Digital Copy 16 Oct2020

Cebu Normal University
College of Teacher Education
Educational
Research
Made
A Modular Approach
Easy:
Amelia M. Bonotan, Ph.D.

Geronimo S. Obaob, Jr., Ed.D.
Erwin F. Corales, Ed.D.
Joje Mar P. Sanchez, M.Ed.
Marchee T. Picardal, Ed.D.
Ruby A. Perez, M.A.Ed.
Jo Ann M. Petancio, M.A.Ed.
Cyril A. Cabello, M.A.Ed.
Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach

Cebu Normal University
College of Teacher Education
Educational
Research
Made
A Modular Approach
Easy:
Amelia M. Bonotan, Ph.D.

Geronimo S. Obaob, Jr., Ed.D.
Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach ii

Message from the President
Dr. Filomena T. Dayagbil
Our Dear Students and Faculty,
Today, September 1, 2020, starts the academic rigor as we open the First
Semester of School Year 2020-2021. This class opening is unprecedented as we
begin without seeing each other physically due to the volatile and uncertain times
brought about by the pandemic. We can’t personally exchange stories, meet new
colleagues and classmates, or share a kaleidoscope of events in the campus.
We will miss the usual kumustahan in the faculty rooms and hallways, going from
one classroom to another for our classes, and eating together in the canteen or
in our offices. We’ll yearn for the shared laughter, expressions of annoyance, and
squeals of excitement of people. There are many things we can’t do and we’ll
surely long for, in a learning environment devoid of physical contact. As students,
I am sure you will ask, “Can I acquire the learning I desire in this kind of set-
up? Can I survive in this new learning environment?” For the teachers, you
might say “Can I render quality teaching in this type of modality? How can I
give my level best?” Indeed, there are more questions than answers.
But one thing we can assure you is that Cebu Normal University (CNU) with the
support of the Board of Regents and the Commission on Higher Education
(CHED), has the mechanisms in place to ensure academic continuity and quality
teaching and learning. The journey of the administration, staff, and faculty in
preparing for this school year has been long and arduous. Yet, we cannot say we
have achieved perfection. Everyday, every moment is a learning experience for
all of us to do more and become better. Indeed, no amount of pandemic can
prevent us from pursuing CNU’s mandate of promoting human capital
development through quality education. However, this is a task we can’t do
alone. We need the collaborative effort of everyone. We need your unceasing
dedication, dear teachers. We call for your unwavering commitment, beloved
students.
Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach iii

As we enter into this new chapter, we have to remember three guiding principles
for us to successfully navigate in the first semester amid this health crisis:
1) Protect and Support each other
At this point, we need to be each other’s keeper. Let’s take care of one
another and leave no one behind. As teachers and students, let’s lend a
helping hand for those struggling, whether it be with intermittent
connectivity or a challenging modular activity. Let’s reach out to everyone
and be sensitive and supportive of each other’s social, emotional, and
academic needs.
2) Communicate effectively and thoughtfully
When everyone is isolated physically, let us keep the knot of
connectedness by communicating with one another in any way we can.
Present honest feedback with kindness and listen to concerns with an
open mind. Use social media to build bridges, not walls. Text or call, to
keep relationships alive. Utilize technology to connect with people and
touch base with them.
3) Preserve CNU’s excellence
It’s a privilege to be a part of the University’s tradition of excellence.
Preserve it by doing ordinary things, extraordinarily well and walking the
extra mile. Excellence in this pandemic, is not just about grades,
accolades, and achievements. But, it is a call to give the very best of
ourselves in the responsibilities we have been given. It is seen in the
teacher who acquires new skills to become responsive to the learners’
needs and, in the student, who forges on to work for his or her dreams
despite the challenges of the times.
I am sure that the road ahead is rough and bumpy, but as we implement policies
and new strategies to respond to the challenges of the pandemic, please help us.
We look forward to our continued partnerships as we continue to find solutions to
the problems that are coming our way.
Our CNU family, I am sure that this pandemic has wounded all of us, in more
ways than one. But no woundedness can put down a heart that is determined to
Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach iv

overcome. For more than a hundred years, CNU has overcome and I have
confidence that it shall continue to do so. Let us take inspiration in the knowledge
that we are in this together. CNU is not bound by gates or walls, but rather, CNU
is every student, teacher and employee wherever we may be. CNU is all of us
working together, and becoming stronger to continue thriving, leading, learning
and serving in this New Normal.
With hope, courage, and gratitude in our hearts, let us walk onwards, nurturing
dreams in crimson and gold! Welcome to School Year 2020-2021!
* Reproduced from www.cnu.edu.ph on September 1, 2020
Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach v

Letter to our Dear Students
Good day everyone! Welcome to the new school year 2020-2021 and to
this exciting course Educ 7 Educational Research! How are you and your
families? We hope that you and your families are all fine and safe, with God’s
grace! We also hope that you are all excited to embark on the wonderful journey
of research!!!
This collection of self-instructional modules, authored by the
distinguished professors of Cebu Normal University, College of Teacher
Education, Cebu City, is an innovative flexible learning modality, to confront the
challenges brought about by the COVID 19 pandemic to the Philippines’
educational landscape. It introduces you, dear students, to the adventure of
conducting educational research, to generate new knowledge that will improve
the quality of teaching-learning processes, and address some education related
concerns, or assist learners to grow in resilience, to thrive and flourish in the
midst of many challenges. Hopefully, these modules will deepen your knowledge
of principles and concepts; develop skills and positive attitudes and values
related to the conduct of research, in continuity with what you have learned about
research and investigatory projects in your Senior High School.
The topics to be covered this semester include: understanding the
nature of educational research and its types; research ethics; research problem;
importance of related literature/studies, theoretical underpinning, philosophical
perspectives, technical writing skills such as summarizing and paraphrasing;
language of research, research methodologies and designs; sampling designs,
research procedures, instrumentation; data-gathering, processing and organizing
of data; data analysis, interpretation, making conclusion and recommendations,
catapulting in the sharing of published research articles - as exemplars -
authored by the professors themselves, in CHED accredited, Asian Citation,
Clarivate indexed -journals and other reputable research journals. Together with
research mentoring of your professors, the modules will assist you, dear
students, in your first steps in the conduct of your own group research, in its
Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach vi

dissemination through oral presentations and in the writing of the full paper in
journal article format.
We, the authors, hope that through these modules, dear students, your
journey of conducting educational research would be made easy, exciting and
enjoyable! May these modules, together with the mentoring of your professors
will help ignite in your hearts and minds, the love and passion for research, a
driver of educational reforms and development!
At this point, we would also like to express our special thanks to the
Cebu Normal University administrators and officials, especially to our beloved
University President, Dr. Filomena T. Dayagbil, College of Teacher Education
(CTE) Dean, Dr. Ethel L. Abao, College Chairs – Dr. Venus M. Cortes, Dr. Wilson
T. Ibanez, Dr. Janet A. Mananay. Special thanks also to Mr. Joje Mar P. Sanchez
for the design & lay-out of this collection of modules, and the similarity index
runs!
Most of all, our deep gratitude and love - go to Our Loving One and
Triune God - our constant source of life, strength and wisdom, the Alpha and the
Omega! From the bottom of our hearts, thank you, Lord, for all the blessings and
graces!!! Deo omnis gloria! All for the glory of God!
May God bless us all! May God bless Cebu Normal University!
Cebu City, August 19, 2020
Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Message from the President

Dr. Filomena T. Dayagbil ……………………………………………………… iii
Letter to our Dear Students ……………………………………………........ vi
Course Outline for Educ 7- Educational Research……………………... x
Module 1
Educational Research: Nature, Characteristics, Types
Mrs. Ruby A. Perez …………………………………………………………….. 1
Module 2
Research Ethics
Dr. Amelia M. Bonotan……………………………………………………….. 16
Module 3
Research Problem
Dr. Erwin F. Corales…………………………………………………………… 25
Module 4
Review of Related Literature and Studies
Mr. Cyril A. Cabello …………………………………………………………….. 43
Module 5
Language of Research, Research Methodologies and Designs
Dr. Amelia M. Bonotan ………………………………………………………… 71
Module 6
Sampling Designs
Mr. Joje Mar P. Sanchez ………………………………………………………. 87
Module 7
Research Procedures, Research Tools Construction
Dr. Marchee T. Picardal ……………………………………………………….. 102
Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach viii

Module 8
Data Gathering, Processing, and Organizing: Quantitative &
Qualitative Researches
Mrs. Jo Ann M. Petancio………………………………………………………. 124
Module 9
Data Analysis, Interpretation, Conclusion & Recommendations
Dr. Geronimo S. Obaob, Jr. …………………………………………………… 152
Appendices…………………………………………………………………….. 169
 CNU Research Ethics Committee Research Protocol
 Informed Consent Form
 Guidelines for Preparation of Informed Consent
 Research Agenda
 Research Writing: Publications of Research Papers of Professors in
Clarivate Analytics, CHED-Accredited or ASEAN Citation Index (ACI)
Journals
 Biographical Note of Professors/Authors
Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach ix

COURSE OUTLINE
Education 7: Educational Research

Course Credit: 3 units
Course Outcomes:
 Demonstrate content knowledge of principles, ethics, rigors and processes in

the conduct of educational research
 Conduct educational research in groups of 2-3 members/group under the

guidance of research professor or adviser or mentor: formulate research
problems, justify its significance, gather related literature and studies, choose
appropriate research methodology and research design, procedures of gathering
data, research instrument construction, validation, data collection, organizing of
data, analyzing and interpreting results, conclusion and recommendations,
proper citations and referencing.
 Disseminate research findings through (1) oral presentation and (2) written
research output in a journal article (IMRAD) format
Unit Topic
No.
Unit 0 Overview of the course & its relation of the course to the CNU VMGO
Unit 1 Nature of Educational Research & Types
Elements, characteristics, historical development of research & its impact
in human civilization, scientific approach to problems
Types of research: basic, applied, action; quantitative, qualitative, mixed
Application of scientific approach in confronting problems in one’s life
Unit 2: Research Ethics
Soliciting Informed Consent, Protection from Harm of subject participants,
Benefits outweigh Risks, Respect for Intellectual Property, Confidentiality,
Anonymity, Honesty, Professionalism, Thoroughness; Social order, laws of
the protection of wildlife and endangered species; laws regarding use of
endangered animals in researches; Injustice of plagiarism
Unit 3 Research Problem
Qualities of a Good Problem: Utility, Break-through, Universal vs.
Parochial and Solvability; sources of research problem; Potential sources
of problem, college/department research agenda,
Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) &
role of research mentoring
Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach x

Unit 4 Review of Related Literature and Studies, organizing related literature,
summarizing and paraphrasing, Theoretical Underpinnings, conceptual
framework, use of APA Format in citation, references, summarizing,
paraphrasing to avoid plagiarism
Unit 5 Language of Research, Research Methodologies and designs

variables, operational definition of terms, themes, Theoretical
underpinning, Conceptual Framework, Validity & reliability of research,
Research methodologies: Quantitative, Qualitative, Mixed; Research
designs under Quantitative, Qualitative methodologies
Unit 6 Sampling Designs: probability: simple random, systematic, stratified,
cluster) for Quantitative Research; and
non-probability designs: convenience, purposive, quota, snowball
for Qualitative Research, sample size, point of saturation
Unit 7 Research Procedures, Research tools Construction - Questionnaire,
interview, focus group discussion, observation, tests, and data-mining;
Validity of research instruments: face, content, construct, triangulation;
Reliability of research instruments
Pre-testing, pilot-testing, fine-tuning of research
Unit 8 Data-gathering,Processing, Organizing for Quantitative & Qualitative
Researches: Scales of Measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval & ratio;
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics; Thematic analysis for qualitative
researches
Unit 9: Data Analysis, Interpretation, Conclusion and Recommendations
Unit 10 Research Writing and Oral Presentation of Research Study
Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach xi

Module 1
Nature of Educational
Research and Types
Desired Learning
Outcomes
Upon completion of this module, you must have:

a. explained the scientific method, nature of research/educational research and
its importance to human civilization;
b. differentiated the types of research: basic, applied, action; quantitative,
qualitative, mixed; and
c. expressed appreciation for the history of research and inventions through
different places and time, and its impact: “we are standing on the shoulders
of giants”.
Overview
This module introduces you to the nature of educational research, its

characteristics, its historical development and impact in human civilization. It also
discusses the research process, the different types of research according to
criteria and the application of research, scientific approach, in confronting
problems in one’s life. Hopefully, we will get to appreciate more, the vital role of
research that triggers inventions and innovations and create a great difference in
the lives of peoples. We can then affirm that thanks to the researchers of the past
– Edison, Fleming, Newton, Einstein, to name a few, we enjoy a more advanced
quality of life at present. Do you agree? Indeed, “we are standing on the
shoulders of these giants – great scientists!!!” Hopefully, we follow their path and
continue blazing the fire of love for research that redounds to the improvement of
lives in the next generation!

Module 1: Nature of Educational Research and Types
Course Contents and

Learning Experiences
Let’s Begin!
Based on your learnings of research in Senior High School, answer the following:
1. What is research?
2. Give at least two (2) characteristics of research/educational?
3. Explain the scientific method. What are its steps?
Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach 2

4. Differentiate the following types of research:
a. Basic, applied and action research
b. Quantitative and qualitative research
5. Explain briefly the research process.

We’re on Our Way!
What for you is the value of scientific method or research, discovery or invention
to society?
Let’s Dig Deeper!
Human beings, since time immemorial, have always been curious and
have sought to acquire reliable knowledge through different ways – experience,
authority, deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning and the scientific method
approach. The scientific method is widely regarded as a very reliable source of
new knowledge. It is described as a process in which investigators or scientists
move inductively from their (1) observations and asking questions about the
observations to (2) forming hypotheses (educated guess as answers to
questions) and then (3) deductively from the hypotheses to the logical
implications of the hypotheses. They deduce the consequences that would follow
if a hypothesized relationship were valid. If the deduced implications are
compatible with the organized body of accepted knowledge, the researchers then
further test those by (4) gathering empirical/observable data. On the basis of the
evidence, they accept or reject the hypotheses. The use of the hypotheses is the
main difference between the scientific approach and inductive reasoning. In
inductive reasoning, you make observations first and then organize the
information gained. In the scientific approach you reason what you would find if a
hypothesis were true and then you make systematic experiments and
observations to confirm the hypothesis (Ary, 2002).
Scientific Method
In a nutshell, the scientific method follows the general procedure to
acquire knowledge through observation and testing.

(Ref: thoughtco.com)
1. Making an observation about the world around you. Before hypotheses can
be made or experiments can be done, one must first notice and think about
some sort of phenomena occurring. The scientific method is used when one
does not know why/how something is occurring and wants to uncover the
answer, but before one can even question an occurrence, they must notice
something puzzling in the first place.

Table 1. General
Steps in Scientific
Method
(Ref: On
scientific Method
from
www.courses.lume
nlearning.com)
2. Asking a Question

Next, one must ask a question based on their observations, such as: why/how
is this thing occurring? Why/how does it happen this way? At times this step is
listed first in the scientific method, with making an observation (and reading
about the phenomena in question) listed as second. In reality, both making
observations and asking questions tend to happen around the same time, as one
can see a confusing occurrence and immediately think, “why is it occurring?”
When observations are being made and questions are being formed, it is
important to do background information review or review of related
literature/studies to see if others have already answered the question or
uncovered information that may help you shape your question. For example, if
you find an answer to why something is occurring, you may want to go a step
further and figure out how it occurs.
3. Forming a Hypothesis
A hypothesis is an educated guess to explain the phenomena occurring
based on prior observations. It answers the question posed in the previous step.
Hypotheses can be specific or more general depending on the question being
asked, but all hypotheses must be testable by gathering evidence that can be
measured. If a hypothesis is not testable, then it is impossible to perform an
experiment to determine whether the hypothesis is supported by evidence.
4. Performing an Experiment
After forming a hypothesis, an experiment must be performed to test the
hypothesis and collect data.
5. Analysis of Data
After performing an experiment and collecting data, one must analyze the data.
Research experiments are usually analyzed with statistical software in order to
determine relationships among the data. In the case of a simpler experiment, one
would look at the data and see how they correlate with the change in the
independent variable.
6. Forming a Conclusion
The last step is to form a conclusion. If the data support the hypothesis, then
the hypothesis may be the explanation for the phenomena. However, multiple
trials must be done to confirm the results, and it is also important to make sure
that the sample size—the number of observations made—is big enough so that
the data is not skewed by just a few observations. If the data do not support the
hypothesis, then more observations must be made, a new hypothesis is formed,
and the scientific method is used all over again. When a conclusion is drawn, the
research can be presented to others to inform them of the findings and receive
input about the validity of the conclusion drawn from the research. (Ref: On
scientific Method from www.courses.lumenlearning.com)
Some Inventions, Innovations and Discoveries

This scientific method started to take root in the natural sciences and led
to discoveries, inventions and innovations that transformed the perspectives of
the people about the world and the quality of life in general. Some highlights of
discoveries and inventions are:
a. Copernican revolution
Polish scientist Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) proposed, from his
observations that the planets of the solar system revolved around the sun (or
helio-centric), not earth (geo-centric), debunking age-old Ptolemy’s geo-
centric model. Moreover, this sun-centered or helio-centric model of
Copernicus is further confirmed by Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) with his
discovery of the telescope. The work culminated in Isaac
Newton’s Principia, which formulated the laws of motion and universal
gravitation that dominated scientists’ view of the physical universe for the next
centuries.
b. Alexander Fleming’s (1928) discovery of penicillinas first antibiotic that
led to the cure of tuberculosis and other bacteria-caused diseases. He was a
Scottish researcher, experimenting on the influenza virus in a laboratory at
St. Mary’s Hospital in London. After a two- week vacation, he returned to the
laboratory and observed that a mold had developed on an accidentally
contaminated staphylococcus (bacteria) culture plate. Upon closer
examination, he noticed that the culture prevented the growth of
staphylococci and that the broth in which the mold had been grown had
acquired inhibitory, bactericidal and bacteriolytic properties. He commented:
“One sometimes finds something he is not looking for. I did not plan to
revolutionize al medicine by discovering the world’s first antibiotic or
bacteria-killer, but I guess that was exactly what I did!”
(https://www.healio.com).
c. Invention of the first airplane by American Wright brothers – William

and Orville (1903). Their father once brought home after a trip for them - a
small model of helicopter made of cork, bamboo and paper, powered by a
rubber band to twirl its blades. Fascinated by the toy and its mechanics, they
developed a lifelong love for aeronautics and flying. They read up on gliders
and flight theory and became avid bird watchers, studying how they flew.
“Learning the secret of flight from a bird was a good deal like learning the
secret of magic from a magician,” Orville would say. Through their invention,
transportation and culture were forever transformed, fruit of the hard work,
dedication, experiments and trials of two simple brothers with a soaring
dream (www.biography.com/inventor/wilbur-wright).
d. Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development (1936) – fruit of a
qualitative research, specifically, the grounded theory research design

e. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1943) – fruit of qualitative research
f. Invention of personal computer, laptop, smart phone, internet, cell
phones
Do you have any idea behind the invention of personal computers,
laptop, smart phone, internet or facebook? Kindly read about the inventors
of these gadgets which had changed and revolutionized our way of
communicating? Want to share the information with your siblings at home
or with friends? Do you also want to improve the lives of people? One way
to make this possible is by conducting research!
Indeed thanks to the scientists and inventors, we enjoy a higher quality of
life. Indeed, we can say, we are standing on the shoulders of these
scientists/giants! And it is our turn to carry on the baton and help through
research in the problems besetting us.
At present, the world is facing the corona virus pandemic and
scientistsall over the world are doing experiments to find cure for this virus. To
date, there are no specific vaccines or medicines for COVID-19. Treatments are
under investigation, and will be tested through clinical trials.
Nature of Educational Research

The application of scientific methodto education is what we call
educational research, a way to acquire dependable and useful information about
education and the educative process. Educators usually conduct research to find
a solution to some problem or to gain insight in an issue that they don’t
understand. The ultimate goal is to discover general principles or interpretations
of behavior that people can use to explain predict and control events in
educational situations – in other words, to formulate scientific theory. The
scientific approach rests on two basic assumptions: (1) People can derive truth
from observation, and (2) phenomena conform to lawful relationships.
Investigators or scientists used the scientific approach in physical phenomena for
centuries.
Educational research is a young science that was embraced starting in the
late 19th century. It uses investigative methods consistent with the scientific
method, but applied to education. Fortunately, the scientific inquiry in education
has enjoyed increasing acceptance and increasing success, both in theoretical
and practical research.
What is research? Generally speaking, research is coming up with
answers to some puzzling questions you may have. You may read about the
topic to know more about it. But at times, your questions are not answered in the
written information. So, what would you do to find the answers to your questions?
One way to address the challenge is by using the scientific method discussed

earlier- conduct some data-gathering processes - to increase your understanding
about the topic or problem (https://www.hampshire.edu).
But strictly speaking, research refers to the “systematic process of

generating new knowledge for the upliftment of the quality of human life,”
Grecia (2008), the CHED Regional 7 Director explained; and educational
research integrates the scientific method in its process, with due
consideration to some nuances of education, a field of inquiry in social
sciences.
Educational research has the following research steps:
1. Identification of the research problem

2. Review of related literature and studies about the problem and topic
3. Plans for the appropriate research methodology – locale, design,
sample, instrument, procedures’
4. Data gathering, Data analysis, interpretation
5. Conclusion and recommendations
6. Research Story Dissemination – oral and written
Table 2. The Research Process
Hence, when your teacher asks you to research on a certain topic, he or

she just refers to a “part” of the whole process of research, which is the review of
related literature or studies about the topic. It is just an “initial dip” into what is
known about the topic.

