (2000), Nigeria holds the highest record
(19.79%) of natural gas flaring globally and is responsible for about 46% of
Africa’s total gas flared per tonne of oil produced. By 2007, there were more
than 123 flaring sites across the country, making Nigeria one of the highest
emitters of greenhouse gases in Africa (Uyigue and Agho, 2007). Similarly,
analytical assessment of the statistical bulletin of the Central Bank of
Nigeria (2004) showed that the average rate of gas flaring in Nigeria during
the period 1970 – 1979 stood at 97%, while 97 and 95% were flared between
1980, 1989 and 1990 to 1999, respectively. Between 2000 and 2004, 51%
was flared. Similarly, between 1970 and 2004 Nigeria has flared an average
of 76% of the total gas produced. Much of the natural gas extracted in oil
wells in the Niger Delta is immediately flared into the environment at a rate
that approximates 70 million m 3 per day. This is equivalent to 40% of
Africa’s natural gas consumption and forms the single largest source of
greenhouse gas emissions on the planet (Moffat and Linden, 1995). Most
flare sites and pollutant concentrations are in the Niger Delta region.
iv. Explosions of Oil Pipelines: In Nigeria, explosions of pipelines repeatedly
occur, either by sabotage or by accident. In the Niger Delta region, most
pipeline explosions are intentional acts of sabotage and are often
34
 accompanied by fire outbreaks. Flames and smoke these fire outbreaks
release large concentrations of hazardous gaseous substances and
particulates. These substances in most cases include CO, CO 2, SOX, NOX,
VOCs, THCs, carbon black, heavy metal particulates and soot.

2.9 Effects of Air Pollution

Air pollution has had far-reaching negative impacts on the health and comfort of
all Nigerians.

2.9.1 Effects on Weather, Climate and Atmospheric Processes

Broadly speaking, air pollution causes two major problems:

a. Alterations of Weather and Climate

b. Contamination of the Upper Atmosphere
Air pollution has significantly affected local weather conditions across Nigeria.
This is apparent in the change in durations and intensity of rainy and dry
(harmattan) seasons. Recently, the radiation of heat from the sun has had a
scorching effect and experts believe it is as a result of the accumulation of greater
amounts of greenhouse gases (such as CO 2) in the atmosphere. The warming effect
resulting from this phenomenon can drastically affect the comfort and the
habitability of urban environments in Nigeria. Also, the increasing abundance of
particulate matter in the atmosphere over Nigeria may be responsible for changes
in our local our rainfall patterns. For instance, there is a notable increase in
precipitation in and around Nigeria’s major cities, which might be a consequence
of particulate air pollutants in the atmosphere which cause seeding of heavy rain
clouds. The ability of particulates to seed heavy rain clouds over major cities might

35
also be one of several factors responsible for major cases of flooding in northern
states of Nigeria in recent years.

Beyond the boundaries of Nigeria, air pollution causes weather changes on a

continental and global scale. Gaseous pollutants, particulate materials and fine
aerosols that are generated inside Nigeria constantly enter the upper atmosphere,
where they affect the penetration and absorption of sunlight. Current
environmental research indicates that increasing particulate pollution reduces the
amount of sunlight reaching the earth’s surface, consequently lowering solar
radiation energy at the earth’s surface.

2.9.2 Effects on Human Health

Apart from the skin, the first organs in the human body that encounter harmful air
pollutants are in respiratory system. The human respiratory system begins at the
nasal cavity (nostrils), continues through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi
(the Passage of air, and reaches the lungs. Mucus covers the mucous epithelium.
The trachea and the bronchi contain cilia which help to eliminate foreign
substances (such as air pollutants). In addition, there are alveolar macrophages of
phagocyte in the alveolar of the lungs, which exchange Carbon dioxide for oxygen.