Further, educational research has the following distinguishing features:
1. Systematic – It relies on careful, logical procedures for setting up the
study, gathering and analyzing data, and interpreting the results. The
procedures are transparent enough to allow that others can replicate it and
verify the findings
2. Rigorous – comes from the French term “rigueur” meaning strength;
refers to strict application of the scientific method to ensure robust,
impartial and unbiased research (mbio.asm.org); it denotes strength and
solid work, reliable and trustworthy, accurate and careful;
3. Empirical – relies on tangible, observable data, that is, accessible to the
senses. Data can be in a form of numbers like scores or frequencies, or in
the form of texts, narratives or interview transcripts.(McMillan &Wergin,
2010)
To summarize, educational research is a systematic investigation,

involving the analysis of information (data), to answer a question or
contribute to our knowledge about an educational theory or practice. As a
systematic, disciplined inquiry, educational research relies on methods and
principles that will produce credible and verifiable results. Secondly,
research is not simply gathering information about something, such as
going to the library and doing a research paper. Rather, information is
gathered from individuals, groups, documents, existing databases and
other sources, then analyzed, interpreted and reported. Some other
characteristics are:
1. Objectivity – in making observations and conducting measurements;
results are impartial and free from biases
2. Precision– provides detailed, focused and specific descriptions;
language used conveys exact meaning
3. General Rules – to provide a better, more understanding of
relationships among phenomena. Explanations provide predictability for
many contexts
4. Parsimony – to make the least complicated explanations; findings are
reduced and simple
5. verification – confirms initial findings; replication of studies to find
similar results
6. Tentative conclusions – that may change; holding final judgments
until further information or findings are provided
7. Evidence-based – reservation in accepting findings; willingness to
suspend conclusions and examine evidence critically
8. Logical reasoning in thinking; use of systematic inductive-deductive
reasoning

9. Openness of work for others to review; willingness to have others
examine methods, analyses, interpretations, procedures and results
(McMillan &Wergin, 2010)
Keep in mind
Educational research is a systematic inquiry, involving the analysis of
information (data), to answer a question or problem. It relies on methods
and principles that will produce credible and verifiable results.
It is NOT simply gathering information about something, such as going
to the library and doing a “research paper.” Rather, information or data is
gathered from individuals, groups, documents, existing databases
and other sources, then analyzed, interpreted and reported. (McMillan
&Wergin, 2010)
Types of Research
Research can also be classified as follows:
1. According to Purpose: Why research?
Basic or Pure or To advance the frontiers of knowledge for the

Fundamental love of knowledge; seek more knowledge for the
Research sake of knowledge; theoretical approach
Applied Research To solve real-life problems and develop
innovative technology; practical approach
Action Research To improve in one’s professional practice; the
study is undertaken by professionals/ educators
in their own professional settings for the purpose
of better understanding their work and how to
improve it.
2. According to type of Data: What type of data is collected?
Quantitative ResearchData is numerical and uses statistical tests and

analysis
Qualitative Research Data is words, narratives/stories
Mixed Quantitative & Use of both types of data- numerical and
Qualitative Research texts/words

Assessment
Answer the following questions below.

1. What is educational research? How different it is from going to the library to
gather information about a topic and then pass a “research paper”?
2. Explain the following distinguishing features of educational research:

a. Systematic
b. Rigorous
c. Empirical
3. What are the steps in the Research Process?
4. Differentiate the following types of researches

a. Basic, applied and action researches
b. Quantitative, qualitative, mixed researches
5. Explain the following five (5) characteristics of Educational Research:
Objectivity
Precision
Parsimony
Logical Thinking

Openness
6. Gather information about one (1) scientist or inventor or researcher of your

choice, the context why he/she got to invent or discover something. Then
share your insights or realizations about the impact of research or their work
to society.
References
Ary, D. (2002). Introduction to research in education. (6thed) Australia:

Wadsworth Thomson Learning.
MacMillan, J. & Wergin, J. (2010).Understanding and evaluating educational
research. 4thed. USA: Pearson Publishing Inc.
On Copernican Revolution. Retrieved from www.healio.comon August 20, 2020
On differences between basic and applied research . Retrieved from
https://keydifferences.com on August 20, 2020.
On invention of the first airplane by the Wright Brothers. Retrieved from
www.biography.com/inventor/wilbur-wright on August 23, 2020.
On Research. Retrieved from https://www.hampshire.edu on August 12, 2020.
On Research Rigor. Retrieved from www.mbio.asm.org on August 20, 2020.
On Scientific Method. Retrieved from www.courses.lumenlearning.comon
August 18, 2020.
On Steps of the Scientific Method. Retrieved from www.thoughtco.comon
August 21, 2020
VII. Module Evaluation
WOWs and Wishes: On the left side, write down what you liked about this unit
and on the right, what needs improvement.
What you liked
WOWs Wishes What needs improvement

Module 2
Research Ethics
Desired Learning
Outcomes

 Explained some basic principles of Research Ethics to be followed in
the conduct of research and their importance and malpractices to be
avoided.
 Demonstrate understanding of the research protocols of the Research
Ethics Committee (REC) of Cebu Normal University.
 Express appreciation for the practice of research ethics
Overview
This unit introduces you to some basic principles of research ethics which
is no other than the good manners and right conduct in doing research, which
hopefully, you tackled in your Research subjects during your Senior High School.
These ethical principles include: Soliciting Informed Consent from the
participants, Protection from Harm of subject participants, Benefits to outweigh
Risks, Respect for Intellectual Property/Anti-plagiarism, Confidentiality,
Anonymity, Honesty, Professionalism, Thoroughness; Social order, Legality –
observing the laws of the protection of wildlife and endangered species; use of
endangered animals in researches, among others. We will also tackle on some
malpractices to be avoided; the injustice of plagiarism. To ensure the observance
of these ethical principles, the office of the Research Ethics Committee (REC) of
the Cebu Normal University was established. We will also familiarize ourselves
on the research protocol of our university. Lastly, we hope that it be embedded
in our minds and hearts the importance of observing the ethical principles in
conducting research and share the same conviction to others.

Module 2: Research Ethics
Amelia M. Bonotan, Ph.D., and CNU Research Ethics Committee
Course Contents and

Let’s Begin!
How familiar are you with the good manners in doing research?
Checking Prior Knowledge:
Based on your previous classes in Research in your Senior High School, kindly
answer the following questions.
1. What do you mean by
research ethics?
2. What were some three

(3) ethical principles you
learned in your senior
high? Kindly explain
each briefly.
3. Why is research ethics
important?
4. What are some two (2)

malpractices to be
avoided? Why should
they be avoided?
5. How did you practice

research ethics in
conducting your
research in your senior
high school?
6. What were the
challenges or difficulties
related to research
ethics that you met in
the process?

7. How did you address
these challenges or
difficulties?
What are your realizations about the importance of observing research ethics?
How do you consider a researcher who does not follow the research ethics?
We’re on Our Way!
What are your realizations about the importance of observing research ethics?
How do you consider a researcher who does not follow the research ethics?

Let’s Dig Deeper!
Research ethics refers to the good manners and right conduct (GMRC), in
doing educational research. It involves observingwhat is right and good in the
processto ensure that truthfulness, intellectual rigor and high academic standards
of met.
It is imperative to observe the proper protocol in doing research. The
trustworthiness of the scientific - academic community is at stake on the
truthfulness and authenticity of the results of research. Likewise, the respect for
the dignity of the human persons as participants of the study cannot be
overemphasized.
Essential Research Ethical Principles involving human subjects:
1. Respect for persons

Individuals should be treated as free agents, and that persons with
diminished autonomy are entitled to protection.
An autonomous, free person - is an individual capable of deliberation
about personal goals and of acting under the direction of such
deliberation. To respect autonomy is to give weight to his or her opinions
and choices while refraining from obstructing their actions unless they are
clearly detrimental to others.
To show lack of respect for an autonomous agent is to reject that person's
considered judgments, to deny him or her, the freedom to act on those
considered judgments, or to withhold information necessary to make a
considered judgment, when there are no compelling reasons to do so.
Likewise, not every human being is capable of self-determination. The
capacity for self-determination matures during an individual's life, and
some individuals may lose this capacity wholly or in part due to illness,
mental disability, or circumstances that seriously restrict liberty. Respect
for the immature and the incapacitated, may require protecting them as
they mature or while they are incapacitated. Some persons are in need of
extensive protection, even to the point of excluding them from activities

which may harm them; other persons require little protection beyond
making sure they undertake activities freely and with awareness of
possible adverse consequence. The extent of protection afforded should
depend upon the risk of harm and the likelihood of benefit. Respect for
persons demands that subjects enter into the research voluntarily and with
adequate information.
2. Beneficence Persons are treated in an ethical manner not only by
respecting their decisions and protecting them from harm, but also by
making efforts to secure their well-being. The term "beneficence" is often
understood to cover acts of kindness or charity that go beyond strict
obligation. Two general rules were formulated as complementary
expressions of beneficent actions: (1) do not harm and (2) maximize
possible benefits and minimize possible harms. The Hippocratic maxim
"do no harm" has long been a fundamental principle of medical ethics.
Claude Bernard extended it to the realm of research, saying that one
should not injure one person regardless of the benefits that might come to
others. However, even avoiding harm requires learning what is harmful;
and, in the process, persons may be exposed to risk of harm. Further, the
Hippocratic Oath requires physicians to benefit their patients "according to
their best judgment." Learning what will in fact benefit may require
exposing persons to risk. The problem posed by these imperatives is to
decide when it is justifiable to seek certain benefits despite the risks
involved, and when the benefits should be foregone because of the risks.
The obligations of beneficence affect both individual investigators and
society at large, because they extend both to particular research projects
and to the entire enterprise of research. In the case of particular projects,
investigators are obliged to give forethought to the maximization of
benefits and the reduction of risk that might occur from the research
investigation. In the case of scientific research in general, members of the
larger society are obliged to recognize the longer term benefits and risks
that may result from the improvement of knowledge and from the
development of novel medical, psychotherapeutic, and social procedures.
The principle of beneficence often occupies a well-defined justifying role in
many areas of research involving human subjects. An example is found in
research involving children. Effective ways of treating childhood diseases
and fostering healthy development are benefits that serve to justify
research involving children -- even when individual research subjects are
not direct beneficiaries. Research also makes it possible to avoid the harm
that may result from the application of previously accepted routine
practices that on closer investigation turn out to be dangerous. But the role

of the principle of beneficence is not always so unambiguous. A difficult
ethical problem remains, for example, about research that presents more
than minimal risk without immediate prospect of direct benefit to the
children involved. Some have argued that such research is inadmissible,
while others have pointed out that this limit would rule out much research
promising great benefit to children in the future. Here again, as with all
hard cases, the different claims covered by the principle of beneficence
may come into conflict and force difficult choices.
3. Justice - Who ought to receive the benefits of research and bear its
burdens? This is a question of justice, in the sense of "fairness in
distribution" or "what is deserved." An injustice occurs when some benefit
to which a person is entitled is denied without good reason or when some
burden is imposed unduly. Another way of conceiving the principle of
justice is that equals ought to be treated equally. However, this statement
requires explication. Who is equal and who is unequal? What
considerations justify departure from equal distribution? Almost all
commentators allow that distinctions based on experience, age,
deprivation, competence, merit and position do sometimes constitute
criteria justifying differential treatment for certain purposes. It is necessary,
then, to explain in what respects people should be treated equally. There
are several widely accepted formulations of just ways to distribute burdens
and benefits. Each formulation mentions some relevant property on the
basis of which burdens and benefits should be distributed. These
formulations are (1) to each person an equal share, (2) to each person
according to individual need, (3) to each person according to individual
effort, (4) to each person according to societal contribution, and (5) to
each person according to merit. (https://www.hhs.gov)
Application of the Essential Research Ethics Principles

Some basic ethical principles (ethicsguidebook.ac.uk) to observe are:
 Soliciting the Informed Consent of the Participants in the study –an
application of principle of respect for persons who are possible

participants of the study. It is seeking politely, the voluntary agreement of
the subject/s to participate in the research before the start of the research.
For them to be able to decide properly, the researcher has to explain to
them what the research is all about, its merits, type of participation
involved, the possibility of their leaving anytime, benefits and risks
involved, confidentiality matters, person to contact for queries. Generally,

the agreement to participate is formalized in writing, with the participants affixing
their signatures.
 Care for the vulnerable group – The vulnerable group refers to children,
elderly, women, ethnic minority group. The researcher should ensure that
they are not exploited but respected and accorded due respect for their
human dignity and are protected from harm.
 Protection of Human Subjects from harm –Researches are meant to
answer questions that will benefit people, hence, the good or benefits
should outweigh the harm or risks involved.
 Honesty –truthfulness in reporting observations, findings, method,
processes. NO to falsification or doctoring of the results.
 Confidentiality and privacy -There aremeasuresto safeguard the private
and confidentiality of the identity of the participants and the information
shared. Data gathered are presented as a group data and using
pseudonyms or generic terms such as participant 1, participant 2, etc. to
refer to the participants of the study.
 Respect for Intellectual Property/Anti-plagiarism -acknowledging the
sources of ideas and contributions of others, through citations in text
documents and in the references’ section. NO to plagiarism. For
plagiarismisa form of intellectual dishonesty which claims the ideas of
others as one’s own. Plagiarism is also a form of injustice – not giving
credit where credit is due.
 Thoroughness and carefulness - presence of measures to prevent
negligence; involves careful review and scrutiny of own work and that of
others. Presence of good recording of research activities.
 Respect for co-researchers – Dealings with co-researchers are cordial
and with respect.
 Social Responsibility - Striving to promote the common good of the
community.

 Legality – awareness and observance of laws, ordinances, policies of the
schools regarding the conduct of research, use of plant, animals,
endangered species
 Absence of Conflict of interest. 'Conflict of interest' occurs when there
is a clash between the researcher’s possible personal gain
(money/monetary gain) and the dissemination of truthful research results.
It puts into question whether the actions, judgments or decisions of the
researcher are compromised. For instance, a researcher will be given
money by a group/individual, if he “manipulates” the results of the study.
Hence, if a situation like this arises, it is ethical for the researcher to
remove himself from such situation, and not to get involved in such a
project. n experiments
Some misdeeds to be AVOIDED: deception, lies, dishonesty/plagiarism

 Deception or lies – act of deceiving, resorting to falsehood, telling lies,
manipulating the data, misleading others to accept as true or what in fact
is false or invalid. It is misleading or tricking others, often done for
personal gain or advantage; an act of dishonesty or fraud. (Ref: Deception
from Merriam Dictionary)
 Plagiarism- is presenting someone else’s work or ideas as your own. It is
a form of dishonesty and a breach of ethics. Like fraud, it can be punished
in court for prejudices caused by copyright infringement, violation of moral
rights. In the academia, it is a serious ethical offense (.Ref. Plagiarism
from www. plagiarism.org; www. ox.ac.uk)
How to avoid plagiarism: (Ref: Plagiarism from www. bowdoin.com)

o Keep track of the sources you consult in your research.
o Paraphrase, summarize or quote from your source, and add your
own ideas.
o Credit the original author in an in-text citation and reference list.
o Use of a plagiarism checker like the turn-it-in software.

Besides, Cebu Normal University has an office to oversee and monitor that
Research Ethics is practiced in all its research activities in the campus. To
familiarize yourself with its protocol, especially on informed consent, please
examine the Ethics Protocol of Cebu Normal University found after the Course
Outline of this book and answer some questions in the companion student
workbook.
Assessment
Let us pause and find out how well we have grasped the ideas presented.
Kindly answer the following questions.
1. What is research ethics and why is it important?
2. Explain the three essential research ethical principles:
1. Respect for persons
2. Beneficence
3. Justice

3. Explain the following application of the essential research ethics

principles:
a. Informed Consent
b. Protection from harm of human subjects
c. Privacy Confidentiality
d. Legality
e. Social responsibility
f. Integrity
g. Carefulness
h. . Openness
i. Competence
4. (a) What two (2) misdeeds to be avoided? (b) Why should they be
avoided?
a1 b1
a2 b2

5. Give four (4) ways to avoid plagiarism
6. Read the CNU Research Ethics Committee protocol.

Explain (a) No conflict of interest, (b) care for the vulnerable group such as
children, elderly, ethnic minority group.
a. No conflict of interest
b .Care for the vulnerable group
7. Enhancement. Reflection. What new insights/realizations did you get

about the importance of Research Ethics?
I learned/realized ….
I feel….
I will …

References
Belmont Report (1979). Retrieved from https://www.hhs.govon august 17, 2020.

CNU Research Ethics Committee Protocol
On Plagiarism. Retrieved from www.plagiarism.org on August 15, 2020.
On Research Ethics. Retrieved at https://www.enago.com on August 15, 2020
On Research Ethics. Retrieved from ethicsguidebook.ac.ukon August 17, 2020.
O Research Ethics.
What you liked
WOWs Wishes
What needs improvement

Module 3
Statement of the Problem
Desired Learning
Outcomes

a. explained the criteria of a quality statement of a problem.
b. formulate a correct statement of scientific study
c. identified potential sources of problems culled from the university’s research
agenda
d. made oral presentation of three (3) possible research problems to the class
and defended the reasons for the choice
e. demonstrated appreciation for research mentoring particularly in writing good
statements of the problem
Overview
Unit three (3) of the course Education 7 or Educational Research 1 deals

with the research problem, the heart of the research process. In doing any
research and before writing the statement of the problem, one must understand
what the problem is, why it becomes a problem, and how it should be proposed.
The better way to write a statement of research study is to begin with
undeveloped composition. These preliminaries might ensure that you are able to
pin all the vital points of research process. When starting to formulate a scientific
work proposal in science particularly or for an academic development, focus on
the four key aspects: context, issue, relevance, and objective. A problem
statement need not be extensive, lengthy and intricate; a one-page paper is
adequate enough for a quality research problem statement.
In this module, the desired learning outcomes should be achieved such as the
explanation on the criteria of a profound problem statement, formulation of a
good statement of the problem, and identification of potential resources
particularly those which are aligned from the university’s research agenda. The
student then is expected to undergo the process of writing a simple yet valuable

Module 3: Statement of the Problem
problem statement. One of the requirements in this unit is the oral defense of
their formulated problem statements which will be assessed through an adapted
or standard rubric.
Course Contents and

Let’s Begin!
Let us know whether or not, you are agreeable to each of the

statement about research processes and statement of the
problem. All you need to do is put a check mark under the
column that corresponds to your decision.
STATEMENT
1. A scientific research always starts with a problem statement.
S
2. A problem statement should be based on observed events or
phenomena.
3. The title of any research paper is derived from the problem

statement.
4. The problem statement may not be written as part of the

research process.
5. A statement of the problem should be aligned to the Intended

outcomes of the research.
6. The methodology of doing research relies on the problem

statement.
7. In doing an investigation, it always happens that the findings

of the study are relevant to the problem statement.
8. A scientific process can proceed even without the problem

statement.
9. The problem statement is part of Introduction and rationale

found in Chapter I of the Research paper.

10. A good problem statement gives rise to quality scientific study.
Learning Task: Self-Instructional Activity #1

Please read the sample paragraph below and answer the questions that follows.
This might help you recall your knowledge or ideas about the problem statement.
After an excessive physical activity, the human body is exhausted of water

Question Wall
loss and electrolytes from perspiring. Each individual needs to resolve
how best to refuel the body with water and replace the lost electrolytes.
Not all drinks are equally helpful after workout. The trainer must choose
what liquid to offer volleyball athletes during a game or training. In this
test, we will examine the electrolyte content found in some standard
athletic drink compared to what is found in plain coconut water.
Michael Kwan
B.A. Psychology & English
Who? What?
Who does the problem affect? What is the issue all about? When?
What should be done? When does the issue
happen?
When does it need to be
secure?
Where? Why?
Where is the problem happening? Why is it vital that we solvethe issue?
We’re on Our Way!
“A research problem is not solved by apparatus; it is

solved in a man's head.”
~Charles Kettering
The following are points to ponder about statement

of the problem in a research process. You will be
guided accordingly through the questions given on how to state a problem and
write them later. Discussion follows after each question. So, stay tuned and go
on your way!

I. Research problem or statement of the problem defined

A problem statement is an account of a recent problem or issue that
needs appropriate action to improve the situation. This knowledge briefly
explains the gap the recent problem places among the aspects of research; that
is, a purposeful procedure and/or invention and the existing (problematic) public
affairs. A problem statement is totally impartial, directing only on the attestations
of the issue and parting out from any personal opinions. To understand better
and calmer, it's suggested that one should ask these 5 W’s: who, what, when,
where and why to generate the building of your statement of the problem. Those
questions will make the research study more comprehensible and solvable
II. Attributes of a Quality Problem Statement
The following discussions will guide you in formulating and

writing your statement of the problem. The list below enables
the researcher to scrutinize any research concerns that might
come across in the process and see the extent to which it
measures up in the research study. Each of the ten important
characteristics of a good research problem is hereby explained
Characteristics Explanation
2.1 Clear and Concise Writing a brief statement or section makes the problem
statement clear and easy to understand. Since there are
complex issues which are not simply stated, it is expected
that the study will take longer time and therefore will
cause countless drafts and revisions. It is suggested that
sharing the initial outputs with co-researchers might help
improve the problem statement. Constructive remarks
are essential.
2.2 Generates research A researcher who is a keen observer oftentimes
questions generates good questions. The research study having a
generated volume of added explicit study queries turns
the issue into an interrogation format representing
numerous aspects or mechanisms of the problem. The
study questions emerge in a wide-ranging statement that
is easier to address and offer an outline for the study.

2.3 Grounded on theories Good problem statements are anchored on previous
theories and/or conceptual agenda to be analyzed. These
statements relay the essentials of what is to be studied to
a more wide-ranging background of theory which
supports in interpreting the findings and connect it to the
field.
2.4 Multidisciplinary There are reputable research studies that relates to

academic fields which have advocates and restrictions.
Clear links in formulating research problems help the
study become substantial and open to collaboration from
others, otherwise it will surely be a mess. Research
problems become multidisciplinary once other disciplines
are integrated and valued.
2.5 Based on research According to some research experts, nowadays opinions

and own ideas are not anymore accepted in the field of
scientific study. One has to read voluminous relevant or
related studies before formulating a particular research
problem. In connection to the former points (in 2.4), a
well-stated problem should be based on good research
literature.
literature
2.6 Potentially significant Research papers have to be published and disseminated

and important during scientific conventions. With this, problem
statements should have impact, significance and
importance. Research studies once published are cited
by other researchers and scientists. Citations represent
the impact of the study to the small and big communities.
Therefore, the statement of the problem is valuable.
2.7 Doable and time In doing research as well as starting to write your problem
bounded statement, one should be practical and realistic. The
problem that a researcher has to formulate should be
doable and at the same time can be done in a specific
time. You don’t have to be ambitious having a study
which is pointless and somewhat quite dificult to gather
data.

2.8 Availability and There are data banks created years ago which could be
sufficiency of data utilized for exploration of new questions and issues,
however, there are also insufficient data to address the
problem. There are also cases that the person behind
those ideas and archives have already gone ahead and
therefore difficult to look for resources. With the advent
of technology in the form of e-libraries and e-books,
data is available in existing data bases
2.9 Application of The researcher’s strength in research methodology is

methodology important because in building the problem statement, the
gathering of data follows. A researcher should have
ample knowledge on designs and processes for later
application in the whole study.
2.10 Novelty of the problem The research study should be new or novel. Therefore,
the statement of the problem should be relevant and
aligned to the needs of the society. The university
provides the research agenda derived from the global
development goals so that students may choose what to
study.
Derived from ReadingCraze.com Copyright © 2018
Let’s Dig Deeper!
Building and Writing a Statement of the Problem

Do you already have an experience writing a research paper? How did you craft
and write your problem statement? You might be guided by the sample
worksheet below in starting framing your statement of the problem. As stated
recently, a problem statement should be accurate and clearly written. There’s no
boundless technique for formulating problem statements. Here is a new method
to practice writing a statement of the problem template that encompasses
crafting a problem statement gradually. It will take time for you to understand
better before you can craft a good statement. Try this and for sure this will help.
Just a reminder: This was not yet used in any research proposals before, but it
has been “alpha tested” in many workshops. The participants experienced that
this activity really assisted them in visualizing their outputs in a new way.
Sample exercises are hereby provided. Here is the idea:
1. Consider a specific user.
Have a list of demographic data point as simple job description to be considered
as user role. If you have previously prepared your user study in terms of outlines
or identities, maybe you can simply begin the procedure by taking one to mind.
Problem Statement Worksheet

Educational Research Made Easy:User
A Modular Parent with young Children 35
role Approach
- A science professor
- A Senior High school student
- Parents with young children
- A student intern
- Academician
- A National scientist
2. Have a list of what they do. Preferably, 3 things that they are usually
doing.
Within a week, list what your user does and reason out why each thing is
important.
For instance: Parents with young children:
o Read bedtime story (helping with reading skills)
o Teach household chores (modeling them for work)
o Monitor about school activities (concerned in their schoolwork)
Place them under the column of activity and reasons based on the users’
perspective
Activity Reasons
 Read bedtime story Helping with reading skills
 Teach household chores Modeling them for work
 Monitor about school Concerned in their
activities schoolwork
3. Select ONE of the tasks listed and give your description it in three steps.
The description to be made should come from the user’s perspective. Since this
is just an exercise, the description need not to be clear and sophisticated. This is
not yet into deep analysis anyway. We just want to get a starting point in writing
for a problem statement.
Read a bedtime Step Obstacle Negative Feeling

story 1. Ask the kid to
1. Ask the kid to pick a book
pick a book 2. Read the book to
2. Read the book the kid
to the kid 3. Question the kid
3. Question the about what has
kid about what been read
has been read

In the following steps, indicate an obstacle, then label the description as to

how that obstacle makes your user feel:
 Ask the kid to pick a book — It takes time for the kid to pick a book — upset
 Read the book to the kid — It’s the same book that I was reading last time —
uninterested
 Question the kid about what has been read — Not sure of what to ask due to
age appropriateness — disturbed
Step Obstacle Negative Feeling
o Ask the kid to It takes time in picking a upset
pick a book book
o Read the book to Same book being read before uninterested
the kid
o Question the kid Not sure of what questions to disturbed
about what has ask for the right age
been read
For now, you were able to craft a sample problem statement and therefore you
have many ideas to work with. If you’ve tried this before like in the steps you just
followed, it would be easy for you to start because the said ideas might come
from authentic experience. If you encountered difficulty with this exercise, at least
you’ve acknowledged a few subjects to ask your users about. Wherever you’ve
reached, however, you were able to get quality points to start for a problem
statement.
4. As for the last step, choose ONE of the three steps, and write a problem
statement similar to this:
A Parent with young children who feels disturbed about

USER ROLE NEGATIVE FEELINGS
helping with reading skills needs to question the kid what has been read
REASONSTEP
but faces not sure what appropriate questions to ask for the right age.
OBSTACLE
PROBLEM STATEMENT WORKSHEET

User role Parent with young children
ACTIVITY REASON
o Read bedtime story Helping with reading
skills
 Teach household chores Modeling them for work
 Monitor about school activities Concerned in their
schoolwork
STEP OBSTACLE NEGATIVE FEELINGS
o Ask the kid to It takes time in picking a upset
pick a book book
o Read the book Same book being read uninterested
to the kid before
o Question the kid Not sure of what questions disturbed
about what has to ask for the right age
been read
A Parent with young children who feels disturbed about

USER ROLE NEGATIVE FEELINGS
helping with reading skills needs to question the kid what has been read
REASONSTEP
but faces not sure what appropriate questions to ask for the right age.
OBSTACLE
Learning Task: Self-Instructional Activity #2

Now it’s your turn to develop and write your own problem statement using
the steps above and this worksheet.

Formulate another problem

statement by following the steps
discussed above (Self-Instructional
Activity #2 in your workbook). The

research problem that you are to frame should be aligned from the university’s
research proposals agenda for school year 2020-2021. Select one from the list
below and write a simple yet researchable problem statement. You may follow
the example in the box with specific problem statements.
PRODUCTIVE PEDAGOGY (one of the university’s research agenda)
1.Productive Pedagogy and Innovations in Pedagogy

 Technology-Based Teaching and Learning
 Teaching Styles vis a vis Cultural Diversity
 Alternative Learning System
 Special Education and Early Childhood Education
 Curriculum Development
 Coaching, Training and Mentoring (studies that will improve how we train
teacher/s, in-service trainings and sporadic training)
 Internationalization and Globalization in Education
 Gender Equity in Education
 Tracer Studies
Sample Statement of the Problem with specific questions:

The main purpose of this research is to develop a source material in food
dehydration craft technology which can be utilized by Makabayan teachers in
imparting food dehydration in Technology and Livelihood Education class.
This study will answer the following questions:
 What would contain the source material?
 What content/s is/are most appropriate and workable for real-world use
of the teachers?
 How could high school teachers fit in food dehydration methods in the
Makabayan discipline?
 How to utilize a project-based approach in the creation and plan of the
projected source material?
Below are some sample titles with explanations why they have good
structure of a problem statement. The five W’s elements are herein
presented to show how each statement of a problem is of good quality.
1. “Cosmological Beliefs about Origins Related to Science Achievement among

Junior High School Students in South Bend, Indiana” Van Dyke (2010)
1.a WHAT - “Cosmological beliefs about origins and science achievement’
is the element of “what” question. This is in-depth and quite long. In order

for the study to be reliable and valid, a national test scores were used to
measure the students’ accomplishment in science including the results of
their pre and post tests scores. All of these were put together as one
major concept and clustered as science achievement. Some factors were
considered too such as school, teachers as well as socioeconomic
concerns.
1. b WHO - The respondents or junior high school students particularly are
answers for “who” in this study.
1. c WHERE – This pertains to the physical location of where the study
has been conducted. Specifically, it is the South Bend, Indiana as well the
program place.
1.d HOW - The process or methodology in this study was NOT added to
the title but for further understanding, it utilized a path analysis and
correlational models respectively.
2. “Mixed‐method Analyses of Federal Court Decisions During 1980–2007

Involving Race and Sex Discrimination Under Title VII of The Civil Rights Act of
1964 and Faculty Tenure Denial Decisions In Higher Education. Crittendon
(2009)
2.a WHAT – in this research study, the issue about race and sex
discrimination federal course decisions related to faculty tenure is the what
element.
2.b WHO – the federal judiciary is inferred as the respondents of the study
2. c WHERE – the physical location answers this element. In here, it is
the higher education in United States of America where the study has
been conducted
2.d WHEN – in this study, the year in which the study has been
processed; 1980-2007
2.e HOW – this is about the methodology in doing the research. It is very
clear that the “mixed method analyses” is the how of this research study.
3. “The Development of Rating Scales to Measure the Quality of Pre‐School

Literacy Environments: A Validity Study.” Lindemer's (2006)
3.a WHAT- The WHAT in this study was “literacy environments”.
3.b WHO – There is no specific mention of the respondents here but we
can infer that it could be the teachers, students, school leaders and
administrators.
3.c WHERE - WHERE is pre‐schools.
3.d WHEN – it’s not also indicated as when the study will be conducted
3.e HOW – it is very clear in this research title that research methodology
is being emphasized in fact, the phrases “developing . . . scales” and

through a “validity study” respectively show more evidences to its
structure.
4. “Teacher Trust in Building Principals: A Contextual Relationship to School

Climate in K‐4 Buildings,” Goudy's (2005) “The Relationship Between Maternal
Employment and Psychological Constructs: Self Concept and Family
Orientation,” Goodwin's (1985)
 The two studies undoubtedly inform the reader of the WHAT and WHO.
 Even though other elements are absent, the two research titles do clearly
describe the intent of a scientific investigation.
GUIDE IN EVALUATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

1. Have your statement of the problem be written.
2. Ask the questions below after reviewing, analyzing and
examining the problem:
 Is the statement formulated in a wide-ranging,
grammatical sentence?
 Is it clear how the extent of study will be
focused or restricted?
3. Edit your written output based on your answers to the questions in #2.
4. Review again your edited statement and examine using the following
questions:
 Does the answer to this problem have the potential for providing important facts
and evidence?
 Will the result be more than a simple exercise in gathering data, answering a
yes/no question, or making a simple comparison?
 Is the problem focused enough to be finished with a reasonable spending of time,
money, and effort?
5. Read the statement once more and consider this: Is the problem really what I
want to study?
6. Present to other student researchers your output. Request them to brainstorm
the queries listed in items 2 and 4 then ask for their comments. With your
collected responses, edit and rewrite your problem statement once again:
Assessment
I. Assessment How far have we gone?

A. In the sample titles below,

make a main problem statement
and specific question statements.
Write your answers in the box below.
1. Strengthening the science-D&T interaction through simple maker-centered

projects in a Singapore Classroom. (Amir, 2020)
The purpose of this study is to
.
Further, the study seeks to answer the following questions:
1.
2.
3..
4..
2. Science Teaching Laboratory Applications: Common Knowledge

Construction, Learning Cycle Models and Stem Approach. (Harun, 2018)
The purpose of this study is to
.
. The study further seeks to answer these specific questions:
1.
2.
3..
4..
Note: Please be guided by the rubrics given below for checking the answers.
Research Problem Statement Rubrics
Criteria / Remarks Exceptional Good Incomplete

Composition The composition is The composition The paper has no
and complete, clear and structure correct
Structure and concise. The somewhat have composition and
20 pts structure follows few errors Few structure. Many

the principles principles were errors were
mentioned. applied. encountered
Relevance The problem Relevant but not Not relevant and

Significance statement is very significant or the significant. Its
relevant and other way around purpose does not
20 pts significant to the have Impact to the
needs of the society
society,
The statements Some formatting Did not follow the

Technicality follow the format was not followed. technical aspects
and proper of writing the
10 pts Technical aspects problem
statements
B. Using the checklist, kindly evaluate your answers on the problem statements
being formulated. Just put a corresponding mark under the column (/) Yes or (X)
for No.
Characteristics of a Good Problem Statement
1. Is the statement clear and concise?

2. Does it generates research questions?
3. Is it grounded on theory?
4. Do other disciplines linked or integrated?
5. Are the related studies and literature enough?
6. Does the problem statement impacted the
community?
7. Is the research problem doable and time bound?
8. Is there enough sources of data?
9. Is the design and methodology applicable?
10.Is the research problem statement novel or new?
References
Brown, D. (2016) How to Build a Problem Statement

https://medium.com/eightshapes-llc/how-to-build-a-problem-statement-
d1f21713720b

Bwisa, H. (2018) The basics of writing a statement of the problem for your
research proposal.
https://www.editage.com/insights/the-basics-of-writing-a-statement-of-the-
problem-for-your-research-proposal
Chris, (2009) How To Write A Problem Statement

http://www.ceptara.com/blog/how-to-write-problem-statement
Cobar, M R (2009) Doctor of Philosophy in Education Thesis title: “Development

of a Source Material in Food Dehydration Craft Technology for the Secondary
Schools” at http://thesisnotes.com/statement-of-the-problem/sample-statement-
of-the-problem/
Indeed, (2020) How to Write a Problem Statement Step by Step (with an

Example)
https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/how-to-write-a-
problem-statement
iRubric,(2020) iRubric: Research Problem Statement Paper rubric

https://www.rcampus.com/rubricshowc.cfm?sp=yes&code=UX22C6W&
Kwan, M. Effective Problem Statement Examples

https://examples.yourdictionary.com/problem-statement-examples.html
Morgan, R. (2016) HOW TO WRITE AN EFFECTIVE PROBLEM STATEMENT

https://www.isixsigma.com/new-to-six-sigma/getting-started/how-to-write-an-
effective-problem-statement/
Prenhall.CHECKLIST EVALUATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM at

https://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/1532/1569569/checklists/
chap03a.pdf
ReadingCraze.com (2018) Characteristics of a Good Research Problem

https://readingcraze.com/index.php/characteristics-good-research-problem/
#:~:text=Characteristics%20of%20a%20good%20thesis,more%20academic
%20fields%20of%20study.

What you liked
WOWs Wishes

Module 4
Review of Related
Literature and Studies
Desired Learning
Outcomes

1. explained the significance of review of related literature, theoretical
framework, and ways to organize the information;
2. demonstrated the proper citation of sources and referencing following APA
format and honed the skills of summarizing and paraphrasing;
3. explained the journal article format for the written research output; and
4. started doing the literature review of one’s approved research problem and
organized them properly.
Overview
This module encapsulates the tenets of why literature review is one of the most
essential chapters in an educational research. Appreciating its importance
underscores the understanding of the three succeeding lessons which are the (1)
Significance of Literature Review, Theoretical Framework and Ways to Organize
Information; the (2) Proper Citation using APA Format, Paraphrasing, and
Summarizing of the information gathered; and lastly, the discussion about the (3)
Journal Article Format for Writing Research Output. These lessons will definitely
assist a research enthusiast like you to have a substantive and thorough
literature review.
This module requires a literature review of the one’s approved research question
in the previous chapter. This is the fifth week of the semester with 3 hours
allocation to discuss pertinent information about this unit.

Module 4: Review of Related Literature and Studies
Course Contents and

Lesson1. Significance of Literature Review, Theoretical Framework and

Ways to Organize Information
Let’s Begin!
A. Significance of Literature Review

Literature review is an inevitable task for every college student. Some
students may conceive this as difficult and tedious chapter to accomplish given
the fact that you need to collect, gather, and read a lot of articles, books and
other learning resources but some may perceive it as enviable. Let’s see how
you perceive the literature review.
Exercise 1.A Fill in the blank about your idea/s regarding the review of related
literature and studies.
For me, literature review is
After answering Exercise 1.A, it’s evident that we have different

perceptions regarding the literature review; however, it is important that we have
a common understanding in seeing it as an essential part of every academic
research.
Literature review is mutually supportive to the identification of the research
problem. In Unit 3, you chose and presented three possible research problems
which you also defended in the class. Among the three, only one research
problem was accepted.
Exercise 1.B Write the approved research question inside the rectangle and
provide details or pertinent information about it below.

B. Theoretical Framework
Alongside in the conduct of the literature review is the theoretical
framework. To check your prior knowledge about theoretical framework, write the
different thoughts or ideas you have learned or remembered when the basic
educational research subject was discussed to you way back in Senior High
School.
Exercise 2 Write your thoughts about theoretical framework.
Theoretical Framework

C. Ways to Organize the Information Gathered
One of the salient parts of this module is to teach you how to organize the
information gathered from collecting different peer-reviewed articles, academic
books, thesis, dissertations, and other learning resources. To know how you
organize the information gathered, answer Exercise 3.
Exercise 3 Answer the following questions on how you organize information that
you gathered from articles, books and other learning materials.
1. When gathering data, do you usually organize them? (Yes or No, then,
elaborate)
.
2. Do you follow a strategy or organizational method in organizing the information
gathered? If YES, can you discuss further the mechanism of doing it?
.
3. How will information organization impact to an academic research?
We’re on Our Way!
The conduct of the literature review is vital in pursuing an academic

research. In the academic context, the word “review” means to examine and
evaluate while “literature” refers to the existing quality research on a particular
subject. Therefore, literature review is an integrated analysis of academic,
refereed, scholarly, and peer-reviewed writings – not just a plain collection or
summary of different writings. In knowing the concept about literature review, we

should answer the question – how is it necessary in pursuing educational
research?
Exercise 4 What do you think is the significance of writing the review of related
literature and studies in an academic research such as a thesis?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________.
In writing the literature review, it is common that we will always encounter

different theories, concepts, and research designs of the various literature and
studies that may directly or indirectly relate to our research question. We choose
the theories that can introduce, describe, and explain the formulated research
question which can become the foundation of our study and this is what we call
the Theoretical Framework. When we speak of Theoretical Framework, the first
idea that we think would be a diagram showing the relationship of the dependent
and independent variables. Although, it has a point, the concept of theoretical
framework is far more than that. In knowing more about the theoretical
framework, it is important to understand how it plays as a significant part in the
literature review.
Exercise 5 The graphic organizer below shows how theoretical framework

strengthens the study in different ways. Your task is to provide sub-details about
its importance.

Literature review is considered as a thorough summary of cohesive

analysis from a discursive process with several resources and references – it is
not just a compilation of writing which describe or summarize one piece of
literature after another. Since it is a summary of cohesive analysis from a
discursive process, it is empirical that we need to organize the data that we
gathered from the different resources. Even compilation has organization of data
such as tagging the different information into subject matter, how much more to a
review of related literature and studies where we need to know, understand,
digest, and assimilate the concepts and ideas that it exemplifies. Answer
Exercise 6 in order to stipulate the importance of organizing the information
gathered from different reliable resources.
Exercise 6 Why do we need to organize information gathered from

conducting the review of literature and studies?
Let’s Dig Deeper!
A. Literature Review
To deepen one’s understanding about the literature review, it is expedient
to know its importance. Its significance underscores the fact that it serves as the
foundation of knowledge of the proposed research question. Further, it provides
insights of the theoretical and conceptual underpinnings of the study. It
demonstrates relationships between researcher’s ideas and research studies
which are significant in supporting the aims established in the study. It ascertains
critical gaps and points of disagreement that are beneficial in knowing the real
problem - identifying the real problem will have a clear understanding of what is
sought to be answered in the study. Literature review can also substantiate in the
discussion section where previously related studies and literature can
corroborate with the results.

Another highlight of the literature review is that, it elaborately discusses
and compares the research questions that logically came out in the previous
studies. Observing the replication of similar researches may conclude that the
recent is better than the one chosen. Replication is a study of research problem
that’s already conducted in other places. Some researchers may start reading
and reviewing various resources prior to formulating the topic.
In every educational research, it is imperative that we need to have a

substantive, thorough, and a good literature review. A good literature review
includes: (a) substantial background of the research; (b) contemporary and
current context –issues, debates, and controversies; (c) theoretical and
conceptual underpinnings; (d) defining of terms; (e) researches that expand on
and alleviate the gaps to be filled in; and (f) problems and concerns are
supported with evidence. The inclusions of these will definitely make the
literature review comprehensive – not just a good one.
The diagram below will explain that the kind of literature review that we
need to do which is a comprehensive one and part of a larger work.

Literature reviews can take different forms and serve different purposes.
There are two types of literature review – Journal Studies/Articles and Literature
Reviews (Stand-alone article). These two differ in their scope, length, and
purpose. The table below will show their differences.
Journal Studies/Articles Literature Review (Stand-alone Article)
Introduce research related to this Presents and analyzes many relevant
specific study (introduction Section) texts to explain an approach or theory
Shorter than stand-alone reviews Lengthy in nature
Narrower in scope Broader in scope
Often use to set research precedent More extended analysis
and support theory or methods
In making a literature review comprehensive, we should know where and

how to access it – its classification and the skills needed to accomplish it. There
are pertinent characteristics of a valuable literature review. These are the
following:
1. The literature and studies gathered must be current as much as
possible. This is highly important because of the different changes that are
happening in our society. A decade ago is so different in today’s era. A lot has
improved. Many ideas and innovations are popping up especially when
technology kicks in.
2. The literature and studies collected must present an atmosphere of
fairness and objectivity. We all know that some materials are one sided. If we
sort the sources that we gathered, we need to be open-minded otherwise our
review will have a distorted generalization.
3. All the literature and studies should be paralleled and relevant to the
research question. There are some materials that have less contribution to
substantiate the importance of your research question. We need to review and
sort things out properly.

4. We are after of a valid and reliable data. We can start doing so by
scrutinizing the facts and information of the literature gathered.
5. The literature and studies elicited must not be few or too many. Although
at some point, the plurality of the materials being reviewed would resort to a
comprehensive review. However, we need to take into account the time and the
availability of the resources that we have in completing this chapter of a
research. Having sufficient surveyed materials is enough to make a good
literature review.
In conducting literature review, there are necessary skills needed such as:
(a) Information Seeking Skills – which is the ability to manipulate electronic and
manual processes in order to identify resources extensively;(b) Critical Appraisal
Skills – which is the ability to assess, evaluate, critique, and connect each source
to the topic in order to identify gaps in the literature; and lastly, (c) Organizational
Skills – which is the ability to arrange and organize the resources gathered in
order to present it in a logical manner.
It is a common understanding that a literature review will depend on the
quality of sources you gathered. However, it is expedient to note that it is also on
how you organize the information.
A literature review has also its structure. Although there are a lot of it but to
mention a few, we have funnel, jigsaw, and chronological.
Funnel: This structure follows the broad to specific order .
Jigsaw: This structure provides equal bearing to all topics gathered.

Chronological: This structure groups the topics in order of its publication

and highlights its progress in the field of research over a period of time.
Nevertheless, the basic structure of a literature review is composed of

Introduction, Body (topics) and Conclusion. The Introduction provides the profile
of the study. It defines, outlines, and describes the essential and salient point of
the topic. The body is where the discussion, comparison and evaluation of the
different literature and studies take place. The conclusion summarizes the
agreements/disagreements and establishes where the research connects to the
existing literature.
Literature reviews, as defined, are critical analysis and synthesis of
sources that was initially gathered and explored. Presenting these surveyed
materials has several ways depending on the type of analysis underpinning the
research question, such as:


Having the knowledge about Literature review, it is now time to answer the
question “HOW TO START WRITING IT?” Here are the steps in writing a
literature review.

Always remember that, writing a literature review is not only about the
publication; it is also about our ideas, understanding, and contribution. In
following these steps, we can have a guarantee of establishing the background
and significance of our research. Furthermore, we can have a focused review of
literature from the network of different ideas.
Now, let’s have a group activity. Answer Exercise 7
Exercise 7 In a group of 3, fill out the Review of Related literature Worksheet

below. After supplying the information, do the sharing. Each one of you will
critique and provide constructive feedback to your team members’ output. Make
a short reflection about the activity. You may use another sheet for this.
Review of Related Literature Worksheet
Research Title of the Relevance to the research
Summary of the book or article
Questions book/article question
Member 1 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Member 2 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Member 3 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Reflection
Member1:______________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________.
Member2:______________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________.
Member3:______________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________.
TIPS in creating Literature Review:

1. Clearly define your topic and your audience first before starting your
literature review. This will help you decide which works are needed to be
included in the review.