When human beings inhale a variety of air pollutants, the largest particulates are
trapped and caught hair and mucus in the nasal cavity. Unfortunately, the smallest
particulates (with diameters of 10μm or less) can pass through the human nasal
cavity without being caught, reaching the trachea and/or the alveolar where they
begin to cause significant damage. Also, most gaseous pollutants can enter the
human respiratory system without any hinderance. Of these, SO 2 (which is soluble
in water) is readily absorbed in the upper airways of our respiratory systems,

36
causing chronic bronchitis or asthma. Conversely, O 3, NOX and other insoluble
gases penetrate deep into the human lungs, causing health problems such as
chronic bronchitis, pulmonary emphysema, and aggravating asthma. In addition,
whenever Carbon monoxide encounters haemoglobin contained in blood in the
alveoli, it interrupts the transportation of oxygen by blood, because CO has an
ability to easily combine with haemoglobin, much more easily than oxygen can.

The abovementioned respiratory diseases caused by air pollution are collectively

called Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases (COPD). Another major disease
which is often caused by air pollution is lung cancer. It is however important to
note that these diseases are not only caused by air pollutants; there are other
possible causes. Because of an absence of data, specific diseases caused by air
pollutants in various regions of Nigeria and numbers of affected people are not
usually known. There are a variety of other health effects of air pollution, including
low birth weights and nutritional deficiency in children, interstitial lung disease,
chronic obstructive lung disease, tuberculosis, cardiovascular disease, and
cataracts, among others.
2.9.3 Effects on Vegetation
Pollutants suspended in air, as well as pollutants rained down in bulk (acid rain)
frequently causes damages to forests, grasslands, and agricultural crops alike. Poor
annual yields of food crops can be traced to factors such as increased acidity of
agricultural land (caused by acidic rain) and damage to the leaves and tubers of
crops. Two major culprits involved in this problem are Sulphur dioxide (SO 2) and
Hydrogen fluoride (HF), released from large point sources (industries) as well as
transportation. Damage to plants can be extensive near urban areas, where there are
multitudes of mobile sources of pollution.

37
 2.9.4 Effects on Physical Structures

Air pollution does not only affect the health and comfort of living organisms such
as plants and human beings; it also extends to man-made structures such as
residential buildings, office buildings, road networks, bridges, and so on. More
than others, structures constructed using metals can be corroded by acidic
pollutants in air and rain, reducing their structural integrity. Over long periods, this
can have a cumulative effect on structures, especially those of cultural and
historical value which cannot be replaced once damaged. Ultimately, the damage
caused to man-made structures by air pollutants take a toll on an economy, for
instance through repeated construction of damaged public property. In Nigeria, it is
important to identify and investigate the effects of air pollution on structures and
cultural properties, to evaluate the economic loss and take preventive measures
(improve the maintenance of public assets).

2.9.5 Effects on Visibility

The intensity of light from the sun reduces when it is absorbed and scattered by
aerosols and other particulates in the atmosphere. This absorption of sunlight
increases with an increase in quantities of air pollutants and water vapour in the
atmosphere (caused by global warming, which increase evaporation of moisture
from the earth’s surfaces). At the ground level, an increase in particulate air
pollution results in a reduction in visibility, often seen in major cities around the
world. The main causes of reduction in visibility from air pollution are aerosols
and gases in the atmosphere, but visibility conditions can differ greatly as a result
of other atmospheric conditions such as high humidity, optical characteristics of

38
the target and the strength and distribution of sunlight at the time in question.
While man-made air pollution can cause low visibility (such as in cases of
photochemical smog in large cities), natural air pollutants such as dusts can also
significantly degrade visibility. An example is seen in Harmattan dust which at
peak periods can reduce visibility in most parts of northern Nigeria. Whenever air
pollution incidents are severe, the atmosphere appears to be hazy or coloured. The
colour often varies, depending on the kind of air pollutants involved. For instance,
air pollution appears as a black haze (recently seen in several oil-producing regions
of southern Nigeria) when it is are result of soot from the burning of fossil fuels.
Likewise, the haze may have a whitish hue when it is due to photochemical
pollution.