2. Read as many literature reviews and journal articles as you can
especially those in your area of interest. This will give you an excellent idea how
to structure your review.
3. Focus on more current sources especially when it comes to studies and
journal articles. Using older theories is fine if they are fundamental and can
provide a stable foundation of work that has not been changed over the years,
but more current research will always be highly recommended.
4. Take note while reading literature. Use cards, tables, computing
programs like Microsoft excel that will help you organize index information and
make it much easier for you to categorize later. You don’t just pile up list of
references without knowing its relevance to your study.
5. A scholarly work is not into a highly descriptive way of establishing
viewpoints. Avoid descriptive writing style.
6. For direct impact and easy understanding, use active voice.
7. Do not use Jargon; familiar and appropriate terms are highly
recommended. In case you really need to use a word that is unfamiliar, make
sure to define it.
8. Language should be neutral.
9. Make sure that the conclusions and contradictions are clearly and
explicitly established in the literature.
10. Make all sentences short, concise, and clear.
11. Correct usage of grammar is very important. Make sure to proofread
your work.
12. Avoid plagiarism.
Lesson 2: Proper Citation using APA Format, Paraphrasing, and

Summarizing
Citation is a reference in a work that an idea or piece of information is

coming from elsewhere. Citation Style is the standard structure for writing
references such as APA (American Psychological Association) which is
commonly used as a standard format in citing authors for educational endeavor.
The purposes of doing citation are to avoid Plagiarism, to substantiate
one’s viewpoint by anchoring information, and to help other readers to find similar
resources. Citation should be present in direct quotations, description or
paraphrase of someone’s ideas or thoughts, and facts or statistics that back up
your point. There are two kinds of citation: Reference List and In-text Citation.
In-text Citation includes last name and the year. For example, Gagani &
Bonotan (2017, p.7) argue that “in order to establish evidence of face validity….”
For various authors with different year, indicate the last name of the authors and
the year separated by semicolon. For example, Sy, 2017; Snow, 2018; & Go,

2020. Make sure that these authors wrote the same topic in line with the idea that
you would like to establish. When citing direct quotation in in-text citation, it
should always have a page number. If less than 40 words, include the “quote
marks” and keep in normal flow of text but if it’s more than 40 words, set apart as
an indented text-block and single-spaced. For example, in non-block and block
quotation;
Non-block Quotation (less than 40 words quoted)
Block Quotation (more than 40 words quoted)
When citing a source more than once within a paragraph, you need to
include the year for the first time only and can be repeated in the later paragraph.
Reference List Citation provides information where you can check, verify,
and further read the source-related information of the topic. For example,
As you may notice, it seems that the second line was tabbed. It was not.
You don’t tab it. You must use the hanging indent. In order to locate the hanging
indent, check these screenshots below;
Step 1

Click this
Step 2
After you click the arrow pointing to

the lower right corner, you will see the
Paragraph tab, in this tab, there are two sub
tabs namely; Indents and Spacing and the
Line and Page breaks. Choose the Indent
and Spacing. Go to the Indentation section
and look for Special. Under special, there are
two options aside from the (none) which are
the first line and hanging. Choose hanging.
Then, verify the By: which represents the
inch of its indention. You can choose 0.5”.

In citing references, you need to strictly follow the proper APA style of
referencing.
Examples of citing references in adherence to the APA format;


Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing means conveying an idea or concept from a source in your
own understanding without reverting the meaning of the main source.
Paraphrasing is not simply rewording or changing of words and rearranging of
the sentence structure; it involves rephrasing a text substantially without losing its
meaning. It is important especially when you are explaining or defining facts.
Steps in Paraphrasing
1. The first thing to do in paraphrasing is to read, understand, and
assimilate the content of the original text. You read and review the text many
times to verify your understanding.
2. It is important that when you’re reading the source, you don’t just take
into account the words and sentences but the meaning of the entire paragraph.
3. State in your own words of what you understood in the text after reading
each paragraph.
4. You are now ready to paraphrase if you master these steps.
5. Finally, don’t forget to proofread. Make sure to revisit and edit your
work.
Summarizing
Summarizing means making an outline of main ideas in a writing or text by
using your own words without reverting the author’s viewpoint or meaning. A
summary of information should do proper citation using a format. In our case, we
use APA format.

Steps in summarizing
1. First, you should have a copy of the entire text. Read it three times.
Make sure to understand what the author is trying to establish. You may read the
original text many times to have an assurance that you didn’t miss any important
information from the text. This is quite similar to paraphrasing.
2. You need to ask yourself while reading the text: What is the message of
the author and what are the main ideas/key points?
3. Focus on the most important and essential details. Do not include the
examples and other justification or explanations.
4. In your own words, establish the key points or main ideas.
5. Finally, don’t forget to proofread. Make sure to revisit and edit your
summary.

Exercise 8 Paraphrase and summarize the abstract of the article below.
Don’t forget to cite properly.
Paraphrase:
Summary:
Citation:

Lesson 3: Journal Article Format for Writing Research Output
Writing an article would take so much time. It is already assumed that you
will have a lot of drafts to make but having those would help you refine your ideas
and thoughts.
You can start by formulating your main idea – content or topic. You may
anticipate different figures, graphs, images, or any visual representations that will
make it your article a good one. You may also establish limitations such as the
number of words (5000 – 8000 words), the number of articles and the kind of
structure that you will follow (Introduction, Methods, Result, and Discussion
[IMRAD]). In this way, the research output will remain tightly focused.
An outline is very important in facilitating the writing of an article. This can
be through bulleted ones, dots or numbered sentences which can be added later
to substantiate your article. Once you have these, you may start writing the
article. To better understand the structure, study the different important points
under each part of the article.
Introduction
 This will include the significance of the study
 The different objectives with discussion about the different variables
 This may also include controversies, argumentations, debates, review
of related literature and studies
 Supply relevant technical and theoretical underpinnings
 Make sure to secure the parameters and limitations of the study
Method
 The method used in the study should be and described and explained
well
 If the study will not use the total population, elaborate the sampling
technique used in selecting the participants of the study
 The generation and validation of instrument should be established in
this section
 Explain the reliability tests or validation processes done in the
instrument if it is not standardized
 It is important that the data collection procedure is well defined in this
section
 In the data analysis part, the statistical tools utilized in the study should
be discussed
 If there’s a need to discuss the ethical consideration, it should be
incorporated in this section

Results
 The use of tables and figures are very helpful in presenting the results
visually
 Figures are essential visual representation of data to be included in
this section but make sure that only those figures that are necessary
and have relevance to the study
 Arabic numerals should be designated in each figure
 Caption is very important in every table and figure. This should be
centered and justified.
 Right above the table should be seen the number of the table and the
title
 The institutional format should be used in making the tables
 Font size 11 should be used in the table but can be at 10 if it does not
fit
Discussion
 The analysis and evaluation of the findings will be stipulated in this
section
 The conclusion will be explicitly discussed
 The abstract should not be replicated in this part, instead, the main
points of the study should be reviewed and verified if it was answered
 The implications and extensions of the study can also be stipulated in
this section.
To have a format for this, it is highly recommended to utilize the Asia
Pacific Journal for Multidisciplinary Research (APJMR) template.
Having mastered the ways in writing an article, it is expedient to study an
article that was published in APJMR. Please find the articles published in APJMR
that are attached in this unit.
Now, are you ready to write an article?
Assessment
Let’s start working with your review of related literature and studies then, we will
proceed to writing of your article.
Part A Indicate your research approved question below. Then, make the
literature review by numbered. Remember to look for peer-reviewed articles,
books or any resources for so long as it is academic, refereed, and scholarly

done. Analyze and understand the content. Sum it up and Paraphrase. Don’t
forget to cite. And, lastly, smile and enjoy!
“______________________________________________________________________”
Approved Research Question
Literature # 1
.
Citation:
Literature # 2
.
Citation:
Literature # 3
.
Citation:
Literature # 4
.
Citation:
Literature # 5

.
Citation:
Literature # 6
.
Citation:
Literature # 7
.
Citation:
Literature # 8
.
Citation:
Literature # 9
.
Citation:
Literature # 10
.
Citation:

Part B Let’s organize all the information. Indicate again your approved
research question. Then, arrange them based on what you want depending on
the type of review (Argumentative, Integrative, Methodological, Thematic,
Systematic or Meta-Analysis, Meta-Synthesis, or Historical or Chronological
Review). The nature of the problem may also help in identifying the type of
review that you will be making. Don’t forget to have an introduction, body, and
conclusion. (You may need additional paper/s for this part.)
“______________________________________________________________________”
Approved Research Question

Enrichment
Reflection.Examine what you have learned from this unit. Answer the 3-2-1
Reflection Diagram
3 Important things I learned from this unit
2 Important things/tasks/topics that were challenging
1 Important goal for myself

References
Literature Review. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-

ny_EUJXHHs on August 8, 2020
Journal Article Format (IMRAD) and Proper Citation Using APA Format.
Retrieved from http://www.apjmr.com/author-guidelines/ on August 11,
2020
Labaree, R. (2019, August). Theoretical Framework. Retrieved from
https://libguides.lamar.edu/c.php?g=369302&p=3015608 on August 10,
2020
Mccombes, S. (2020, August).How to write a Literature Review. Retrieved from
https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/literature-review/ on August 10, 2020
Paraphrasing, Summarizing, and Quoting. Retrieved from
https://www.monash.edu/rlo/research-writing-assignments/writing/paraphr
asing-summarising-and-quoting on August 11, 2020
Steps in Conducting Literature Review. Retrieved from
https://libguides.uwf.edu/c.php?g=215199&p=1420520on August 5, 2020
The Literature Review: Significance of literature review. Retrieved from
https://libguides.uwi.edu/c.php?g=11323&p=59139 on August 8, 2020
Writing the Review: Structure – Funnel, Jigsaw, and Chronological. Retrieved
from https://canvas.hull.ac.uk/courses/779/pages/writing-the-review on
August 12, 2020

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Module 5
Language of Research,
Methodologies and Designs
Desired Learning
Outcomes

1. Demonstrated understanding of the language of research – variables,
independent and dependent, operational definition of terms; theory, etc.
2. Compared and contrasted the different research methodologies and research
designs
3. Made a presentation and/or defense of the research (a) methodology and (b)
design chosen for their own group research project in a class forum.
Overview
This unit introduces you to the language of educational research, research

methodologies as well as the research designs under each methodology. You
need to familiarize yourself with the language of research and gain
understanding of some technical terms. If you have the command of the basic
research vocabulary, you will most likely choose the correct theories, concepts,
methodologies or designs, to use in your research project, and much of the
mystery surrounding research will begin to disappear, Moreover, knowledge of
research methodologies – quantitative, qualitative or mixed as well as the
different designs under each methodology will expand your horizon on the
different ways to navigate to generate new knowledge which will make a
difference in our lives and in our communities. Lastly, it will equip you with the
tools to select appropriately the research methodology and design for your group
research project.

Module 5: Language of Research, Methodologies and Designs
Amelia A. Bonotan, Ph.D.
Course Contents and

Let’s Begin!
I. Checking Prior Knowledge:
Part A. Match the terms in Column A with the descriptors in Column B. Write the
letters that correspond to your answers in the space provided in Column A.
Column A Column B
___1. Research A. general notion or idea
___2. Variable B. science concerned with methods and
___3. Independent techniques of scientific inquiry
C. inquiry that seeks a deeper understanding
Variable
about a phenomenon
___4. Dependent Variable D. inquiry that seeks a generalized knowledge
___5. Research Problem E. characteristic that varies in kind or amount
___6. Theory F. process of translating a characteristic or
___7. Hypothesis concept into something measurable
___8. Concept G. comprehensive explanation of a
___9. Operationalising phenomenon
H. characteristic which is affected or influenced
___10. Research
by another characteristic
Methodology I. characteristic which affects or influences
___11. Quantitative another characteristic
Research J. systematic process to generate new
___12. Qualitative knowledge to improve the quality of human
Research life
___13. construct K. pattern or big idea that surfaced in the
information gathered
___14. Philosophical
L. puzzling question that triggers attention and
perspective study
___15. Research designs M. hunch or prediction about the relationship
between two or more events or concepts,
subject to verification scientifically
N. core claims about the nature of social reality
To be investigated
O. systematic plan to study a problem
P. abstract idea that a researcher seeks to
measure using some questions

Part B: Describe any two (2) Researches or Investigatory projects you conducted
in your Senior High School – preferably one (1) quantitative; and one (1)
qualitative research methodology - by filling up the tables below:
Research Project 1 Research Methodology &
Research Design used
1.a) Title c) Research Methodology – Quantitative
b)Problem/Questions d) Research Design
e) Population & Sample Size
f) Constructs & their operational definition; variables used
g) Research Procedures
h) New Learning / Insight gained from the experience
Research Project 2 Research Methodology & Design used

1.a) Title c) Research Methodology - Qualitative
d) Research Design
b)Problem/Questions
e) Population & Sample

f) ) Phenomenon studied
g) Research Procedures
h) New Learning / Insight gained from the experience
We’re on Our Way!
For Part A above, what did you do to arrive at your answer?
For Part B above, what are the differences between the quantitative research
qualitative research methodologies in terms of:
1. Purpose
2. Philosophical Perspective
3. Type of Data
4. Results

What are some three (3) research designs under (a) quantitative, (b) qualitative
research methodologies? Describe each design briefly
Quantitative Research - Designs
Qualitative Research - Designs
Let’s Dig Deeper!
Part A. The Language of Research

The knowledge of the following terms and vocabulary used in Research
will greatly help you navigate through the research process properly:
1. Research or inquiry or investigation or study– a systematic process of
generating or creating new knowledge to improve the quality of human life
(Grecia)
2. Phenomenon (or phenomena for plural)– observable fact or event,
whose cause or explanation is in question and can be a focus of inquiry or
study
3. Philosophical Perspective – view point on reality that underlies the
approach of a research (ex. positivism, realism, constructivism or
phenomenology)
4. Theory –a comprehensive explanation about a phenomenon; offers
organization or prediction of the occurrence of some behavior or
phenomenon (ex. Erikson’s Psycho-social theory of development, Piaget’s
Cognitive Theory of Development; Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs;
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development; Bandura’s Social Learning
Theory)
5. Unit of analysis – the subject/s of one’s study.
Ex 1. If you are comparing the students in two classrooms on Science
academic performance, then, the unit of analysis is the student
Ex 2. If you are comparing two classrooms in terms of classroom climate,
then, the unit of analysis is the classroom

6. Cross-sectional study – involves a one-time collection of data from
different groups of respondents (ex. Views of parents, students and peers
on education)
7. Longitudinal Study – involves a repeated collection of data to find out the
changes of patterns over time (perspective of students about education
when they were in (a) elementary, (b) high School, (c) College, (d)
professionals
8. Concept–idea or abstract notion that represents an aspect of reality
9. Construct – skill, attribute or concepts that are not directly observable
(ex. intelligence, mental wellness, academic achievement, happiness)
which the researcher would wish to measure in his study
10. Operationalizing or giving operational definition of terms – defining
concepts or constructs in measurable terms, done by the researcher for
his study
11. Empirical – knowledge can be drawn about a topic through observation
or direct experience
12. Variable - any entity or attribute that can vary, or take in two or more
different values or categories. For example, age, is considered a variable
because age can take different values for different people. Another
example, sex since it can take in male or female; year level – can take on
first year, second year, third year, or fourth year.
13. Independent Variable – the variable that causes or influences the
behavior of another variable (dependent variable)
14. Dependent Variable – the variable that is influenced or affected by the
cause or the influential variable (independent variable)
Ex. Study habits of students’ influence on their academic performance
Independent variable – study habits of students (Very good, good, fair)
Dependent variable – academic performance (high, average, low)
15. Hypothesis (or Hypotheses, plural form) – Statement describing the
expected relationship or difference between or among variables in a study
16. Inductive Reasoning – a reasoning that starts with specific observations
and measures, then detecting patterns and finally ending up with some
generalization or theory; “bottom-up” approach to reasoning
17. Deductive Reasoning – a reasoning that starts with thinking of a theory
about the topic of interest, then narrow it down into specific hypotheses,
gathers observation to test the hypotheses and ends in confirming or
negating the original theory; “top-down” approach
18. Data – any written information about something/phenomenon
Part B. Research Methodology

Research methodology is a collective term that refers to the structured
process of conducting research (Gounds, 2012). It is the umbrella term that
includes: research design, population and sample, research instrument/s, data
collection procedures, profile of respondents and data analysis procedures. After
the research problem and specific questions have been identified, a review of
related literature and studies conducted, philosophical perspective and
theoretical underpinning determined, the next challenge is to consider what
appropriate methodology to use to arrive best at the answers to the research
problem.
Table 1. Comparison between Quantitative and Qualitative Researches

Criteria Quantitative Qualitative
Philosophical Positivism, Realism Constructivism,
perspective Phenomenology
Reality Objective, external out there, Multiple realities, context-
observable, stable, bound
measureable
Purpose Predict, control, generalize Describe, understand,
interpret meaning
Data Numbers Words
Some Experimental: true, quasi- Basic Qualitative,
Examples of experimental, case study Phenomenology
Research Non-Experimental: Survey Ethnography
Designs Descriptive, Comparative, Grounded Theory
Correlation Case Study, Narrative
Inquiry
Design Pre-determined, structured Flexible, evolving, emergent

characteristics
Associated Experimental, empirical, Fieldwork, , informants,
words statistical, respondents natural setting, immersion,
participants
Instruments Inanimate: scales, tests, survey Researcher/s as main

questionnaire, checklist instrument/s for data
collection and analysis;
interview, focus group
discussion (FGD),
observation, documents
Criteria Quantitative Qualitative

Sample size Large (generally, n>50), Small (generally, n < 30,
random, representative reaching saturation),
purposive
Mode of Data Deductive, Statistical Inductive, constant
Analysis comparative, themes or big
ideas
Findings Precise, numerical Comprehensive, holistic,
richly descriptive
(Adopted from Merriam, S. &Tisdell, E. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to
design and implementation. USA: Jossey-Bass.)
Research methodologies are categorized fundamentally as (1) quantitative,

(2) qualitative or (3) mixed method – a combination of quantitative and
qualitative. Quantitative research methodology or simply quantitative research
seeks new knowledge that is generalizable to a bigger population. It involves a
bigger sample size or more respondents in the study, the use of numerical data,
statistics to summarize, describe or explore relationships among constructs and
variables. On the other hand, qualitative research methodology or simply
qualitative research seeks to gain a deeper understanding about a phenomenon,
its meaning, from the perspective of the participants, and not from the point of
view of the researchers. Its emphasis is on conducting studies in natural settings
using words as data, such as stories, narratives of experiences or case studies
rather than statistical reports. Moreover, a research using mixed methods has
qualities of both quantitative and qualitative designs, according to the specific
questions tackled. All these three research methodologies or approaches are
viable in education (MacMillan &Wergin, 2010).
Research Designs under Quantitative Research Methodology:

Experimental/Non-experimental
Experimental – characterized by control of the researcher/s over one or more

interventions that may influence the responses/behavior of the respondents.
There is a control of factors that may affect the behavior of the respondents. The
purpose of this control is to determine whether one factor or intervention causes
a change in another one. The experimental designs can be further classified as
(a) true or randomized experimental and (b) quasi-experimental.
(a) True or randomized experimental research involves the use of
comparison groups that have been randomly assigned, that is,
assignment of subjects to comparison groups was done completely at
random like drawing names out of a hat, flipping a coin. It seeks to

establish cause – effect relationship between independent and
dependent variables
b) Quasi-experimental – does not use randomly assigned treatment
groups, but instead, it uses intact groups: one (1) group with the new
intervention method, and another group with the traditional method.
Hence, this design cannot establish cause-effect relationship between
the independent and dependent variables. For example, you are
interested in assessing the impact of on-line learning on the student
performance in science. You can implement the new teaching
modality with one group of students and see how they compared with
another group exposed to traditional face-to-face teaching method.
Ideally, you want to assign students to these two groups at random;
but practically, this is not possible. So you can use two intact classes
instead, implementing the new method in one class and the traditional
one in the other.
Non-experimental – These non-experimental quantitative researches are
generally used to describe phenomena, uncover relationships among variables,
but cannot infer causality. For example, students’ participation in class discussion
and teachers’ verbal reinforcement through their comments. You can conduct a
non-experimental study by observing teacher and student behavior, and taking
note of certain behaviors that appear together.
a) Descriptive– It seeks to describe something/phenomena or
relationships between or among variables. It uses frequencies,
percentages, averages and simple statistics to provide information.
b) Comparative – It seeks to provide an accurate description of how two
or more groups differ on some phenomenon (dependent variable).
Example, if a study compares the achievement of male students to
female students, sex is the independent variable, and achievement is
the dependent variable.
c) Correlational – study in which there are at least two measured
variables for each subject. These variables are related by using a
d) correlation analysis. A correlation is computed to determine the
direction (positive or negative) and the magnitude of the relationship.
The correlation is positive when the value of one variable increases, so
does the value of the other variable; negative when the values of one
variable increases, the value of the other variable decreases. It seeks
e) Survey – collecting information from a pool of respondents by asking
multiple questions to gain information and insights into various topics
of interest.
Research Designs under Qualitative Research Methodology:
Common Characteristics

1) Search for meaning – seek to better understand the interpretations and
meanings participants give to events, objects, other people, and
environmental contexts;
2) Constructed reality – Reality is socially built and changing
3) Natural settings – understanding behavior as they naturally occurs,
without artificial constraints or controls;
4) Rich narrative description – Data are collected as words and/or pictures
rather than numbers. Rich or “thick” descriptions are made to enhance
understanding;
5) Direct data Collection – Data are collected directly from persons or
documents. Researchers establish close, trusting and empathetic
relationships with the participants;
6) Concern with process – seeks to understand the “how” and “why”
behavior occurs, rather than to predict and control behavior;
7) Inductive data analysis – No deductive hypotheses are used. Data are
gathered first and synthesized inductively for understanding. Conclusions
are grounded from bottom up;
8) Participant perspective – interested in the sense participants make of
their lives, how they interpret experiences, define terms, and
conceptualize their lives. The participants’ perspective is critical to this
understanding
9) Emergent research design – Research procedures are flexible and
evolving and changing during the study
*Adopted from MacMillan, J. &Wergin, J. (2010).Understanding and evaluating
educational research. 4thed. USA: Pearson Publishing, Inc.
Aside from the above common characteristics of all designs under the
Qualitative research, the following are distinguishing features of each design:
a) Basic Qualitative Research – A study that is interested in
understanding the meaning of a phenomenon for a group of
participants. Meanings are considered as constructed by human
beings as they engage with the world. It focuses on how people
interpret their experiences, and what meaning they attribute to their
experiences.
b) Phenomenology – A study that seeks to capture the “lived
experiences” of the participants and the essence of their experience.
Bracketing, done before data-collection, is a process of putting aside
the researcher’s prior beliefs or views about the phenomenon- through
journaling - so as not to interfere with seeing or intuiting the elements
or essence of the experience for the researcher has to be aware of his

own biases or assumptions about the phenomenon being studied
which may get in the way of interpreting correctly the data gathered.
c) Ethnography – a study that focuses on the culture – beliefs, values,
attitudes that structure the behavior patterns - of a specific group of
people. To capture the culture of a group, one has to spend time, at
least one year, with the group being studied. The result of this study is
a cultural description that surfaces only after a lengthy period of
intimate study and residence in the social setting. It calls for the
language spoken in that setting, first-hand participation in some of the
activities that take place there, and a deep reliance on some key
informants drawn from the setting (Van Maanen, cited in Merriam
&Tisdell, 2016). The lens of culture is used to understand the
phenomenon. Another form of ethnography that surfaced lately is
auto-ethnography, a study that seeks to gain a cultural understanding
of self and others, where the subject is the researcher and data is the
cultural interpretation of the researcher’s experiences (Amber, 2018).
d) Grounded Theory – a study that focuses on building a theory that
emerges from the “ground” or fieldwork, dealing with specific data, and
using the inductive process of reasoning. That is, a reasoning process
that moves from specific raw data to abstract categories or concepts.
Many of the educational theories like Piaget’s Cognitive Development
Theory or Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs are examples of grounded
theory.
e) Qualitative Case Study – an in-depth description and analysis of a
bounded system: a single case, a unit around which are boundaries.
You can “fence in” what you are going to study: the case which can
involve a one person, or one community or one institution.
f) Narrative Inquiry –The study that uses stories or narratives as data of
analysis to understand the meaning of the experiences as revealed in
the story/stories by the participants.
Mixed-Method – research done combining both the quantitative and

qualitative research methodologies. But as seen earlier, these two methodologies
have different assumptions and philosophical perspectives and are very difficult
to integrate in practice, unless they are done sequentially (MacMillan &Wergin,
2010).

Assessment
Part A. Answer the following briefly.
1. Compare and contrast the Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Methodologies according to the given criteria:
Criteria Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
Philosophical
underpinning
Purpose
three research designs
three research tools
Main research tool
Number of sample size
How is data analyzed
Strength

Weakness
2. Explain the following research designs of Quantitative Research

methodology and their characteristics
Research Designs Characteristics
1.Experimental
Quasi-experimental
2.Non-experimental
Survey
Comparative
Correlational
3. Explain the following research designs of Qualitative Research

methodology and their characteristics
Research Designs Characteristics
Case Study
Phenomenology

Narrative Inquiry
Part B. About your Research Project:

1. What appropriate research methodology and research design will you
utilize for your group research? Why? Provide reasons for the choice.
Research Title
(Working Title)
Research Problem
& Specific
Questions
Research
Methodology
Research Design
2. Based on the research terms and vocabulary learned earlier, provide

the following information about your research project, and explain
for the choice
Philosophical
Perspective
Theoretical
underpinning

Unit of analysis
Operational definition
of the terms/variables
Enrichment
Enhancement. Reflection. What new insights/realizations did you get from

the unit on language of research, research methodologies and research
designs?
I learned/realized ….
I feel….
I will …
References
Constructs. Retrieved from http://dissertation.laerd.com on August 4, 2020
Gounder, S. (2012, March).Research methodology and methods. Retrieved at

http://wwwresearchgate.net on July 30, 2020.
Grix, J. (2004). The foundations of research. NY: Palgrave MacMillan.
Language of research. Retrieved from samples.jblearning.com on August 9,

2020.

MacMillan, J. &Wergin, J. (2010).Understanding and evaluating educational
research. 4thed. USA: Pearson Publishing Inc.
Merriam, S.B. &Tisdell, E. (2016).Qualitative research: A guide to design and

implementation. (4thed). California: Jossey-Bass.
Trochin, W. (2020). Knowledge Base. Retrieved from conjointly.com on August

7, 2020
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WOWs Wishes

Module 6
Sampling Designs
Desired Learning
Outcomes

 explained the difference between population and sample, and determination
of the appropriate sample size;
 compared and contrasted of probability and non-probability sampling designs,
and advantages and disadvantages of each; and
 decided on the appropriate sampling design, the sample size for one's
research project.
Overview
This module introduces you to the different sampling designs that you can
use in your research endeavor. You will encounter new research concepts such
as population, sample, probability, and non-probability sampling. You will also
understand why sampling design is crucial in research, as well as how sampling
is used to make your research valid. As capability building, you will select the
sampling design and determine the sample size appropriate for your study.
Course Contents and

Let’s Begin!
Below are images. Study these images and take note of the number
embedded in these images.

Module 6: Sampling Designs
WH Matrix
Referring to each image, provide a possible study wherein you can let the
number of people be involved in your study. Then, explain why this number is
needed in the possible study (Column B: Why?). Provide a procedure on how
you will select this number of people to properly conduct the study (Column C:
How?).
A. B. C.
Image Possible Study Why? How?

Preliminary Checkup
Now that you have accomplished the WH matrix, you must have conceptions
about the concepts of this module. Given are five statements, and decide
whether you agree or not agree on these statements. Write T if the statement
seems to be TRUE, and F if it seems to be FALSE.
1. No study can only have one participant.

2. The population is a portion of a bigger group called sample.
3. Only a portion of a big number of people is enough to conduct the
study.
4. A moderate number of people (let us say, 30) should be included in
qualitative studies.
5. Before any person can be asked to participate in the study, he/she
should satisfy the qualifications as needed by the study.
We’re on Our Way!
Answer the following questions based on what you understood about the
preliminary activity.
1. Can one person be enough to start a study? Support your answer.
2. For a moderate number of people, can you let all of them participate in the study?
Explain.
3. For a bigger number of people, are you obliged to include all of them? Explain.
4. If you can select your participants, how will you do it?

5. Is there a difference in the number and selection of participants in a quantitative

study and a qualitative study? Support your answer.
6. Why are the sampling method and participant selection important in the research
process?
Defining Terms
Define the following terms as used in the research process.
1. Population
2. Sample
3. Sampling
4. Probability sampling
5. Non-probability sampling

Compare and Contrast Tasks
A. Differentiate sample from population. Illustrate your answer inside the box.
B. Compare and contrast probability and non-probability sampling methods. Use

the Venn diagram below.
PROBABILITY NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING SAMPLING
Let’s Dig Deeper!

Population vs. Sample
Population, also called the target population, is the entire group of people where
some information may be derived. A portion of the target population where
inferences can be drawn is called a sample. Population and samples may not
only refer to people; these may also refer to variables such as height, blood
pressure, academic performance, and graduate outcomes (Banerjee
&Chaudhury, 2010).
According to Surbhi (2016), the sample is different from the population as seen in
the comparison chart below:
Population Sample
Includes every unit of the group. includes only a handful of units of the
Ex. All people regardless of color are part population.
of the world population. Ex. Filipinos are only a handful of units of
the world population.
Its characteristic is called a parameter. Ex. Its characteristic is called statistic.
population size (N), mean (μ) Ex. sample size (n), mean ( x )
Data are collected through complete Data are collected through a sample
enumeration or census. survey or sampling.
Ex. All students in CNU Ex. In CNU, students from CTE are
included in the sample.
Focuses on identifying the characteristics. Focuses on making inferences about the
Ex. Most of the CNU students are… population.
Ex. In CTE, there is comparable
environmental literacy between Science
and non-Science majors.
Sampling and the Sampling Process

Sampling is the process of choosing a sample from the target population. In
sampling, information about the population characteristics can be obtained out
from the selected number of elements (e.g. people) (Kabir, 2016).
The sampling process has six key stages (Taderhoost,

2016):
Step 1: Clearly define the target population.
Ex. The target population consists of the
students under the College of Teacher Education
of CNU.
Step 2: Select the sampling frame. This frame is a list of
actual cases from which the sample can be drawn.

Ex. The sampling frame is the list of students coming from different
education specializations.
Step 3: Choose sampling techniques.
Ex. From among the students in CTE, participants are chosen randomly.
Step 4: Determine the sample size.
Ex. The randomly selected students must be of adequate number; like if
there are around 1,000 students, then there will be 278 participants.
Step 5: Collect data.
Step 6: Assess the response rate. The collected data may correspond to the
number of people who agreed to participate in the study. However, most
researchers do not get a 100% response rate, due to refusal to participate,
ineligibility to answer, or no contact with the participant himself. Any non-
response may create bias; therefore Step 1 should be made planned well.
Sampling is needed because it is impractical and uneconomical to conduct the

total remuneration of the target population (which is usually large). Some parts of
the population (e.g. prisoners, mountain people) are inaccessible, and some
observations are destructible (e.g. euthanizing mice, breaking of electrical fuses).
Time factor and accuracy are considered because the sample may be more
accurate than a time-consuming census (Mujere, 2016).
Sampling Designs
Sampling designs are plans and procedures in selecting a sample out of a target
population, as well as computing for the sample size based on the estimation
technique formula (Kabir, 2016).
Sampling techniques can be a probability or non-probability sampling technique
(Banerjee &Chaudhury, 2010; Kabir, 2016; Mujere, 2016; Taderdoost, 2016).
d. Probability sampling techniques also called random or chance sampling,
employ a random selection of units from the sampling frame to be part of the
sample. Probability sampling techniques include simple random, systematic
random, stratified random, and cluster sampling. These techniques are
usually used for quantitative studies such as true experimental and quasi-
experimental researches.
e. Whereas, non-probability sampling techniques are used when the samples
are selected in a non-random manner because the researcher has specific
criteria of participants that he/she wants to study. The common non-
randomized sampling designs include convenience, purposive, quota, and
snowball sampling. Most qualitative studies employ non-probability sampling
because specific criteria are used to determine the participants, and
therefore cannot be randomly done.
Probability Sampling Techniques

 Simple random sampling. In this sampling technique, there is an equal chance that a
unit (e.g. person) can be selected as part of the study sample.
Ex. In simple random sampling, each student in a class has the same
chances of being selected as a participant of the study.
 Systematic random sampling. This type of sampling is quite similar to simple random
sampling, except that the unit (e.g. person) is chosen from the sampling frame by
selecting every kth member, where k is the population size divided by the desired
sample size.
Ex. In class, there are 50 students in total. In your study, you need to have
a sample of 30 students chosen through systematic random sampling.
population
k=
Compute for k: 50 ; therefore, the interval is 2. You
sample ¿¿ =1.67 ≈ 2 ¿
30
then randomly selected student 25 as your beginning number; with interval
2, the next part of the sample would be 27, then 29, 31, 33, and so on until
you arrive in the desired number in a sample.
 Stratified random sampling. This technique involves randomly selecting an equal
number of units (e.g. persons) from particular groups (called strata). The strata may
be according to sex, age groups, degree programs, majors, etc. This sampling
technique improves representation and avoids the over-representation of some
strata within the group.
Ex. In your study, you want to investigate the study habits of CTE
students. Using stratified random sampling, you first identify the strata
according to majors (i.e. BEEd, BSEd, BTLEd, BPEd), and then randomly
select an equal number of students from each stratum. For instance, there
are 500 students in the sample; divide the sample size over the number of
strata: 500/4=125. Therefore, you are going to randomly select 125
students from each stratum
 Cluster sampling. Instead of choosing random people, cluster sampling randomly
selects clusters (e.g. schools, districts, units, divisions). All units (e.g. persons) in the
clusters shall be part of the study sample.
Ex. In Region VII, there are a handful of public higher education
institutions. The public HEIs are the clusters in this context. Out of these
institutions, you randomly selected four HEIs as part of the sample. Units
under these four HEIs would be part of your investigation.
Non-Probability Sampling Techniques

 Convenience sampling. This non-randomized sampling technique is employed when
the units (e.g. persons) are included in the sample are the easiest to access.
Ex. A teacher is teaching in a public school in a city in Metro Cebu. In his
study, he chooses to select his sample this public school because he
works here and he has access to the said school.

 Purposive sampling. This sampling is based on the study goal. The researcher
selects the sample based on pre-defined criteria that could provide more data on
what he is investigating.
Ex. In a study on teachers’ experiences in the island schools in Olango,
the research selects his sample based on inclusion/exclusion criteria. The
study sample is limited only to teachers (a) teaching in Olangoisland, (b)
not residing in the islands, and (c) having at least five years of teaching
experience.
 Quota sampling. A quota (i.e. fixed number of units) is needed to be achieved in this
sampling technique. Strata are identified (e.g. gender- male and female), and include
as many units (e.g. persons) as possible until the quota for each stratum is achieved;
quota achieved is proportional to the population being studied.
Ex. A researcher studies the experiences of in-campus and out-campus
teaching interns. In his study, he needs to interview 20 in-campus and 20
out-campus interns. He goes around the integrated lab school and
interviews interns until the said quota is achieved.
 Snowball sampling. Also called network sampling, this technique is used to reach out
to some parts of the populations that are hard-to-reach or hidden because they
exhibit some kind of social stigma (e.g. people addicted to drugs, living with HIV,
selling flesh in the night). In this sampling, the already interviewed person is asked to
recruit others to participate in the study.
Ex. You are interested to study the effects of abused drugs on the school
experiences of graduating students. Due to the nature of the study, you
can only access a very minimal number of participants. You have
interviewed two to three students. You can ask your participants if they
know someone who has undergone the same experience and recruit them
to participate in the study. In this way, you can have a network where you
can gain access to these very sensitive groups of society.
Quantitative Studies: Sample Size Calculation

Sample size refers to the portion of the population selected to be part of a study
like experiments and surveys. For quantitative studies, you need to have an
adequate number of participants to avoid errors and biases so that you can
generalize the target population (Taderdoost, 2016).
In calculating the sample size, two concepts are crucial. One is population size
(N); therefore, it is important to define the target population vis-à-vis the study
goal. Second is the margin of error (e). The variable e is the confidence interval
usually set at α=0.05 for social science studies.
The most commonly used formula for sample size determination is Slovin’s
formula, represented as:

N
n= 2
1+ N e
where n is the sample size,

N is the population size, and
e is the margin of error set at 0.05
Ex. Suppose that you want to find out which ICT tools best suited to the public
junior high schools in Cebu City. There are about 2,000 high school teachers in
this division. How many teachers would participate in the study?
N 2000
n= 2
= 2
=333.33 ≈ 333
1+ N e 1+(2000)(0.05)
Answer: 333 teachers would participate in the study.
For smaller population size, total population sampling may be used. This means
that the target population is the sample size (Lund Research Ltd., 2012).
Ex. You are going to test the effectiveness of a strategy in improving students’
performance in Science. In this study, you only have two classes—one class is
the control while the other is the experimental group. Both classes have 40
students only. Since the population size is too small, the target population of 40
for each class becomes the sample size.
Other sources give the following tips in determining the size of the sample
(Bullen, 2014):
1. The minimum sample size is 100. Most statisticians that this sample size can give a
meaningful result.
2. A good maximum size is usually 10% as long as it does not exceed 100. This is to
prevent expensive and time-consuming data gathering.
3. Choose a number between the minimum (100 or in smaller cases, the total number)
and the maximum (10% of the target population or in very large cases, 1,000)
depending on the situation. This would offer the optimum benefits of sampling.
Qualitative Studies: Point of Saturation

A smaller sample size usually characterizes qualitative studies because the
results do not generalize the population (Osmona, 2013). This sample should be
large enough to gather enough data to describe the phenomenon and address
the research questions. There should be the attainment of saturation.

Data saturation is not about exhausting all the resources—it is not about
numbers. It concerns the depth of the data obtained—it is more concerned with
what constitutes the sample. When interview results are repetitive and no new
data are obtained, no new meanings, code, and themes are gotten. Therefore,
any additional participant does not result in additional information. This is where
data saturation is achieved (Fusch& Ness, 2015).
Though the point of saturation is the basis of attaining the appropriate sample
size, other authors recommend the following numbers as appropriate sample
size depending on the nature of the qualitative study:
1. Ethnography, 30-50 participants (Morse, 1994). Researchers converse
heavily on several key informants who are knowledgeable about the culture
and who develop special, ongoing relationships with the researcher.
2. Grounded theory, 20-30 participants (Creswell, 1998). Researchers use
theoretical sampling so that the participants can best contribute to the
evolving theory.
3. Phenomenological study, 5-28 participants (Creswell, 1998). Participants
must have experienced the phenomenon under study and must be able to
articulate what it is like to have lived that experience.
The numbers above will help the researcher estimate the number of participants,
however, it is the point of saturation that dictates the required number of
participants in the qualitative stud
Assessment
Paper-pencil Test
Read the following questions and encircle the letter of the CORRECT answer.
1. What makes a sample different from the population?

A. A sample is a subset of the population set.
B. A sample is needed more than the population.
C. A sample may have elements in all parts of the population.
D. A sample is a set that gives the characteristic of the whole population.
2. Which of the following is a relevant sampling frame for educational
researchers?
A. entries in the lab journal C.attendance logs in the computer lab
B. minutes of every meeting D. all of the above

3. Getting a sample from among the students in a class was done using the
lottery method. Like the lottery, the student numbers were drawn from the
lottery machine. What sampling design was used?
A. quota sampling C. stratified random sampling
B. simple random sampling D. theoretical sampling
4. According to recent studies, is there a best way to determine the sample size
in any study?
A. NO, every design has its sampling design.
B. YES, the best sample size calculator is needed to provide accurate results.
C. NO, a combination of several sampling techniques that lead to a saturation point
is needed to have the best results.
D. YES, the Slovin’s formula in calculating the sample size is the best in quantitative
studies, while the saturation point is the best in qualitative studies.
5. Why are qualitative studies having less number of participants in the sample?
A. A smaller sample is enough to derive generalization for the population.
B. The number of participants does not affect the results of qualitative studies.
C. Less number of participants means a more economical way of data gathering.
D. There are specific sample characteristics that the researcher wants to
understand.
Identifying appropriate sampling design

Identify which sampling design is most appropriate in the following studies.
Explain your answer in two sentences only.
6. John wants to determine the level of environmental attitudes of 1 st year, 2nd year, 3rd
year, and 4th-year BSEd-Science students.
7. Liam explores the development of college students who eventually hailed as Best
Student-Teacher when they graduated.
8. Maria aims to determine the level of planning and engagement of winning state
universities and colleges in SCUAA events. She plans to include one randomly
institution per region.

9. Barbie is interested to investigate the experiences of people with HIV when they
opened up about their condition to other people.
10. Tony includes teachers in his study who are graduates of CNU, have at least one-
year experience in any private school, and are currently employed in a government
school.
Determining the sample size

Determine the sample size of the following proposed studies. Justify your
answers.
11. Janice wants to investigate the level of perception of the students about plagiarism.
She has four sections (totaling 188 students) and wants to employ stratified random
sampling. How many students will he include in each section? How many students
will he include in totality?
12. Samuel is involved in a research project that explores the experiences of teachers
using blended learning as a modality in the new normal. How many participants
should he interview in estimate? Will he include all of them? If he will not include all
of them, when will he stop interviewing?
Enrichment
Reflecting on the Boon and Bane of Sampling Designs

Choose one sampling design and derive at least three advantages (boon) and
three disadvantages (bane) in the research process. These responses shall be
written in paragraph format in at least 99 words. Attach your work to this page.
1st paragraph—precis (narrative/overview)
2nd paragraph—reflection proper (boon/bane)
3rd paragraph—conclusion (Is it boon or bane? What do you
recommend when researchers use this design)
Critiquing a Paper
Find a paper in education that has a well-described sampling design. Critique this
design in terms of its appropriateness, its procedures, and its overall use in the
study. Write a critique paper on this in at least 99 words. Attach your work to this
page.
1st paragraph—precis (narrative/summary of the paper)
2nd paragraph—critique proper (appropriateness, procedures and
overall use)
3rd paragraph—conclusion (Is the design appropriate? What do
you recommend when researchers use this design?)
Research Work
Formulate the sampling design of your proposed study. Consult your Research
teacher about this.
References
Banerjee, A. &Chaudhury, S. (2010). Statistics without tears: Populations and

samples. Industrial Psychology Journal, 19(1). 60-65
Bullen, P.B. (2014). How to choose a sample size (for the statistically
challenged). Retrieved from https://bit.ly/30vb3rn
Creswell, J.W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among
five traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications
Fusch, P.I. & Ness, L.R. (2015). Are we there yet? Data saturation in qualitative
research.The Qualitative Report, 20(9), 1408-1416
Kabir, S.M.S. (2016). Sample and sampling designs.Basic Research Guidelines.
Lund Research Ltd. (2012). Total population sampling. Laerd Dissertation.
Retrieved from https://bit.ly/3gvec0b
Morse, J.M. (1994). Designing funded qualitative research. In Denizen, N.K. &
Lincoln, Y.S. (eds.) Handbook of qualitative research (2nd edition).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Mujere, N. (2016). Sampling in research. In Baran, M. & Jones, J. (eds.) Mixed
Methods Research for Improved Scientific Study. Retrieved from
https://bit.ly/2XtABDs
Osmona, J. (2013). Sampling in qualitative research: Improving the quality of
research outcomes in higher education. Makerere Journal of Higher
Education, 4(2), 169-185
Surbhi, S. (2016). Difference between population and sample. Key Differences.
Retrieved from https://bit.ly/2C3jqRM
Taderdoost, H. (2016). Sampling methods in research methodology; How to
choose a sampling technique for research. International Journal of
Academic Research in Management, 5(2), 18-27
What you liked
WOWs Wishes What needs improvement

Module 7
Research Procedure and
Research Tools Construction
Desired Learning
Outcomes

1. explained the proper research procedures;
2. explained the process of establishing validity and reliability of research
instruments;
3. explained the principles and guidelines in construction of research instruments
as well as the strength and weaknesses of each; and
4. constructed the research instrument for one’s own research project based on
the research problem, review of related literature, theories, concepts and
principles and guidelines; and checked the tool’s validity and reliability.
Overview
Unit 7 is about Research Procedures, Research tools Construction, and

Validation of Research Instruments. If you reach this part of your research work,
it means you have established your research problem and specific questions and
you are now ready to embark on the process of answering them through
empirical data. To better facilitate your understanding of this crucial stage of
research process, the major topics are divided into two sections. The first section
presents the data collection methods as well as its construction. Here, the
concepts are organized according to the two major type of research design –
qualitative and quantitative. Hence, you will deal with some of the major ways to
collect qualitative data (e.g., the interview, observation, and focus group
discussion, and documentary research) and quantitative data (e.g.,
questionnaire, test). It also discusses about varied research tools for each
aforementioned method as well as the construction of such instrument. The
second section orients you on the process of establishing the validity and
reliability of your constructed research instrument.

Module 7: Research Procedure and Research Tools Construction
Course Contents and

Let’s Begin!
Checking of Prior Knowledge.