2.10 Regulation and Control of Air Pollution by the Nigerian Government

An examination of Nigeria’s environmental laws before 1969 reveals a disturbing

absence of any kind of statutory regulations aimed at protecting the environment
from industrial pollution. However, following the dumping of toxic waste in Koko
(a seaport in Delta State) in 1988, the Nigerian government rose to the challenge of
dealing with problems of environmental degradation. Since then, efforts have been
aimed at sustaining the environment. One of the first steps taken was the
promulgation of the Harmful Waste (Special Criminal Provisions), Decree 42 in
November 1988. This decree prohibits the purchase, sale, importation,
transmission, transportation, and storage of harmful wastes in the country. It was
followed a month later by Decree Number 58 of 30 th December, 1988 which
established a body now known as the Federal Environmental Protection Agency
(FEPA).

39
The decree also provides for the formulation of national environmental standards
on air quality and protection of the atmosphere, water quality, effluent limitations,
noise control, discharge of hazardous substances and related offences. Within the
ambit of this decree, FEPA is expected to cooperate with the Ministry of Petroleum
Resources (Petroleum Resources Department) on the removal of oil related
pollutants discharged into the Nigerian environment. The Decree also Empowers
FEPA to inspect, search, seize and arrest offenders. It also provides for general
penalties for individuals as well as companies and firms found to be liable. While a
convicted individual is liable to a fine not exceeding N20,000.00 or to
imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 years (or in some cases both), a corporate
body found liable would be required to pay a fine of not exceeding N500, 000.00,
compensation commensurate with the breach thereof and restoration of the
polluted area to an acceptable level as approved by the agency. The Ministry of
Petroleum Resources, through various petroleum Acts and subsidiary legislation
bears the responsibility of ensuring that the petroleum industry carried out its
activities safely and in an environmentally-sound manner. However, considering
the state of air pollution and other environmental degradations in Nigeria, it is
obvious that the government has a lot more work to do in enforcing these
regulations. There is a troubling increase of air pollution cases in Nigeria, from the
domestic level of petrol and diesel-powered generator sets (which most households
and businesses in the country use) to the level of large-scale air pollution occurring
in Nigeria’s oil industry. Domestic air pollution from generator sets occurs because
central power generation in Nigeria does provide sufficient electricity to ensure a
steady supply to the country’s large population. In addition, in every region of
Nigeria there are no closed waste incinerators (with air pollution control devices),
and trucks for transporting waste to be incinerated do not cover every area of the
country. Often, preference is given to highbrow areas of major cities in the
40
country, leaving others to take care of their waste themselves. The consequence of
this is dumping (in most cases along major roads) of large heaps of waste for open
burning, and this causes severe air pollution across Nigeria. One possible solution
is to increase efforts to recycle waste.

2.11 Gaps in Literature

Previous research on pollution in Nigeria has mainly focused on major industrial
centers like Port Harcourt and Lagos, especially oil-producing regions in the Niger
Delta. In addition, the focus of pollution research in Nigerian cities has mainly
been on other forms of pollution, including soil pollution and water pollution (for
instance, oil spills on rivers and land in the Niger Delta. There is very limited
information on air pollution in smaller commercial cities in Nigeria, such as
Enugu.

Therefore, in this work, the researcher aims to fill this gap by focusing on causes
and effects of air pollution on the health, environment, and local economy of
Enugu City.

CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
In this chapter, methods used to obtain and analyze research data have been
described. As a result of the limitations of the study (mentioned in Chapter One),
41
the strengths and weaknesses of the data collection methods are also mentioned.
Some measures were taken before collection of data, such as the validation and
reliability of the research instrument. These preparatory measures are presented in
this chapter.

3.2 Research Design

A survey research design was used in this research. In a survey research design,
respondents are asked questions and the information received from them was
analyzed. For the data collected to be valid, a representative sample of the
population must be asked questions at a single point in time to be able do know the
current status of the population in respect to one or more variables being
investigated. To be able to do this, a questionnaire survey as well as an
observational survey was used in this study.

3.3 Sources of Data

Two main sources of data were used in this research. They were Primary Sources
and Secondary Sources.

Primary sources of data included:

a) Questionnaires
b) Personal observations made during field surveys.