Double Barrel Matching Type: Column A presents five terms often used in the
data collection procedure, Column B contains the definition of the given term,
and Column C illustrates a research problem applicable for the terminology.
Match the items in Column B and C with the terms in column A answers should
be written in the blanks provided in column A.
A B C
(Terminology) (Definition) (Research Problem)
1. Interview This is done by watching You would like to find out if
______ ; _______ and recording the some variables such as senior
information and behavior high track, study habits,
of the participants in their availability of laboratory
natural context. It can be facilities, gender, and socio-
done either overtly or economic status has a bearing
covertly. on the performance of students
in the licensure examination.
2. Focus group Participants of common The aim is to explore the lived
discussion background are gathered experience of bullied student in
_______ ; _____ together to talk about a a science-oriented school.
specific topic facilitated
and moderated by the
researcher.
3. Observational It is an interactive dialogue You wanted to look into the
methods between the researcher trend of the performance and
_______ ; ______ and one or more scientific literacy of students in
participants. The purpose NAT for the last 10 years.

is to elicit, articulate,
explore, and construct
meaning from the
participant’s point of view.
4. Questionnaire It transforms large data The goal is to obtain various
_______ ; ______ sets into useful information perspectives and best practices
with the aid of statistical of various stakeholders of
analysis to obtain models. school in terms of
BrigadaEskwela
implementation.
5. Data Mining This method is use to You want to record the daily
______ ; ______ obtain information from a experiences and cultural
population as to their practices of indigenous people
preferences, perceptions, living in their natural habitat.
and feelings about a
certain phenomenon or
topic.
We’re on Our Way!
As an education researcher, there are different forms of data that you can
collect depending on your research question. This data may come in the form of
multimodal representations (spoken, written, visual images), records of human
experience as well as numerical data from survey and test. You should always
remember that the data collection methods need to be align and consistent with
your research objectives and main goal.
Answer the following questions based on what you understood about the
preliminary activity.
A. Defining Terms
Define the following terms as used in the research process.
1. Data collection method
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

2. Interview schedule
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Field notes
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. Focus group discussion
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
5. Research instrument
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
B. Complete the Table

Identify at least 6 data collection method used in educational research. Describe
at least 2 characteristics or features, 3 strengths and weaknesses of each of the
method. Complete the table below with the required information.
Data collection Characteristics Strengths Weaknesses

method
Let’s Dig Deeper!
Section 1. Types of data collection method and its instrument
In the previous unit, you have been introduced to the overall research design and
strategies known as research method that you can employ to allow you to
answer your research problem. The next question is how are you going to collect
the empirical data? You now thoughtfully and strategically decide on the
methods of data collection or a technique that a researcher employs in order to
collect physical data which will be later analyzed in a research study. There are

six most commonly usedmethodsby educational researchers namely, tests,
questionnaires, focus groups, observation, and the educational data mining.
1. Tests
When you applied for admission test in the University, you probably noticed
that all student applicants took the entrance exam to measure the aptitude of
students. This method is often times employed in quantitative research to
measure different variables (e.g., aptitude, attitudes, and performance of the
respondents). Standardized test of intelligence, personality test, aptitude test,
and diagnostic test are some of the examples of this tool.
2. Questionnaires
This data collection method is commonly answered by the respondent or also
known as self-report. This method is utilized if the goal of the study is to gather
information (e.g., perceptions, beliefs) of an individual. As a beginner in
researcher, you might be confused between constructing your own questionnaire
and adapting an existing one. Which do you think is best to do? There is no
blanket rule that applies for this data collection method. You should always go
back to your research question and objectives. If you think that an existing
questionnaire from the articles you have read have similar operational definition
on your variables of your study – that is, the construct validity of the existing
instrument fits to your operational definition, then do adapt. It is imperative that at
the very start of your study, you have set clear operational definitions of the
measurable variables. If you are not sure of the appropriateness of the existing
questionnaire to your study, you might as well develop a new measure that is
fitting to your conceptual definition of your variables. Bell & Waters (2014)
highlights some of the types of questions that you can include in your instruments
such as open-ended questions, list, category, ranking, quantity, grid, multiple
choice questions, dichotomous questions, pictorial questions, and scale.
For the scale, you can either choose from any of the following scaling
method: rating scale, semantic differential scale, Likert, Guttman, and
Thurstone. In constructing such instrument, bear in mind these important
considerations especially in structuring the items or questions.
1. Avoid ambiguous and imprecise questions.
2. Avoid questions that are biased, leading and loaded with series of follow-
up questions.
3. Avoid questions that are difficult for the respondents due to offensive,
requires assumptions or hypothetical questions, recall-dependent type,
and questions that covers sensitive issues.
4. Check for jargons in your questions.
5. You should also decide on the response category of your questions. The
type of response depends on the type of questions you provide.

There are three modes of data collection using questionnaire, namely, in-
person, mail, and internet. Each is described distinctively in the table below.
In-person Mail questionnaire Internet
questionnaire questionnaire
Defining It can be filled in It is sent to the Respondents are
characteristics individually or in a intended directed to a page
group and be respondents via mail through a link where
submitted to the for them to answer they have to supply
researcher thereafter and must mail it back they supply answers
to the researcher to the online
after completion questionnaire and
click “submit” when
finished
How often Very common in It is widely applied in The most widely used
used? experimental and survey research but method nowadays
survey research not in other methods
due to low response
rate.
Costs It is inexpensive as It is not expensive, It is inexpensive as it
the cost is only the as it only requires only requires software
production of copies of materials for mailing. and internet
the questionnaire and connection to conduct
for motivational this method
incentives to the
respondents (optional)
Response rate Higher response rate Lower response rate Moderately higher
and can reach a larger (10%-40%) response rate is
audience depending on the typical especially for
topic but it can topics that are
however reach a interesting. It can
larger audience reach a larger
audience
Speed Quick turnaround It usually takes Quick turnaround
especially if longer time to collect
respondents and back the
researchers are questionnaire.
physically present in Oftentimes, you have
the examination area to send a reminder.

In-person Mail questionnaire Internet
questionnaire questionnaire
Additional - Since respondents - It is suitable for - it is easier to
advantages and researchers are sensitive topics and program the structure
present physically, for those difficult to and sequence of the
they have full control reach out personally questions through
of the data collection - Respondents are software application
process. free to answer it - more convenient to
- Data collected are anytime they life reach larger
easier to analyze and - Data collected are respondents and they
the objectivity level in easier to analyze can answer anytime
the analysis is high and the objectivity - Data are easier to
- anonymity is level in the analysis analyze and the
maintained for the is high objectivity level in the
respondents analysis is high
- anonymity is
maintained
Disadvantages -Respondents cannot - There is no probing - There is no probing
elaborate their activity and activity and
response as there is respondents may be respondents may be
no probing questions left confused as left confused as there
and opportunity to there is no presence is no presence of the
share feelings of the researcher for researcher for
- some questions can clarifications. clarifications.
be left unanswered, - there is little to no - there is little to no
improperly control over who control over who
understood, and answers the answers the
difficult to analyze questionnaire questionnaire
- there can also be a - some questions - some questions can
questionnaire fatigue can be left be left unanswered,
and respondents are unanswered, improperly
most likely detached improperly understood, and
with the researcher understood, and difficult to analyze
difficult to analyze
3. Interviews
This is an interactive data collection method that involves a dialogue between
the interviewer (the researcher) and interviewee (the participant). In this set-up,
the interviewer throws a question to the interviewee to answer and further
elaborate. Interviews can be physically conducted on a face-to-face set-up or in-
person interviews or over the telephone ortelephone interviews. The salient
advantage of interview is that it allows researcher to clarify details and expound

their answers by requesting for additional information from the interviewee using
probes or prompts. Given the interpersonal nature of this method, interviewer
must build rapport with the participant by being friendly yet impartial to the
answers of the interviewee. It means that the researcher should notreact or
comment positively or negatively to the interviewee’s statement to avoid a biased
response. There are some techniques to establish trust and rapport with the
participant.
a. Explain who the sponsoring organization is, if there is.
b. Explain the goal or intention of the research
c. Emphasize to the participant that their identity will be kept anonymous and
confidential, that is, the researcher will never divulge their identification to
anyone.
d. Make them understand that their participation and cooperation is important
for the completeness and success of the study.
The types of interview are classified into two namely quantitative interview
and qualitative interview. The interview protocol is the research instrument
used for the interview that contains the items or questions to be asked to the
participants, the instructions from the opening of the interview up to the closing,
and so forth. The interview protocol serves as the script prepared by the
researcher. He/she reads it to the interviewee and it is used to record their
responses. Similarly, the interview protocol in this type of interview looks like that
of a questionnaire, however, the distinction is more on the manner of
administration where the respondents personally record their answers on the
questionnaire.
Qualitative interviews
This classification of interview consists of open-ended questions. It is
suitable for a research study that aims to explore in depth the thoughts and
feelings of an individual about a certain phenomenon or topic. Hence, it is called
a depth interview as the researcher enters the inner world of the participant to
better understand their perspective. In this method, the interviewer must be
attentive to listen and record the statements of the interview along with probing
and follow-up questions to encourage further elaboration. There are three types
of qualitative interview and they significantly vary on the way the interview
protocol is constructed. Patton (1987) added the closed quantitative interview in
the list. The characteristics of each of the interview protocol, strengths, and
weaknesses are shown in the table below.
Type of Characteristics of an Strengths Weaknesses

interview interview protocol
Informal The researcher Questions that emerge Information collected
conversation primarily considers from the setting and varies from one
interview or the overall research nature of the participant individual to another
unstructured purpose and is the salient feature of due to differences in
interview objectives of the study this method as the the questions asked
but there is no formal interviewer can match making some of the
interview protocol his questions based on data less
established. the context. comprehensive and
Questions emerge the method and prone
contextually and are to bias.
asked spontaneously
without predetermined
topic or questions on
hand.
Interview There is a well- The outline helps Due to the flexibility of
guide prepared interview increase the breadth the interviewer to ask
approach or protocol, which and depth of data to be and frame questions
semi- contains outlined collected from each based on his/her
structured specific topics but the participant making the decision, some salient
interview sequence of method more topics may be
questions along with comprehensive and unintentionally skipped
how it is worded systematic yet and may yield varied
varies during the situational. perspectives from the
course of interview. participants which will
lead to less
comparable results
Standardized Uses well-established There is a comparable It restricts probing and

open-ended interview protocol and comprehensive elaboration of answers
interview or including exact words response because all from the participants.
structured and statements as participants are asked
interview well as sequence of the same questions
questions. The thus lesser bias and
manner (open-ended interviewer effects.
format) and type of interview. It is easier to
questions are asked organize and analyze
uniformly to all the data.
interviewees.

Type of Characteristics of an Strengths Weaknesses
interview interview protocol
Closed The interview protocol More efficient and Respondents are
quantitative contains comparable data restricted and must
interview predetermined analysis. conform to respond on
questions and fixed the fixed choices
responses and looks given; the interview
like that of a process may be
questionnaire. The impersonal and
interviewer reads the mechanistic such that
script and writes down what the participant
the response of the intend to say, feel or
participant on it. . experienced may be
distorted by the fixed
response.
Adapted from M.Q. Patton. (1987). How to Use Qualitative Methods in Evaluation, pp.116-117
4. Focus Group Discussion

This method is conducted by forming a group of individual with similar
background to discuss a certain topic facilitated by a moderator. The researcher
or any person who is trained and work for the researcher can be the
moderatorand lead the focus group discussion to examine the individual
member’s thoughts and feelings towards the topic being discussed. The term
“focus group” is derived from the idea that the facilitator or moderator ensure that
the individuals in the group are focused on a certain topic for discussion by
asking open-ended questions. Usually, at least 6 to 12 purposively selected
participants constitute the focus group to promote deeper and substantial
discussion. It is advised to organize more than one groupin a research study as
having only one group to provide information is weak and is discouraged.
Like in an interview, the research instrument used in this study is called focus
group protocol, which looks very similar to the unstructured interview guide. It
contains a specified list of topics and open-ended questions that the moderator
need to cover. The instrument is a document that contains open-ended
questions, arranged logically from general to specific. The moderator can
facilitate the group anywhere from 1 to 3 hours and the session is almost always
audio and/or videotape for data analysis later on. This data collection method is
suitable to use to substantiate and complement the results obtained from data
collection methods as they provide rich information at a shorter time. The
limitation of this method comes in the smaller sample size, which renders the
generalization from the focus group sample limited to the group only.
Additionally, the response of some of the members may influence the answers of
other members in the focus group.

5. Observation
This method involves watching the patterns of behavior that people do in a
particular context to gain information on the phenomenon being studied. It is a
suitable method to verify if what people say they do is congruentwith what they
actually does, provided that the observer does it discreetly so as not to affect the
behavior of the individual being observed. One major advantage of observation is
it allows researcher to record actual behavior than that of the self-report method
such as interview and questionnaire. However, compared to other methods,
observation is more time consuming and more costly. It does not measure also
the inner state of an individual, as it is solely dependent on what is observed
externally.
There are two types of observation based on the context the data are
collected. When the observational data is collected from a carefully set-up facility
(i.e., inside the research laboratory), it is called laboratory observation. An
example of this is the observation conducted on the children’s behavior as seen
through a one-way window of the laboratory where they are placed. Opposite to
this type of observation is the naturalistic observation, which is carried out in the
field, or in the real world where the participants naturally live, perform their daily
routine, and where the behavior occurs naturally. Going back to the study on
children, naturalistic observation applies by observing them in their classroom
where they are most comfortable.
Types of Observation
1. Quantitative observation
When the observation produces quantitative data in the form of counts or
frequencies and percentages, it is called quantitative observation. It is a
structured observation such that the observational procedures (e.g., persons
observed, variables, schedule, setting, and procedure of observation) in the
research instrument are standardized to get reliable data. Checklist along with
other data collection instrument (i.e., camera, recorder, laptop) are commonly
used by the observers to produce a record which serves as a data for later
coding or analysis. The checklist in quantitative observation are more specific,
detailed, and structured in a close-ended format than those in qualitative
observation. This type of observation is suitable to use if the goal is for
confirmatory purposes while qualitative observation is to generate new
knowledge or for exploratory purposes.
Qualitative observation
In this method, the researcher observes all possible relevant events that
can be perceived within the setting and make extensive recording in the field
notes but there is no specific details yet for such observation. Field notes are the

research instrument in this method where the notes containing all observations
are written down. It is synonymous to naturalistic observation. In doing so, you
must always remember and take note of what you have observed right after you
observed so as not to forget. The researcher, in this method, has a salient role as
a data collection instrument as he or she decides on the details to observe and
record. The observer can also play various roles during observation depending
on the setting, research objectives, and form of interaction, which can be as
acomplete participant, participant-as-observer, observer-as-participant, or
complete observer.
The use of photography in qualitative research has gained popularity recently
particularly in observation, hence, the term visual data collection is coined.
Visual data compared to verbal and numerical data, are more concrete as the
image itself provides rich source of information when used together with other
methods (e.g., interview). Visual data come in the form of photographs, cartoons,
drawings, videos, or carvings.
6. Constructed, Secondary, and Existing Data

In research, it is not always about collecting primary data using the
aforementioned methods; some studies also need secondary data to
substantiate their claim. Constructed data are objects or artifacts developed by
the individuals involved in a particular study, which can take the form of images
from drawings, written accounts from diaries, video footage, and newly produced
personal documents. Secondary or existing data are kinds of data that have been
collected, recorded, or abandoned by any researcher in their previous research
study of which it will be used by another researcher for a different research
purpose. Oftentimes, these kinds of data are used to corroborate with other
primary data in their study. Personal documents, official documents (i.e.,
government documents), physical data, and archived data are all examples of
secondary and existing data.
The emerging data collection method for secondary data is called data
mining. It is also known as knowledge discovery from data (KDD) wherein it
employs process of extracting usable data from a large set of raw data to
uncover trends, themes, or patterns using one or more software. It has various
applications such as in marketing, politics, research, and education. When data
mining is applied in the field of education it is called educational data mining
(EDM). It is centered on the development of methods using data from
educational setting to better understand students and the conditions of learning
they are in. There are five major categories of educational data mining methods,
namely: prediction, clustering, relationship mining, discovery with models, and
distillation of data for human judgment. The first three categories apply in all field

of discipline, as it is universally accepted method while the last two are exclusive
for education only.
Section 2. Reliability and Validity of Research Instrument
In planning for your data collection process, there are important factors
that you need to consider if you want a smooth-sailing, accurate, consistent and
valid process and result. These are validity and reliability of your research
instrument.
Reliability is the central concept in measurement, which also means

consistency. There are two main aspects of consistency and each is described
below.
f. Consistency over time or stability. It refers to the consistency of questions
over time. That is, if you give the same questionnaire to the same people
under similar circumstances but at a different time, will you obtain the same
score? If you do, your measuring instrument is reliable. If you do not get the
same result, it is unreliable. In this aspect, you have to administer the same
instrument at two points in time or the so-called test-retest reliability. It anchor
on the assumptions that the trait being measured would not have changed
substantially between two administrations.
g. Internal consistency. This aspect of reliability relates to the concept-
indicator idea of measurement. It centers on the question “how consistent are
the items to each other or are all items working in the same direction?” there
are ways to answer that question namely split-half techniques, the Kuder-
Richardson formulas and coefficient alpha (Cronbach’s alpha). Reliability in
this case is established in a single administration of the instrument.
h. Interrater Reliability. This is done by having three or more observers rate a
particular behavioral measure (i.e., student’s social skills), and the extent to
which their ratings are consistent and correlate with all three raters judgment,
provided that the observer or the rater is attentive to the observed behavior.
There are two ways to determine interrater reliability. Cronbach’s α is used for
quantitative data and Cohen’s κ(the Greek letter kappa) for the counterpart
categorical data.
Test-retest reliability, coefficient alpha, and interrater reliability are different

facets of consistency. You can either one of them or all of them to establish
reliability of your instrument. The theoretical underpinning behind this
measurement concept is on the classical measurement theory. It describes the
nature of any actual (or observed) score has two part: the true score part and the

error part. It is an assumption that any observed measurement is not perfectly
accurate as it contains some error with it. The smaller the error the more
accurate the measurement, and vice versa. To ensure less error, we take several
readings and we get the average of all the readings. This average reading value
is now regarded as closer estimate to the true score that we want to obtain. For
instance, to get your true weight of an object, you do not weigh yourself on the
scale just once, you repetitively weighed in at least thrice; add the readings to get
the average weight. The resulting weight is considered the true weight. Since
error and reliability are inversely related, the larger the reliability, the smaller the
error and the other way around. Measures with high reliability produced observed
scores that are close to the true scores. In general, a value of +.80 or greater is
considered to indicate good reliability. If the value is lower than that, consider
revising the instrument.
Validity is another concept of measurement quality. It addresses the question:

“How can we determine if such instrument measures what it is supposed to
measure? Validity refers to the extent to which an instrument measures what it
claims to measure based on the operational concept it purports to measure.
Apparently, the variables that we want to study are latent in nature, inference is
involved in determining whether the indicators or items in the instrument and the
construct or operationally defined concept corroborate each other. For instance,
the variable you want to measure is attitude and performance of students, how
do you define these variables? Are the items in your instrument measure those
constructs or variables? The question on validity therefore strictly applies to the
inference the researcher makes from he or she observe.
Approaches to establish validity of the instrument
a. Face validity is a subjective appraisalfrom the perspective of the test takers

or respondents on whether the instrument measures the variables or
concepts operationally defined in the study. That is, a test has face validity if
its content simply looks relevant to the person taking the test. It evaluates the
appearance of the questionnaire in terms of feasibility, readability,
consistency of style and formatting, and the clarity of the language used.
Primarily, it should be the researcher who needs to assess if the instrument is
presentable as well as the items are relevant, clear, and unambiguous.
Unfortunately, some considered it as the weakest form of validity.
b. Content validity. It addresses the idea of whether the items in an instrument

reflect and measures the content and conceptual definition of the instrument.
Thus, in this approach, it is imperative that you specify the definition of the

content. In general, content validity involves evaluation of a new survey
instrument by the experts in the field in order to ensure that it includes only
essential items and eliminates undesirable items to a particular concept.
c. Construct validity. This answers the question “Does your instrument (i.e.,
questionnaire, test) actually measures the hypothesis you intend to
measure?” it can be gauged if the scores obtained on a particular test truly
measured the theoretical trait it claimed to measure.
d. Criterion validity is the extent to which people’s scores on a certain test or

questionnaire are correlated with other variables (known as criteria) designed
to be correlated with. For example, assuming that you design a test that will
measure the anxiety level of the person. You hypothesize that the instrument
should give a result for anxiety that is negatively correlated with the student
performance in an exam. After pretesting, you found out that students’ scores
in the anxiety test came out negatively correlated with the expected variable
that is performance, then the instrument is considered valid. However, if in
case the scores in the exam was high regardless of the scores in the anxiety
test, the validity of the instrument is questionable and poor. When the criterion
is measured at the same time as the construct, criterion validity is referred to
as concurrent validity; however, when the criterion is measured at some
point in the future (after the construct has been measured), it is referred to
as predictive validity (because scores on the measure have “predicted” a
future outcome).
Importance of Pilot-Testing of Research Instrument
Suppose you are done drafting your research instrument (survey questionnaire,
test questionnaire, interview guide), what is the next best thing to do? You have
to do pre-testing and pilot testing to establish reliability and validity of research
instrument. Oftentimes, they are used interchangeably; however, they have
distinct definition and purpose. Pre-testing is a method applied to validate the
instrument and its measurement or the items that measures construct. Pilot
testing is more of the act of administering the instrument and its data analysis or
a “rehearsal”. It is also known as feasibility study of the study from start to finish
to ensure its research particularly in the methods section of the research process
in actual field conditions as it will help the researcher identify potential problems
that may arise in the actual conduct of the interview, survey, and other data
collection method and analysis. Once you have identified areas for improvements
in the methods section, you can fine-tune your instrument and procedure before
conducting the actual data collection. Both of these steps are essential in

ensuring quality control of the research instrument to identify and minimize
potential errors, pitfalls, and respondents confusions before embarking on the
actual data collection phase. There are important issues you need to address in
pre-testing your instrument. Among them are unclear directions, skipped items,
refusal or inability to answer, “other” responses, little or no response variation,
easily misinterpreted questions, sensitive questions, inconsistent scales, order of
response options, computer-based and technical problems, and typographical
errors. Below is a checklist that will guide you in pre-testing your instrument for a
more reliable and valid result.
Keep in Mind!
In doing research, you have to decide thoughtfully on the most appropriate data
collection method and research instruments to use to obtain good quality of data. The
strengths and weaknesses of these methods are set out, so that you can decide on their
suitability to your research problem and objectives as well as to your research design.

Learning Task
1. Make a graphic organizer on when to use the data collection methods in
doing research.
Adapted from https://www.nps.gov/apco/learn/education/upload/Grading%20Rubrics.pdf
2. Directions: Read the research abstracts taken from the published research
articles below. Answer the questions that follow.
Source: Picardal, M. T. (2020). Does Conceptual Change Process of Instruction Promote Scientific
Understanding of Biological Evolution?. Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research, 15(2).

1. What is the research problem being investigated by the researcher?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. What is the data collection method and research instrument used by the
researcher?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Why is the data collection method used appropriate for the phenomenon
investigated?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Source: Sanchez, J. M. P. (2019). Indicators of Asian Achievement in Chemistry: Implications

to the Philippine Setting. KIMIKA, 30(1), 18-30. https://doi.org/10.26534/kimika.v30i1.18-30

1. What is the research problem being investigated by the researcher?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. What is the data collection method and research instrument used by the
researcher?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Why is the data collection method used appropriate for the phenomenon
investigated?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Assessment
Paper and Pencil Test

Identification of appropriate data collection method
1. Enumerate the data collection method and briefly describe its distinctive
characteristic or feature as well as its suitability to use.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

2. How do you establish reliability and validity of a research instrument?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Enrichment
With your group, decide on the data collection method that you will use in
your proposed research study. Explain thoroughly how you will implement the
method. Consult your research teacher on this for guidance.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Reflection
Examine your learning from this topic.
I SEE I FEEL
WHAT?
I THINK I WILL
References
Baker, R.S.J.d. (in press) Data Mining for Education. To appear in McGaw, B.,
Peterson, P., Baker, E. (Eds.) International Encyclopedia of Education (3rd
edition). Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
Bell, J., Waters, S., &Ebooks Corporation. (2014). Doing your research project: A
guide for first- time researchers (Sixth ed.). Maidenhead, Berkshire:
Open University Press.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., Morrison, K., &Ebooks Corporation. (2011; 2013;
1993). Research methods in education (7th ed.). Abingdon, Oxon; New
York: Routledge.
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage.
O’Leary, Z. (2014). The essential guide to doing your research project (2nd ed.).
London: SAGE.
Patton, M. Q. (1987). How to use qualitative methods in evaluation (No. 4). Sage.
Punch, K. F., &Oancea, A. (2014). Introduction to research methods in
education. Sage.
Ruel, E., Wagner, W.E. III., & Gillespie, B.J. (2015). The Practice of Survey Research. SAGE

Taherdoost, H. (2016). Validity and reliability of the research instrument; how to
test the validation of a questionnaire/survey in a research. How to Test
the Validation of a Questionnaire/Survey in a Research (August 10, 2016).
Price, P.C., Jhangiani, R., Chiang, C.A., Leighton, D.C. & Cuttler, C. (2020).
Reliability and Validity of Measurement. Pressbooks. Accessed at
https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/reliability-and-validity-of-
measurement/
What you liked
WOWs Wishes

Module 8
Data-Gathering, Processing,
Organizing for Quantitative
AndQualitativeResearches
Week 8; 3 hours
Desired Learning
Outcomes

 explained, compared and contrasted the scales of measurement, – nominal,
ordinal, interval and ratio and the appropriate statistics to use per scale of
measurement;
 explained the statistical tests: descriptive and inferential; compared and
contrasted between descriptive and inferential statistics, and applying proper
statistical tests for quantitative research; thematic analysis for qualitative
research on one’s own research project;
 computed correctly the mean, median, mode, percentages, range, standard
deviation, t-test, ANOVA, Pearson r, Regression, etc.; and
 explained the thematic analysis for qualitative studies.
Overview
Unit 8 is divided into three bite-sized parts to enable you to digest properly every
part of this unit. Part 1of this unit will acquaint you with the scales of
measurement of the various data that you will gather, process and organize in
your research. Part 2 will equip you with the knowledge and skills that you need
in processing and organizing data using Descriptive and Inferential Statistics for
quantitative studies. In part 3, you will be exposed to thematic analysis for
qualitative research.

Module 8: Data-Gathering, Processing, Organizing for Quan. & Qual. Researches
Course Contents and

Let’s Begin!
Suppose you are a participant in a study that aims to determine the cognitive
flexibility of teacher education students and you are asked to respond to a
questionnaire. The cognitive flexibility inventory (CFI) which is section 3 of the
questionnaire found on the student’s workbook is a self-report measure of the
type of cognitive flexibility that you have which will enable you to successfully
hurdle challenging and maladaptive thoughts. Cognitive flexibility is the “ability to
switch cognitive sets to adapt to changing environmental stimuli” (Dennis &
Vander Wal, 2010).
Have your pen ready then. There is no right or wrong answer in the
questionnaire. Enjoy!
Questionnaire
Read the questionnaire carefully and answer it honestly.
Section 1 Put a check on the blank corresponding to your answer.
a. What is your degree program?
___ BEEd
___ BSEd
___ BECEd
___ BSNEd
___ BPEd
___ BTLEd
___ BCAEd
b. What is your year level?

___ First
___ Second
___ Third
___ Fourth
Section 2 Put numbers 1-5 on the blanks with 1 for the first person/s you turn to
when confronted with difficult situations in school.
___ Parent/s
___ Sibling/s
___ Other relative/s
___ Friend/s
___ Teacher/Mentor/Coach

Section 3 20-Item Cognitive Flexibility Inventory
Please use the scale below to indicate the extent to which you
agree or disagree with the following statements.
1 - Strongly disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Somewhat disagree
4 - Neutral
5 - Somewhat agree
6 - Agree
7 - Strongly Agree
___ 1) I am good at “sizing up” situations.

___ 2) I have a hard time making decisions when faced with difficult situations.*
___ 3) I consider multiple options before making a decision.
___ 4) When I encounter difficult situations, I feel like I am losing control.*
___ 5) I like to look at difficult situations from many different angles.
___ 6) I seek additional information not immediately available before attributing causes
to behavior.
___ 7) When encountering difficult situations, I become so stressed that I cannot think of
a way to resolve the situation.*
___ 8) I try to think about things from another person’s point of view.
___ 9) I find it troublesome that there are so many different ways to deal with difficult
situations.*
___ 10) I am good at putting myself in others’ shoes.
___ 11) When I encounter difficult situations, I just don’t know what to do.*
___ 12) It is important to look at difficult situations from many angles.
___ 13) When in difficult situations, I consider multiple options before deciding how to
behave.
___ 14) I often look at a situation from different viewpoints.
___ 15) I am capable of overcoming the difficulties in life that I face.*
___ 16) I consider all the available facts and information when attributing causes to
behavior.
___ 17) I feel I have no power to change things in difficult situations.*
___ 18) When I encounter difficult situations, I stop and try to think of several ways to
resolve it.
___ 19) I can think of more than one way to resolve a difficult situation I’m confronted
with.
___ 20) I consider multiple options before responding to difficult situations.
Source:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
226014300_The_Cognitive_Flexibility_Inventory_Instrument_Development_and_Estimat
es_of_Reliability_and_Validity
Below are the instructions for scoring the CFI:
 Add up the scores for the items for the Alternatives scale (items 1, 3, 5-6, 8, 10,
12-13, 14,16,18-20) and the Control scale (2, 4, 7, 9, 11, 15 & 17).
 When adding the items, make sure to reverse score items 2, 4, 7, 9, 11, 15
&17.That is, for these items, it is 7 for strongly disagree, 6 for disagree and so
on.
 Higher scores on both scales are indicative of greater flexibility.

My CFI Total Score: ___

How was the activity? How did you find your score? High? Congrats! Not so? No
need to worry. It is not recorded. You will have a lot of opportunities to improve
your cognitive flexibility. Doing research is one of them.
We’re on Our Way!
What do you notice with the kind of data that you are providing in the different
sections of the questionnaire? Are they of the same kind or are they different?
Why do you say so?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
In the questionnaire that you have just answered are three sections. The data
asked for in these sections correspond to the different scales of measurement.
To quantify or categorize the variable/s of interest in any study, these scales of
measurement are being used to identify subsequently the appropriate statistical
treatment to be used whether descriptive or inferential for quantitative studies.
For qualitative studies meanwhile, thematic analysis is to be utilized.
Let’s Dig Deeper!
PART 1 Scales of Measurement
Data can be categorized as one of these four scales: nominal, ordinal, interval
and ratio.
meaningful
RATIO
zero
equal
INTERVAL
distances
Scales of
Measurement
ORDINAL rank
NOMINAL attributes
Figure 8.1 Scales of Measurement

Nominal Scale
Section 1 of the questionnaire asked for your degree program and year level.
Both degree program and year level are data in nominal scale. In degree
program, there were seven (7) categories to choose from and for year level there
were four (4). Nominal scale data have categories and they describe traits,
characteristics and attributes. They don’t have numeric value and they don’t also
have order. Other examples include gender and religious denomination.
Ordinal Scale
In section 2 of the questionnaire, you ranked the individuals mentioned as to who
you would go to first in difficult situations. You ordered those individuals
according to their importance or priority when you seek for help or advice as you
face challenges. Ordinal scale data have an implied intrinsic order that is just
relative. Constant differences are not necessarily indicated by the ranks. Ranks
of 1 to 5 for children’s ages arranged in order from the youngest to the oldest are
ordinal in scale.
Interval Scale
The 20-Item Cognitive Flexibility Inventory in section 3 of the questionnaire
makes use of the numbers 1-7 with assumed equal intervals among responses.
This means that the interval from Strongly Disagree to Disagree is just the same
distance from Neutral to Somewhat Agree. Interval scale data assume equal
distances and have meaningful divisions between options. In the interval scale,
there is a zero point that is just an arbitrary value making negative values
possible. Temperature is an example of data in interval scale as the 10 degree
difference between 10°C and 20°C is the same as the 10 degree distance
between 0°C and -10°C.
Ratio Scale
It is very much like the interval scale but zero in this scale is meaningful. The
true zero point signifies that you cannot have any data. Data in this scale are
seldom used by educational researchers. In education, a score of zero does not
imply absence of knowledge or learning. Examples of data in the ratio scale are
height and income of individuals. A height of zero means there is no such
individual and an income of zero means that such individual has no funds or
money.
Do you have a sweet tooth? Do you like chocolates? Here is another way to look
at these different scales of measurement through these sweet and yummy
chocolates.

The different variants of Nestle chocolates

represent various data.
When you can classify the chocolates according

to variant but no variant is considered superior
over the others, that is nominal.
When you can order the Nestle chocolate

variants according to your preference, that’s
ordinal.
When you can order the Nestle

chocolate variants and there are equal
differences between your preferences,
that’s interval.
When zero for a particular Nestle

chocolate variant means it does not
exist, that’s ratio.

Are you craving now for chocolates? I hope the analogy of chocolates made you
understand better the different scales of measurement.
These scales of measurement fall under two types of variables: categorical and
continuous. Categorical variable is considered as the qualitative kind while
continuous is known as the quantitative variable. The figure below shows the
four scales of measurement and where they are classified under.
Figure 8.2 Categorical and Continuous Variables
Watch this video on Scales of Measurement:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KMFcBoSg6Ak
Now, try answering the items that follow.

Try This - Scales of Measurement
Determine the level of measurement of the following. Write:

N for Nominal Scale
O for Ordinal Scale
I for Interval Scale and
R for Ratio Scale.
___ 1) blood type ___ 6) socio-economic status (low-, middle-, high-income)

___ 2) medicine dosage ___ 7) race
___ 3) zip code ___ 8) credit score
___ 4) pH level ___ 9) weight
___ 5) pulse rate ___ 10) education level (high school, BS, MS, PhD)
PART 2 Descriptive and Inferential Statistics for Quantitative Research
It is imperative that you are able to recognize the measurement scale of your
data for you to identify the appropriate statistics to utilize in data analysis. Your
data analysis will address the research questions that you have posed at the very
start of your study. This is done using descriptive or inferential statistics as soon
as you are able to prepare and organize your data.

Descriptive Statistics, as the name suggests, makes use of the data to

describe the population through numerical calculations, graphs or tables. A
single variable is studied one at a time here. On the other hand, Inferential
Statistics, as its name denotes, makes use of the data taken from the sample to
come up with inferences and predictions about the population in question. Here
multiple variables can be analyzed simultaneously.
The table below will give you a glimpse of what descriptive statistics you can use
in your research based on the scales of measurement of your research data.
Descriptive Statistics Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Frequency distributions    
Mode    
Median   
Mean, standard deviation  
Figure 8.3 Descriptive Statistics for the Different Scales of Measurement
Frequency distribution, mean, mode, median and standard deviation are not new
terms to you since way back when you were in Senior High School, you had 2-3
subjects on research, right? Just to recall, descriptive statistics basically helps
you to 1) summarize the trend of your data through the measures of central
tendency, 2) give a picture of how scattered your data is through measures of
variability and 3) compare one data with the other data through z-score and
percentile ranks. The figure below will help you recall how to determine the
measures of central tendency and measures of variability for ungrouped data.
Measures of
What It Is How to Compute It
Central Tendency
Oftentimes referred to as A] Sum all the data values.
Mean the “average” B] Divide the sum by the
Most popular statistic number of data values.
A] Arrange the data values
in order.
B] With odd number of
Middlemost value when the
values, it is the middle data
Median data values are arranged in
value.
order
C] With even number of
values, it is the average of
the two middle values.
Most commonly used for Identify the most frequently
Mode
categorical data occurring value.

Measures of Variability What It Is How to Compute It
Difference between the Subtract the minimum from
Range maximum and minimum the maximum data value.
values of the data set
Average of the squared A] Get the difference
differences from the mean between the mean and
each data value.
B] Square each of the
Variance difference.
C] Add up the squared
differences.
D] Divide by the total
number of data values.
Indicator of the spread or Get the square root of the
Standard Deviation dispersion of the data variance.
values
Figure 8.4Descriptive Statistics: Measures of Central Tendency and Variability
Try This – Descriptive Statistics for Continuous Variables

Do you still remember Section 3 of the questionnaire which you have previously
answered in Part 1? It contained the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI) with
seven values that are considered ordinal but at the end of which you computed
for your CFI score which is treated as continuous.
Prepare now your writing implements and your calculator as you will needthem to
perform the activity below. Or better yet, use Microsoft Excel.
Watch how to use Microsoft Excel for the descriptive statistics:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WwHH2Hq7eus
A. Write your score in the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory in the table below then
ask nine (9) of your classmates for their scores, too.
My
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Score
B. With the ten (10) CFI scores that you now have, including yours, compute for
the following and explain their meaning:
a) Mean
b) Median

c) Mode
d) Range
e) Variance
f) Standard deviation
Well done! That wasn’t so bad after all. Supposing now you will use descriptive
statistics for the categorical variables in Section 1 of the questionnaire. If you
can still remember, this section asked for your degree program and year level.
Below is the table showing how percentages are used for the categorical
variable: degree program.
Degree Program
Cumulative
Frequency Percent
Percent
BEEd 350 23.3 23.3
BSEd 400 26.7 50
BECEd 150 10 60
BSNEd 200 13.3 73.3
BPEd 150 10 83.3
BTLEd 150 10 93.3
BCAEd 100 6.7 100
Total 1 500 100
Figure 8.5 Descriptive Statistics for Degree Program
To get the percent, just divide the frequency by the total then multiply by 100.
350
For example, for BEEd: ∗100=23.3 . To get the cumulative percent, just add
1500
the percent to the next percent value until reaching 100. The cumulative percent
for BSEd is the percent for BEEd which is 23.3+26.7=50. Using the calculator
will make computations easier for you. Answer now the activity that follows.
Try This – Descriptive Statistics for Categorical Variables

Refer to Figure 8.3 Descriptive Statistics for the Different Scales of

Measurement. Given the categorical variable: Degree Program, what descriptive
statistic/s do you think is/are of interest to an educational researcher? Why do
you say so?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Alright! You’re done with descriptive statistics for continuous and categorical
variables.
Now it’s time for Inferential Statistics. When do we make use of inferential
statistics?
Studying the entire population can be quite difficult because oftentimes it is too
large and if it is too large, it can be costly and time consuming to pursue. A
representative sample is carefully chosen from the population instead to
ascertain that conclusions drawn from the sample really hold true for the
population as well. Hence, inferential statistics is used to analyze the data
obtained from the sample. Inferential statistics is used to test hypotheses that
1) compare groups, 2) relate variables, and 3) make predictions about the
variables.
Hypothesis testing is at the heart of doing inferential analysis. It is defined as a

procedure of determining whether a value obtained from the sample is a good
estimate of the population value. While it is difficult to prove that such value is a
good estimate, what hypothesis testing aims to establish is whether it is a wrong
estimate. Cebu Normal University follows these nine steps in hypothesis
testing: 1) statement of the problem, 2) statement of the null hypothesis, 3)
choice of statistic, 4) computation, 5) findings, 6) decision, 7) interpretation, 8)
conclusion, and 9) implication. For this unit, you just need to make use of steps
2-6.
Statement of the Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis is usually stated as “no difference”, “no relationship” or “no
association”. At this step, the significance level or alpha level is also being set.
It is the “probability level that reflects the maximum risk you are willing to take
that any observed differences are due to chance” (Creswell, 2012). In most
educational researches, the significance level is set at 0.05 or 0.01.
Choice of Statistic
The figure below will guide you with what statistical test to use given the types of
variables that you have in your research as well as the purpose of your

hypothesis whether you are testing for no difference, no relationship or no
association.
Statistical Test Types of Variables
For comparison of groups
I] t-test 1 categorical 1 continuous
II] Analysis of Variance 1 or more

1 continuous
categorical
For relationship of variables
III] Pearson Correlation Coefficient 1 continuous 1 continuous
IV] Linear Regression 2 or more
1 continuous
continuous
For category within group comparison
V] Chi-square 1 categorical 1 categorical
Figure 8.6 Statistical Tests for Continuous and Categorical Variables
Computation
You will now compute for the statistic manually or use Microsoft Excel, online
calculators and statistical software such as Minitab or SPSS. In this step, you
will also determine the p value. It is the “probability (p) that a result could have
been produced by chance if the null hypothesis were true” (Creswell, 2012). In
this unit, you will be given links of videos on how to make such computations
using Excel as well as links of online calculators that you can readily use with no
hassle. Of course, you may also do the computations manually if you like.
Findings
Here, you will state the results of your computations, both the statistic and p
value. Then compare this p value with the significance level which you have set.
If the p value is less than the significance level, then the result is significant. And
if it is greater than the significance level, the result is considered not significant.
Decision
Ultimately, you will have to make a decision whether you will reject or fail to reject
the null hypothesis. When the p value is less than the significance or alpha level,
you reject the null hypothesis. When the p value is greater than the
significance or alpha level, you fail to reject the null hypothesis.
By now, you have refreshed your memory of hypothesis testing and how it is
done. Let us proceed to making use of the steps and the statistical tests shown
in Figure 8.6. The illustrative examples which will be provided here make use of
variables based on the questionnaire which you have answered at the start of
this unit.
I] t-test

To compare groups, the t-test requires taking samples from two groups then
assumes the null hypothesis that the means of these two groups are equal.
Since it is a parametric test, the values of the data sets are normally distributed.
To check if the data sets are normal, the Shapiro-Wilk Test will be done. The
data sets provided in the illustrative examples below have been subjected to this
test.
Use the online Shapiro-Wilk Test Calculator:
http://www.statskingdom.com/320ShapiroWilk.html
Two types of t-test are illustrated here: paired t-test and the independent t-test.
You use the paired t-test when what you have are repeated measures taken
from the same group or from matched pairs. An example in educational research
is when you compare the pre- and post-test scores of the same group of
individuals to determine if the teaching strategy employed is effective. You use
the independent t-test meanwhile to compare data sets from two groups which
are not in any way related. An example would be comparing the data sets
coming from the control and experimental groups in a quasi or true experiment.
Below are illustrative examples for the two types of test to help you recall what
you learned in your Practical Research 2 subject in Senior High School. You can
always do manual computations but other options are provided for you here like
using Excel or online calculators.
A] Paired t-test or t-test for correlated means or dependent samples
Illustrative Example 8.1

In your quasi-experimental research, you want to know if Cognitive Behavioral
Therapy (CBT) can be effective in increasing cognitive flexibility so you tested at
0.05 level if there is a significant mean gain in the 30 BEEd students’ Cognitive
Flexibility Inventory (CFI) scores after undergoing CBT sessions.
CFI scores CFI scores CFI scores CFI scores
before CBT after CBT before CBT after CBT
1 130 135 16 136 132
2 121 125 17 135 135
3 120 121 18 120 122
4 134 137 19 112 118
5 129 133 20 110 112
6 125 127 21 124 125
7 125 126 22 126 129
8 131 132 23 124 125
9 133 133 24 129 131
10 130 132 25 110 115
11 115 118 26 112 115
12 118 121 27 133 132
13 120 122 28 128 130
14 121 123 29 128 129
15 122 125 30 112 115
There is no significant pre-post mean gain in the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory
scores of the BEEd students.

Choice of Statistic
Paired t-test
xD Where:
t= x D = mean of the score differences
δD
δD = standard deviation of the differences
√N N = number of cases
Computation
Use the online calculator:
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/ttestdependent/default.aspx
Watch the video on how to use Excel for paired t-test:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HbTGfUfmit4
Findings
At 0.05 significance level, t (29) = -5.87

with p value < alpha: 0.05.
Decision
The decision is to reject the null
hypothesis.
There is a significant pre-post mean gain

in the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory
scores of the BEEd students.
B] Independent t-test or t-test of mean difference or t-test for uncorrelated

means

Suppose you want to know if there is a significant difference in CFI scores of 30
BSEd students and 30 BEEd students at 0.05 alpha level at the start of the
school year.

CFI scores of CFI scores of CFI scores of CFI scores of
BSEd students BEEd students BSEd students BEEd students
1 131 130 16 134 136
2 123 125 17 134 138
3 121 121 18 127 128
4 132 134 19 114 120
5 125 130 20 110 124
6 126 127 21 127 130
7 127 126 22 120 132
8 133 135 23 123 130
9 130 135 24 128 134
10 138 132 25 111 125
11 110 120 26 117 120
12 112 121 27 130 135
13 122 125 28 127 128
14 126 125 29 126 125
15 121 130 30 114 115

There is no significant difference between the mean scores of the BSEd and
BEEd students in the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory.
Choice of Statistic
Independent t-test (assuming equal variances)
x 1−x 2
t=
√
2 2
( )
(N 1−1) δ 1 +(N 2−1)δ 2 1 1
+
N 1+ N 2−2 N1 N 2
Where:
x 1= mean of BSEd scores
x 2= mean of BEEd scores
δ 1=standard deviation of BSEd scores
δ 2=standard deviation of BEEd scores
N 1=number of BSEd scores
N 2=number of BEEd scores
Computation
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/studentttest/default2.aspx
Watch the video on how to use Excel for independent t-test:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OHHhzLHakKA

Findings
At 0.05 significance level, t (58) = -2.22

with p = 0.03.p value: 0.03 < alpha: 0.05
Decision
hypothesis.
There is a significant difference between

the mean scores of the BSEd and BEEd
students in the Cognitive Flexibility
Inventory.
2] Analysis of Variance
While the t-test is used to compare just two groups, the Analysis of Variance or
ANOVA is used for determining whether three or more means of different
populations are equal. Also a parametric test, the data sets here must also be
normally distributed. While ANOVA takes on different forms, what will be
illustrated here is the One-Way ANOVA wherein the means are compared in
terms of just a single variable.

You want to compare the CFI scores of 120 students in different year levels and
test your hypothesis of no difference among them at 0.05 significance level.
First Second Third Fourth First Second Third Fourth

Year Year Year Year Year Year Year Year
1 130 131 130 135 16 136 134 136 132
2 121 123 125 125 17 135 134 138 135
3 120 121 121 121 18 120 127 128 122
4 134 132 134 137 19 112 114 120 118
5 129 125 130 133 20 110 110 124 112
6 125 126 127 127 21 124 127 130 125
7 125 127 126 126 22 126 120 132 129
8 131 133 135 132 23 124 123 130 125
9 133 130 135 133 24 129 128 134 131
10 130 138 132 132 25 110 111 125 115
11 115 110 120 118 26 112 117 120 115
12 118 112 121 121 27 133 130 135 132
13 120 122 125 122 28 128 127 128 130
14 121 126 125 123 29 128 126 125 129
15 122 121 130 125 30 112 114 115 115

There is no significant difference among the mean CFI scores of the students
belonging to different year levels.
Choice of Statistic
One-way ANOVA
https://duckduckgo.com/?q=anova+table&iax=images&ia=images&iai=https%3A%2F%2Fhelp.gooddata.com
%2Fdownload%2Fattachments%2F34341673%2FExample%2520ANOVA%2520table.png%3Fversion
%3D3%26modificationDate%3D1429433401420%26api%3Dv2
Computation
Use the online One-Way ANOVA calculator:
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/anova/default2.aspx
Watch the video on using Excel for ANOVA:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=leHOBf_-9kM
Findings
At 0.05 significance
level, F(3, 116) =2.2
with p = 0.09.
p value: 0.09 > alpha:
0.05
Decision
The decision is not to
reject the null
hypothesis.
There is no significant
difference among the
mean CFI scores of the students belonging to different year levels.
3] Pearson Correlation Coefficient
Also called the Pearson product-moment correlation, this gives a measure of how
strong the relationship or association of two variables is. The Pearson
correlation coefficient, r, can take on values from -1 to 1 with 0 suggesting no
relationship at all. A positive correlation means that as one variable increases,
the other increases as well while for negative correlation, as one variable

increases, the other decreases. This is also a parametric test so the values in
the data sets must be normally distributed.