Secondary sources of data included: Published academic papers, theses, journal

articles, seminars, and textbooks.

3.4 Study Population

42
Enugu City is the study area in this research work. This large urban area consists of
three local government areas (L.G.A.s) and nine principal districts. Some of the
principal districts include Uwani, Coal Camp (Ogbaete), Trans-Ekulu, Uwani,
Achala layout, Independence Layout, New heaven, and Ogui, among others.

In the national population census conducted in 2006, the population of Enugu city
was estimated at 772,664 and this was projected to increase to 910,003 by 2014, at
an average growth rate of 3% for all urban areas in the country.

The Taro Yamane method is a popular and effective way of calculating sample
sizes for populations to be studied. Taro Yamane’s formula was used to determine
the sample size in this work:

n = N
----------------
1 + N (e)2

Where:
n is the sample size
N is the population size
e is the level of significance
In this work, N = 910,003 and e= 0.05 level of significance.
Applying these values to the formula, we get:
n = 910003
------------------------
1 + 910,003(0.05)2

n = 910003
-------------

43
 2275

n = 400.001
Thus, 400 is the sample size used in this work.

3.5 Sampling Techniques

Four hundred respondents were selected in Enugu city, by a stratified random
sampling technique. To accomplish this, this large study area of Enugu was
divided into 8 districts. Inside these 8 districts, locations were randomly selected.
From these selected locations, intervals of 4 individuals were systematically
selected and questionnaires were given to them to answer.

400 semi-structured questionnaires were given to the selected respondents to fill

completely. These questionnaires were easy to understand and were designed to
collect bio data of the respondents, as well as information on activities in their
locality which result in combustion (source of air pollution), how often such
activities occur, how these activities affect their health, and so on. Descriptive
statistics involving averages and percentages were used to analyze data received
from the respondents. A total of 400 respondents provided information.

3.6 Research Instrument

The instrument used in gathering data in this research was a semi-structured
questionnaire. In addition, respondents were interviewed in person, to determine all
activities causing air pollution in their neighborhoods. These respondents were also
aware of health problems among the general population in their area, which may
be attributed to air pollution. These questionnaires were written in simple
sentences (easy to understand), and they contained twenty (20) questions in an

44
open and close format which was related to this study. The goal of the research
instrument was to determine real scenarios existing in the study area where the
respondents live and work, especially from people whose activities often result in
air pollution.

3.7 Instrument Validation

‘Validity’ is said to occur when an instrument successfully measures what it is

designed to measure. The content of this research instrument was shown to experts
to examine, to verify its appropriateness before it was used a tool for gathering a
lot of data.

The ‘reliability’ of a research instrument is how consistently it measures what it is

designed to measure. Several copies of the questionnaire were given to some
respondents outside the study area. These respondents outside the study area were
interviewed based on the aims and objectives of this research. Results obtained
from them were used to draw conclusions based on the laid out aims and objectives
of this research.

3.8 Methods of Data Analysis

Statistical methods used in this study included descriptive calculations of the

Mean, Standard Deviation, Frequency, T-tests, and Percentages. Results obtained
from the questionnaires were presented as percentages, with frequencies tabulated.
In this format, results were discussed based on aims and objectives mentioned in
the first chapter of this report.

45
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

46
In this chapter, results from the research are presented. As previously mentioned,
descriptive statistics was used to calculate and compile the results in tables. The
analyzed data was interpreted and discussed in terms of frequency of occurrence.
All data presented in this chapter have been analyzed based on the aims and
objectives listed in Chapter One.

4.1 Bio Data of Respondents

The tables below provide information on respondents sampled in this study.

Table 4.1: Distribution of Gender Among Respondents

GENDER FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE

Male 300 75

Female 100 25

TOTAL 400 100

Source: Field work carried out by researcher in 2023.

In Table 4.1 above, the proportion of men and women who were interviewed
during the survey is shown. This demographic data shows that the majority of
respondents were male (75%), while a smaller percentage (25%) were female.

Table 4.2: Distribution of Age among the respondents

AGE FREQUENCY PERCENT

18-27 41 10
28-37 155 39

47
 38-47 80 20
48-57 105 26
58 and above 19 5
TOTAL 400 100
Source: Field work carried out by researcher in 2023.

In table 4.2 above, age distributions of respondents are shown. The data shows that
the largest percentage of respondents (39%) were people between the ages of 28 to
37 years, who are adults with good first-hand knowledge of sources of pollution in
their locality of Enugu city, and who are also aware of prevailing health effects in
among residents of their neighborhoods. From the age distribution of all
respondents sampled, it is obvious that all ages can provide information on
pollution they have witnessed in the study area.

Table 4.3: Educational Statuses of respondents

EDUCATIONAL FREQUENCY PERCENT

STATUSES
No formal education 9 2
Incomplete primary 15 4
school
Complete primary 122 30
Secondary School 186 47
Tertiary education 68 17
Total 400 100
Source: Field work carried out by researcher in 2023.

48
From the data obtained using questionnaires, it is evident that majority of
respondents can read and write in English language. In fact, the percentages in
Table 4.3 shows that most of them had attained secondary school education. This
indicates that they can understand the causes of air pollution and its potential
effects on health of people exposed to it.

4.2 Causes of air pollution in Enugu City (Objective 1)

Table 4.4: Responses on Causes of Air Pollution in Enugu City

Causes of air Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly Total

pollution Disagree Agree
Transportation 20 10 90 280 400
Industrial 15 30 150 205 400
activities
Construction 67 53 100 180 400
activities
Residential & 17 90 207 86 400
commercial
activities
Agricultural 170 130 39 61 400
activities
Natural 70 78 127 125 400
phenomena
Source: Field work carried out by researcher in 2023.

49
In table 4.4, causes of air pollution in Enugu city are shown. To improve
understanding, this was then converted to percentages, as shown in the table
below:

Table 4.5: Causes of Air Pollution in Enugu in Percentages

Causes of air Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly Total

pollution disagree agree
Transportation 5 2 23 70 100
Industrial 4 7 38 51 100
activities
Construction 17 13 25 45 100
activities
Residential & 4 23 52 21 100
commercial
activities
Agricultural 42 33 10 15 100
activities
Natural 18 19 32 31 100
phenomena
Source: Field work carried out by researcher in 2023.

In Table 4.5 above, the information provided by respondents on causes of air

pollution in their areas of Enugu city is shown. The data shows that majority of the
respondents (70% strongly agreed, 23% agreed) that transportation is a primary
cause of air pollution in Enugu city. They also pointed out other causes of air

50
pollution, including Industrial Activities (51% strongly agreed, 38% agreed),
Construction Activities (45% strongly agreed, 25% agreed), Residential and
Commercial activities (52%% strongly agreed, 21% agreed) and Natural
Phenomena (31% strongly agreed, 32% agreed). However, it is important to note
that many respondents disagreed when they were asked if Agricultural Activities
cause air pollution in Enugu city (42% strongly disagreed, 33% disagreed).

4.3 Effects of Air Pollution in Enugu city (Objective 2 and 3)

Table 4.6: Responses on Effects of Air Pollution in Enugu city

Effects of Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly Total

indiscriminat disagree agree
e dumping of
waste
Respiratory 20 11 270 99 400
problems
Cardiovascular 50 31 200 119 400
problems
Cancer 112 97 91 100 400
Reduced life 60 48 200 92 400
span
Climate 174 67 59 100 400
change
Environmental 79 57 157 107 400
damage

51
Source: Field work carried out by researcher in 2023.

In table 4.6 above, effects of air pollution in Enugu city are shown. For better
understanding, this data was converted to percentages, as shown n Table 4.7
below:

Table 4.7 Responses on Effects of Air Pollution in Enugu city in Percentages

Effects of air Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly Total

pollution disagree agree
Respiratory 5 3 67 25 100
problems
Cardiovascular 12 8 50 30 100
problems
Cancer 28 24 23 25 100
Reduced life 15 12 50 23 100
span
Climate 43 17 15 25 100
change
Environmental 20 14 39 27 100
damage
Source: Field work carried out by researcher in 2023.

From data in the table above, it is evident that Respiratory Problems are the main
effect of air pollution in Enugu city (67% agreed, 25% strongly agreed). Other
health effects included Cardiovascular Problems (50% agreed, 30% strongly
agreed), Reduced Life Span (50% agreed, 23% strongly agreed) and Cancers (28%
agreed, 24% strongly agreed). It is important to note that many respondents did not
believe that Environmental Damage (39% disagreed, 27% strongly disagreed) and
52
Climate Change (43% disagreed, 17% strongly disagreed) are effects of air
pollution in Enugu city.

4.4 Ways to Reduce Air Pollution (Objective 4)

Table 4.8: Responses on Ways to Reduce Air Pollution in Enugu City

Ways to Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly Total

Reduce Disagree agree
Air
Pollution
Regulate 68 51 137 144 400
industrial
emissions
Implement 73 67 115 145 400
clean
energy
solution
Educate 62 63 125 150 400
the public
Monitor 90 79 110 121 400
air quality
Increase 56 60 121 163 400
green
space
Source: Field work carried out by researcher in 2023.

53
For clearer understanding, the information in Table 4.8 was converted to
percentages, as shown in Table 4.9 below:

Table 4.9 Responses on Ways to Reduce Air Pollution in Enugu City.

Strategies Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly Total

to adopt Disagree Agree
to reduce
air
pollution
Regulate 17 13 34 36 100
industrial
emissions
Implemen 18 17 29 36 100
t clean
energy
solution
Educate 16 15 32 37 100
the public
Monitor 23 19 28 30 100
air
Increase 14 15 30 41 100
green
space
Source: Field work carried out by researcher in 2023.

Based on their knowledge of the study area, respondents pointed out some possible
ways of reducing air pollution in the region. Respondents proposed that Regulating

54
Industrial Emissions (34% agreed, 36% strongly agreed), Educating the Public
(32% agreed, 37% strongly agreed), Implementing clean energy solutions (29%
agreed, 36% strongly agreed), Monitoring Air Quality (28% agreed, 30% strongly
agreed) and Increasing Green Spaces (30% agreed, 41% strongly agreed) are all
good methods of reducing air pollution in Enugu.

4.5 Testing Hypotheses

As previously mentioned in Chapter One, two hypotheses were posed to assess the
objectives of this study:

H0: There is no relationship between air pollution in Enugu city and the health
conditions of people living in the area.

H1: There is a relationship between air pollution in Enugu city and health
conditions of people living in the area.

In this work, the Pearson product-moment correlation was used to test the two
hypotheses, using computer-aided software called SPSS version 21. The Pearson
product moment correlation measures correlations between two or more variables
(r). It also shows the degree of linear relationships between two sets of data.

The equation for Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation (r) is:

r = (n (∑xy)- (∑x)(∑y))/(√ [n ∑x2-(∑x)2][n ∑y2– (∑y)2)

Where:

r = value of the correlation coefficient

Xi = ith value of X variables
X = mean of X

55
Yi = ith value of Y variables
Y = Mean of Y
n = number of pairs of observation of X and Y

Table 4.10: Correlations:

Air pollution Air Quality

Pearson correlation -1 .782

Air pollution Sig.(2- 0.00

tailed)
N 400 400
Pearson correlation .
782 -1

Air quality Sig. ( 2- .

tailed) 000

N 400 400

Decision rule:

(i) +1 means that there is a perfect positive linear relationship between the two
variables. It also signifies that for every positive increase in one variable,
there is a corresponding positive increase of a fixed proportion in the other
variable.
(ii) -1 means that there is a perfect negative linear relationship between the two
variables. It also signifies that for every positive increase in one variable,
there is a negative decrease of a fixed proportion in the other variable.
(iii) A correlation of 0.00 - 0.19 is a ‘very weak’ correlation.

56
(iv) A correlation of 0.20 - 0.39 is a ‘weak’ correlation.
(v) A correlation of 0.40 - 0.59 is a ‘moderate’ correlation.
(vi) A correlation of 0.60 - 0.79 is a ‘strong’ correlation.
(vii) A correlation of 0.80 - 1.0 is a ‘very strong’ correlation.

Source: correlation guide, Evans (1996)

Explanation of hypothesis output or result

(a) There is a perfect negative linear relationship i.e. (-1) between quarrying
activities, natural environment and means of livelihood as being shown in the
hypothesis result. This result establishes a relationship between these variables.
(b) There is also a strong correlation between these variables (Air pollution and
Air quality) i.e. (0.782), which is even beyond moderate correlation (0.40-
0.59).

Therefore, since the computed value between the two variables is greater than
the moderate correlation, i.e. (0.782 > 0.40 - 0.59), the two hypotheses are
assessed as follows:

H0: There is no relationship between air pollution in Enugu city and the health
conditions of people living in the area. This hypothesis is Rejected.

H1: There is a relationship between air pollution in Enugu city and health
conditions of people living in the area. This hypothesis was Accepted.

57
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

58
Because of its negative impacts on human health and the environment, air
pollution is better prevented than controlled. Therefore, a range of causes and
consequences of air pollution in Enugu city have been identified in this research.

From respondents sampled in the study area, it this research revealed that the most
dominant source of air pollutants in Enugu city was Transportation, maninly from
oil vehicles emitting large quantities smoke and soot from poorly-combusted fuels
like petrol and diesel. High air pollution in the region is a consequence of poor
regulation of emissions from transportation. Other major sources of pollution
identified in the study area included commercial and residential activities,
industrial activities and natural phenomena.

The literature surveyed in this research indicates that there are many challenges
facing air quality monitoring and control in the region. These issues are intertwined
and the most prominent include a lack of monitoring equipment, lack of
infrastructure, inadequate expertise, and a weak policy frame work. Such factors
have been prevented the achievement of the much-desired goals towards
preserving the quality of the ecosystems and safeguarding the health of the public
in the region and Nigeria as a whole.

Although environmental laws have existed in Nigeria since the 1980s, there is
insufficient enforcement of our air pollution regulations. The government of
Nigeria and other relevant institutions must rise to this challenge. Environmental
authorities, such as the National Environmental Standards and Regulations
Enforcement Agency (NESREA) and the Federal Environmental Protection
Agency (FEPA), need to be proactive in identifying and monitoring all sources of
air pollution in Nigeria’s cities, to be able to proffer solutions and enforce them.

59
There is an urgent need to enlighten the Nigerian public on various methods of
reducing air pollution from transportation, industrial, commercial, residential and ,
agricultural sources, especially by using clean and sustainable alternatives to the
burning of fossil fuels. Some of these alternatives are recommended below:

5.2 Recommendations

As a result of extensive research which has been carried out for many decades
around the world, a variety of practical alternatives to the causes of air pollution
now exist. For example, in countries with cold climates where fossil fuels are
burned for space heating, it is now possible to replace this with seasonal thermal
energy storage and ground source heat pumps (The Guardian, 2014). In a similar
way, since the burning of fossil fuels for power generation is a major source of air
pollutants, energy generation from these sources of pollution can be substituted
with renewable sources, such as Wind, Solar, Tidal and Geothermal energy. In
Nigeria for instance, it may be possible for households with average incomes to
reduce their dependence on generator sets (causing air pollution from burning of
gasoline) by using roof-mounted solar electric panels.

To minimize air pollution from fossil fuels and meet targets for reduction of
greenhouse gases, developed countries often use nuclear energy as an alternative
to combustion of coal and petroleum, because it is more efficient and less-
polluting. However, in developing countries like Nigeria where there are no
cheaper alternatives for domestic cooking and energy generation than the burning
of petroleum products, it is possible to reduce regional air pollution by replacing
dirtier fossil fuels (like gasoline and diesel) with relatively cleaner fossil fuels like

60
liquefied natural gas (LNG). This is not an ideal solution, but it can help to reduce
air pollution problems in our cities, on a short-term basis.

Transportation is a major source of air pollution in Enugu city and other similar
urban areas. Ideally, this problem can be reduced by replacing Internal
Combustion Engines (engines that burn fossil fuels like diesel, gasoline, and
aviation kerosene) with Electric Vehicles (EVs) or vehicles that use renewable
fuels such as Bioethanol and Green Hydrogen. However, there are current
limitations to the use of EVs, such as a limited supply of Cobalt, Lithium and
other elements used in manufacturing batteries for electric cars. Another
alternative which can reduce air pollution from transport is to encourage or “herd”
more people into clean public transport, such as large buses and electric trains. The
use of large buses (instead of small cars) reduces the numbers of vehicles on roads,
thereby reducing number of pollutants they can release. Electric trains and other
electric vehicles can reduce air pollution, if the electricity they use is from
renewable sources (such as Wind and Solar energy).

Recently, Titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been studied for its ability to reduce air
pollution from transportation and other sources releasing Nitrogen oxides. TiO 2 is
a naturally-occurring oxide of titanium which has an ability to absorb large
amounts of Nitrogen oxides. A group of researchers at Eindhoven University of
Technology in Netherlands proved this by installing concrete pavings covered
with TiO2 on a road where vehicles constantly released nitrogen oxides. After a
full year of careful study, they found that the titanium oxide coating reduced NO X
air pollution on the street by 19%. This technique can be employed during road
construction in densely populated cities with high NO X emissions (smog) from
transport sources.

61
Biogas can be utilized in poor countries like Nigeria where domestic cooking is
done with firewood and other plant products. Different kinds of plant wastes can
be gathered in large quantities and sold to central waste disposal authorities, who
will use modern bio digesters to break them down to methane (cooking gas),
producing much-needed energy for domestic use.

Indoor air pollution can be reduced by improving ventilation in buildings, as well

as the use of humidifiers. By intentionally inducing humidity in enclosed spaces,
particulate air pollutants are more easily removed from the air, either naturally (by
gravity) or using air filters in the ventilation systems of large buildings.

62
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 APPENDIX

Appendix 1: QUESTIONNAIRE

Dear Sir / Madam,

The aim of this questionnaire is to find out the Causes and Effects of air pollution
in Enugu city. Any information you may provide will be used for study purposes
only, and will be strictly confidential.

I am very grateful for your positive response.

Thank you for your assistance.

Yours sincerely,

Onoduagu, Godswill Kenechukwu

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

1. Please tick your Age in one of the boxes below:

(a) 18 - 27 years [ ] (b) 28 - 37 years [ ] (c) 38 - 47 years [ ]

(d) 48-57 years [ ] (e) 58 and Above [ ]

2. Please tick your Gender (Sex) in one of the boxes below:

(a) Male [ ] (b) Female [ ]

68
3. Please tick your Level of Education in one of the boxes below:

(a) No formal education [ ] (b) Did not complete Primary School [ ]

(c) Completed Primary School [ ] (d) Secondary / Technical grade [ ]

(e) Post-Secondary Education [ ] (f) Others ( e.g. Professional Certificate [ ]

INFORMATION ON CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION IN

ENUGU CITY

1. Causes of Air Pollution in Enugu City:

Please point out the Causes of air pollution in your area, by ticking one box in each
row below:

Cause of air Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly No idea

pollution disagree agree
Transportation

Industrial
activities
Construction
activities
Residential
and
Commercial
activities
Agricultural
activities
Natural
phenomena

69
2. Effects of Air Pollution in Enugu City:

Please point out the Effects of air pollution in your area, by ticking one box in each
row below:
Effect of Air Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly No idea
Pollution disagree agree
Respiratory
problems
Cardiovascular
problems
Cancer
Reduced life
span
Climate change
Environmental
damage

3. Ways to Reduce Air Pollution in Enugu City:

Please tell us how to reduce air pollution in your area, by ticking one box in each
row below:
How to Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly Total
reduce air disagree
pollution agree
Regulate
industrial
emissions
Implement
clean energy
solution
Educate the
public
Monitor air
quality
Increase
green space

70