Suppose you are conducting a correlational research. You want to know if the
cognitive flexibility of the BSNEd students is related to their self-efficacy. While
cognitive flexibility is measured using the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI),
self-efficacy is measured using the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE).
CFI Scores GSE Scores CFI Scores GSE Scores
1 131 35 16 134 37
2 123 30 17 134 38
3 121 27 18 127 30
4 132 33 19 114 20
5 125 27 20 110 23
6 126 24 21 127 31
7 127 25 22 120 25
8 133 39 23 123 27
9 130 32 24 128 29
10 138 34 25 111 19
11 110 20 26 117 22
12 112 22 27 130 34
13 122 26 28 127 27
14 126 28 29 126 25
15 121 24 30 114 20
There is no significant relationship between cognitive flexibility and self-efficacy
of the BSNEd students.
Choice of Statistic
Pearson Correlation Coefficient
Σ ( x−x )( y − y )
r=
δx δ y N
Where:
x = cognitive flexibility scores
y = self-efficacy scores
x = mean of cognitive flexibility scores
y = mean of self-efficacy scores
δ 1=standard deviation of cognitive flexibility scores
δ 2=standard deviation of self-efficacy scores
N = number of cases
Computation
Watch the video on using Excel for Pearson Correlation Coefficient:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8a_etQN-qso
Use the online calculator to determine the correlation coefficient r:
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/pearson/default2.aspx
Use the online calculator to determine the p value:

https://www.socscistatistics.com/pvalues/pearsondistribution.aspx
Findings
At 0.05 alpha level, r(28) = 0.89
with p < 0.00001.
p value < alpha: 0.05
Decision
hypothesis.
There is a significant relationship

between cognitive flexibility and self-
efficacy of the BSNEd students.
4] Linear Regression
Linear Regression, as a common type of predictive analysis, is used to determine
whether the independent variable/s (x) can significantly predict the dependent (y)
variable. The regression equation y = bx + c is the simplest linear equation
model where b is the regression coefficient (slope of the line) and c is the
constant (intercept).

You wish to extend your correlational research on cognitive flexibility and self-
efficacy since the two variables are significantly and strongly correlated. You
want to determine now a simple linear equation to predict cognitive flexibility of
an individual based on his/her self-efficacy.
Statement of the Null Hypotheses
There is no significant difference There is no significant prediction of
between the fit of the regression cognitive flexibility by self-efficacy.
model/equation and the intercept-only
model/equation.
Choice of Statistic
Regression
Computation
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/regression/default.aspx
Watch the video on using Excel for regression:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TkiB1xBnjn4
Findings

F = 105.31 with p value <alpha: 0.05 For self-efficacy, t = 10.26 with

p value < alpha: 0.05
The regression equation is y = 1.217x + 90.165.
Decision
The decision is to reject the null hypotheses.
There is a significant difference between the fit of the regression model/equation

and the intercept-only model/equation.
There is a significant prediction of cognitive flexibility by self-efficacy.
5] Chi-square Test of Independence

This is used to test for no relationship or no association between categorical
variables. It is usually referred to as a two-way cross tabulation test. Unlike the
previous statistical tests already discussed, the Chi-square test of independence
is a nonparametric test. The data set need not be normally distributed.

Still referring to the questionnaire that you answered at the start of this unit, you
want to determine if a relationship exists between the year level of the education
student and his/her top choice of person to approach when he/she encounters
challenges and difficulties at 0.05 significance level.
Top person
Other
approached Parent/s Sibling/s Friend/s Teacher/mentor/coach
relative/s
Year Level
First Year 15 7 8 7 3
Second 10 8 10 6 6
Year
Third Year 12 8 8 7 5
Fourth Year 7 8 8 10 7

There is no significant relationship between students’ year level and top
preference of person to approach when faced with academic difficulties.
Choice of Statistic
Chi-square Test of Independence
2
2 ( f o−f e )
χ =Σ
fe
Where:
f o= observed frequency
f e= expected frequency
Computation
Use the online calculator to compute the Chi-square statistic:
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/chisquare2/default2.aspx
Findings
At 0.05 alpha level, χ 2 ( 12 )=6.41 with p = 0.89.

p value: 0.89 > alpha: 0.05
Decision
The decision is not to reject the null hypothesis.
There is no significant relationship between students’ year level and preference
of person to approach when faced with academic difficulties.
Whew! That was quite a lot. There are many more other statistical tests but
these five will do for now. To check your understanding of inferential statistics,
answer the activity that follows.
Try This – Inferential Statistics
Read carefully the following situations. Then:

1) name the variables of the study,
2) determine whether these variables are categorical or continuous, and
3) identify the statistical test to be used.

A. Mrs. Agoncillo is curious about the difference in over-all academic
performance (as reflected in the general average) of three groups of
Senior High School students who spend their free time in different
activities: watching Kdrama, playing Mobile Legends and reading eBooks
on Wattpad.
B. Miss Cruz aims to study the relationship between the socioeconomic class
(low-income, middle-income and high-income) of the junior high school
students in their school and their choice of mode of learning (modular-
offline, online, blended) for this school year.
C. In the new normal, Teacher Ara wants to know whether there is a

significant difference in academic performance (based on the final grade)
between the two groups of grade four students who chose modular
learning and those who chose online learning.
D. Mr. Ramirez intends to investigate on whether gamification in e-learning

can significantly reduce grade eight students’ anxiety toward mathematics.
He will compare students’ mathematics anxiety (measured using
Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale) at the start and at the end of the
semester.

E. Professor Yap wants to determine whether there is a relationship between

the digital literacy of teachers (measured using the Digital Literacy Scale)
and their self-efficacy (measured using the Generalized Self-efficacy
Scale) as they face the challenges of teaching in the new normal.
PART 3 Thematic Analysis for Qualitative Research
While parts 1 and 2 of this module are dedicated to quantitative research, this
part will help you remember how to analyze responses obtained in a qualitative
research. Being able to do qualitative analysis requires your ability to understand
and make meaning of the data that you have gathered. Such data in qualitative
research can be in the form of words or text and even images which you will then
analyze to be able to provide answers to your research questions.
An example would be a qualitative research that aims to understand how adults

cope when a family member is in critical care due to COVID-19. Specific
questions would include what is the coping process, what factors brought about
such process and how did such experience influence their sense of self. You
need then to gather, prepare, read thoroughly and code data to come up with
categories or themes that become the answers to your research questions.
You have learned a lot from Practical Research 1 in senior high, right? The figure
that follows is provided to help you recall the qualitative process of data analysis.

Figure 8.7 Data Analysis in Qualitative Research
Based on the figure, data analysis in qualitative research involves: collecting,

preparing, reading through and coding the data for description and for themes. It
should be noted that data collection and analysis in qualitative research are
simultaneous activities. This is what sets qualitative research apart from
quantitative research that involves data collection and gathering before the
analysis. Qualitative analysis, as the figure shows, is also an iterative process
wherein you can go back and forth from collecting data to analyzing data and
vice versa. There is no sole, conventional approach on how to analyze
qualitative data. Hence, data analysis in qualitative research is considered an
eclectic process.
You will now be reacquainted with the process of coding data for descriptions
and for themes. The steps of the coding process as recommended by Creswell
(2012) are the following:
1) Read thoroughly the text data contained in the transcriptions.
2) Identify text segments. These are related sentences and paragraphs.
3) Come up with codes to label these text segments.
4) Condense the number of codes by spotting similar and redundant codes.
5) Reduce codes into descriptions or themes.
You have to take note that qualitative researches don’t necessarily have to
include both themes and descriptions. Descriptions provide vivid details of
people, places and events in the setting being examined. In ethnographic and
case studies, the researcher would give a detailed description of the setting
based on interviews, observations and documents. The researcher gives neither
an interpretation nor evaluation of the setting but just mere facts based on the
sources. A good description would allow the reader to come up with a picture in
his/her mind of the individual/s and setting/s being described by the researcher.

Themes, also called categories, are combinations of related codes that form a
central idea. These themes can be determined based on what are frequently
mentioned by the participants, what are supported by most evidence and what
are expected or surprising. According to Creswell (2012), there are ordinary,
unexpected, hard-to-classify, major and minor themes. There need not be many
themes because the goal of qualitative research is to be able to offer exhaustive
and in-depth reports.
Below is an example of coding a page from a sample interview transcript. The

codes are found on the left side and the potential themes on the right side.

Source: Creswell, J (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative
Approaches (Fourth Edition). USA: Grace University.

You may also read the published research article: The Realities of Teaching
Elementary Mathematics by Student Teachers: A Phenomenological Probe by
Petancio&Bonotan (2018) to see examples of major and minor themes. Just
click the given link:
http://www.apjmr.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/APJMR-2017.6.1.07.pdf
Congratulations! You have reached this far. You deserve a resounding

applause. Performing the assessment task that follows will just be a piece of
cake for you.
Assessment
Below are some items in a research instrument. Explain how you would process
and organize the data that you would gather for each item.
Item Answer
1] What is your age?
2] What is your monthly income?

___ Less than PhP 25,000
___ 25,000 – 50,000
___ 50,000 – 100,000
___ Above 100,000
3] What is your internet service

provider?
___ Converge ICT Solutions
___ One SKY
___ PLDT
___ Globe Broadband
___ RISE
4] How likely are you to

recommend your internet service
provider to a
friend/relative/colleague?
___ 1 Very Unlikely
___ 2 Unlikely
___ 3 Neutral
___ 4 Likely
___ 5 Very Likely

5] To you, what makes an internet

service provider excellent and
worth recommending?
Enrichment
Name an issue in gathering, processing and organizing data in the light of the
pandemic brought about by COVID-19. How would you address such issue
based on what you have learned in Unit 8 of this module?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
References
Books
Creswell, J (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting and evaluating
quantitative and qualitative Approaches (Fourth Edition). USA: Grace University.
Merriam, S and Tisdell, E (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design and

implementation (Fourth Edition). USA: Jossey-Bass.
McKillup, S (2012).Statistics explained: An introductory guide for life scientists.

UK: Cambridge University Press.
Internet Sources
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
226014300_The_Cognitive_Flexibility_Inventory_Instrument_Development_and_
Estimates_of_Reliability_and_Validity
https://www.statisticshowto.com/scales-of-measurement/
https://www.graphpad.com/support/faq/what-is-the-difference-between-ordinal-
interval-and-ratio-variables-why-should-i-care/
https://www.kyleads.com/blog/nominal-ordinal-interval-ratio-scales/
https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/types-of-variable.php

https://businessjargons.com/scales-of-measurement.html
https://researchrundowns.com/quantitative-methods/significance-testing/
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/t-test.asp
https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/pearson-correlation-coefficient-
statistical-guide.php
https://mathcracker.com/chi-square-test-of-independence
What you liked
WOWs Wishes

Module 9
Data Analysis
Week 8; 3 hours
Desired Learning
Outcomes

 Explained the tips in organizing data, analyzing results and making some
acceptable interpretations and implications of the research under study
 Described briefly the purpose of the tool for data analysis
 Derived at a valid conclusion and sound recommendations of a given sample
research project.
Overview
Data analysis is a necessary companion to the confirmatory statistical

techniques. Validity of the conclusion becomes reasonable when data are
analyzed more effectively and efficiently. Conclusion from data involves
accepting one hypothesis and thereby rejecting mutually inclusive and exclusive
alternative. There are two kinds of data that need to be analyzed. The
quantitative data that can be used to identify dependable relationships and
differences between and among variables set and the qualitative data which are
artistic and analytical mind-set in an accountable, justly rational, informant-in-
context concerning and assertive in analytical strategies. These data are
organized, classified and examined for their meaning.
Course Contents and

Let’s Begin!
Let us know whether you can identify what tool for data analysis may be
employed with the given description below:

Module 9: Data Analysis
Geronimo S. Obaob Jr., Ed.D.
Description/Scenario Tool to be Used for Data
Analysis
Age and Ethnicity of School Managers with

Expected Frequencies
It is utilized to find out whether there is significant

coefficient of correlation on sample data.
The researcher analyzes the data which have

been reported in categories.
An experimental design which does not include

the use of random assignment.
A research entitled “Streets, Sidewalks, Stores

and Stories”.
The researcher writes down the accounts of what

one’s observe, practice, and perceive in the event
of collating and analyzing on the data gathered.
A study that enables individual be conscious of

what had transpired in the past so they may
understand from past breakdowns and accolades.
We’re on Our Way!
Below are the different designs that you shall employ in the analysis of data.
Study each information so that you will be guided in your own group research
project.
I. Exploratory Data Analysis and Graphics
The use of graphics and other techniques to find out the connections in
a data set is an essential element for data analysis. It is beneficial when
attempting to generate assumptions about correlations and when assessing
disseminations of variables by themselves or in relationship to other
variables.
II. Quantitative Data Analysis
g) Descriptive Statistics

The descriptive statistics may have a major benefit in a manner that

they allow investigators to express the evidences covered in the results
with less indicators. When the indicators are computed for a trial taken
from a group, they are described as statistics otherwise, if they are
manipulated from the whole population, they are termed as parameters.
There are two basic types of arithmetical data: quantitative are taken
from the data that are investigated which is computed along a ratio that
shows how much of the variable is found while categorical basically show
the overall number of things, subjects or happenings a researcher sees in
a distinct classification. Here are few examples of topics that will
manipulate data that are quantitative in nature:
A. The volume of time used in the library
B. NAT Scores
C. The temperature recorded each day during the months of April and
May
D. The anxiety scores of the fourth year students enrolled in Student
Teaching
On the other hand, the examples of categorical data are as follows:
1. The account of the number of student from rural areas
2. The number of achievers in the particular grade
3. The totality of educators in a school district who utilize (1) direct
approach (2) indirect method and (3) progressivism approach
4. The number of books in the library with proper classification
Techniques of Summarizing Data which are Quantitative in Nature
C. Frequency Polygons
Reflected hereunder are the marks of the third year students in ASL 1:
35 40 30 34 45 32 31 36 39 30
42 32 35 43 45 32 35 44 43 49
36 44 50 44 41 50 45 44 50 45
39 31 47 36 39 32 43 49 45 43
In order to make any appreciation from these data, we then organize a

report into some form of harmony. One of the most appropriate methods is
the frequency distribution. This has been prepared by recording all the
marks in a descending order with tallies indicating the number of subjects

belonging to the score. Below is an example of how frequency distribution
is done:
Table 1
Sample Table of Frequency Distribution
Raw Scores Frequency

50 3
49 2
47 1
45 4
44 4
43 5
42 1
41 1
40 1
39 3
36 3
35 3
34 1
32 4
31 2
30 2
n = 40
Table 2
Sample Table of a Grouped Frequency Distribution
Raw Scores Frequency

(In the Intervals of 5) (f)
50 – 54 3
45 – 49 7
40 – 44 12
35 – 39 9
30 – 34 9
n = 40
D. Frequency Polygons and Histograms
Frequency polygons are predominantly convenient in making comparisons

of two or more sets. On the other hand, a graph that is used to exhibit

quantitative documents in the measure of gaps or ratio level is called
histogram.
\
Figure 1. Histogram of a Sample of Scores
Figure 2. Frequency Polygon of a Sample of Scores
h) Experimental Research
One of the prevailing research approaches that are considered by the

researchers to employ is the experimental research. It is used to establish
between and among variables the cause and effect relationships. The unique
type of approach that candidly endeavors to effect a distinct variable, and if
correctly employed, it becomes the best type for analyzing hypothesis. The
chief attribute of an experimental design that differentiates it from all other
kinds of studies is that investigators operate the independent variable.
Example:
Does cooperative learning strategy improve the students’ performance in
Science? This is a research conducted by a public school teacher in the
Department of Education. She employed an experimental design with the
experimental group and the conventional group. After the intervention, she
administered a 50-tem test. Below are her data in tabulated form:

Table 3
Difference of the Performance of Both Groups During the Post-Test
Group Mean SD Computed p- Description

Value value
Conventional 22.82 7.00
Experimental 33.03 8.38 5.54 0.01 Significant
Table 1 shows the performance of the students during the post test. It can
be gleaned from the results that the students exposed to the cooperative
learning strategy performed better than the students exposed to the
conventional way. Students can effectively learn when grouped and if ever
they are able to share their ideas and concepts of the topic to their peers.
When students are given the opportunity to freely express their own
understanding of the topic, learning is more evident. Hence, cooperative
learning may be used in the teaching of Social Studies.
In your analysis, it is suggested that you need to introduce the table. Then
give meanings to the figures stipulated in the table. There is no need to
mention again the figures in your analysis. However, what is essential are the
implications so that you will be able to give valid conclusion and doable
recommendations.
Examples of Experimental Researches:
1) The Clout of Large Classes on Instruction

2) The Use of Rigorous Coaching for Beginning Teachers
3) The Significance of Introducing a Course on Bullying to the Curriculum
4) Significance on the Use of Storybooks to Enhance the Students’
Comprehension Skills
5) Improving the Self-esteem of Students with Behavioral Problems
i) Correlative Research
Correlational research is an exemplar of associational research. In a

relationship research, two or more variables are investigated without any
attempt in its effect. It examines the opportunity of correlating only two
variables. In contrast to experimental design, correlational studies do not
control the variables in the conduct of the investigation.

It is at times referred to as a kind of descriptive investigation in a manner

that it defines a prevailing correlation between data. The style it illustrates the
correlational studies, conversely, is unique from the descriptions presented in
other types of papers. A correlational inquiry expresses the amount to which
two or more quantitative data are associated using a coefficient of correlation.
If two variables are found to have relationship, it can be deduced that the
findings within an evident scale on one parameter is associated with the
scores within a certain range on the other parameter. On the other hand,
when there is a negative relationship between two variables, then when data
within certain range on one variable are high, the data in the other variable
are found to be low.
Example:
Does students’ self-esteem correlate with the students’ mathematics
achievement? This research was conducted by a third year BSED Math
student. Results of the study are presented below.
Table 4
Relationship Between Self-Esteem and Mathematics Achievement Among
Grade 6 Pupils
Variables Mean SD Computed p- Description
r-Value value
Self-Esteem 21.27 2.86
Mathematics 88.83 2.02 0.944 0.01 Significant
Achievement
Table 2 showcases the relationship between self-esteem and

mathematics achievement among grade six pupils. It is found out that
self-esteem may strongly correlate with the students’ mathematic
achievement. When students would find mathematics as an easy
subject, then they would certainly achieve math more significantly.
Math teachers may endeavor to make math lesson easier for the
students. It is implied that mathematics teachers shall make math
lessons more appealing for the students. Difficult lessons may be made
easier for them by employing more effective strategies to motivate the
students to perform higher than expected.
It can be seen in table 2 that the dimension of the standard variables

highly influences the magnitude of the predictor variables. Results show that

self-esteem has a strong positive impact to students’ mathematics
achievement.
Below are some examples of published correlational studies:

F. Teachers’ Professional Development and Performance?
G. Communication Skill and Teaching Effectiveness
H. Stress and Anxiety Among Beginning Teachers
I. The Relationships Between Student Performance and Teacher’s
Perceptions
J. Children with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Peer Relations: A
Correlational Inquiry
When one tries to correlate variables, a coefficient of correlation is

generated. The coefficient is at all times a decimal, located between 0.00 and
+1.00 or -1.00. The nearer the coefficient is to +1.00 or -1.00, the greater the
correlation. If the positive sign in the relationship is generated, it indicates the
high results on one parameter aptly creates an impact with the high results on
the other parameter. When the sign is negative, the correlation is negative,
meaning that high results on one parameter tend to go with low scores on the
other parameter or vice versa. The coefficients that are near to 0.00 indicate
that there is no correlation existing between the variables engaged.
j) Survey Research
Studies which concerned about the sentiments of a huge group of

respondents on a specific problem or topic are called survey researches. They
try to probe a figure of inquiries related to the subject, to find solutions. Below are
the main features of most surveys:
A. Collected information from a cluster of people so as to define some
features or behavior of the subject of which that cluster is a part of.
B. The most common way to collect evidenced is by inquiry; the responses to
these queries by the associates of the group are useful information of the
survey.
C. Evidences are gathered through sampling rather than from every member
of the population.
Analysis of Data in a Survey Research

When the responses of the questionnaire are gathered, there continues its
ultimate role of revising the answers in order to generate assumptions from the
findings. The overall sample size must be described including the fractional part
of the proceeds. The proportion of the entire sample corresponding to every item

should also be described. Lastly, the proportion of the subjects who selected the
choices for each particular query must be provided as well.
Below is a sample Survey Research Findings:
Table 5. Belief About Cheating Among American and Russian Business Students’
American Russian
Indicators Overall Students Students
Mean N=443 N=174
Students’ percentage who are believed to cheat on 36.55 24.18 69.59
exams
Most students cheat on exams 3.45 2.80 5.12
Most of the students cheat in class assignments 4.09 3.88 4.64
To cheat in one exam is not so bad 2.90 2.34 4.36
Telling someone in later section about an exam is 4.71 4.07 6.36
alright
Giving someone your past exam is cheating 2.26 2.02 2.87
It is a form of cheating when one uses an exam from a 2.65 2.23 3.02
prior semester
It is an obligation of the instructor to make sure that 3.68 3.88 3.18
students do not cheat
When instructor discusses issues related to cheating in
the
classroom, the amount of cheating is reduced 3.92 4.27 3.01
Table 5 discloses that the Americans and Russian students from business
class have meaningfully different views on cheating. Respondents were asked to
evaluate the percentage of their classmates they perceived to fraud. Students
from Russia believed that 70% of their peers dupe on exams. On the other hand,
students from America considered only about 24% of their classmates cheating.
The Americans did not believe that giving part of the exam is cheating. Students
from both countries did not believe that the discussion on issue related to
cheating in the classroom by the instructor may reduce cheating. The students
from Russia most likely believed that cheating in an exam or telling a student in
another section regarding an exam is not bad at all. It is therefore imperative that
the school management clearly defines in their school policies the different forms
of cheating. The absence of these pertinent policies may confuse the students
the idea that cheating may come in different forms.
The analysis of why the variance exists between Russian and American
students has multiple dimensions which involve culture tones, societal standards,
educational beliefs and others. A true grasp of why these differences occur is

beyond the compass of this survey research but definitely laudable for further
investigation.
III. Qualitative Data Analysis

The data analysis in qualitative approach is considered to be interactive
and continuously a comparative process that includes lessening and recovering
huge amounts of written data. They are usually acquired from consultations,
observation, dialogues and discussion. Qualitative researchers mostly utilize the
style to analyze the data through coding. Coding is clearly described by Strauss
and Corbin (1998) to be a logical process in which data are broken, abstracted
and unified to formulate a conjecture or philosophy.
In broader terms, codes are labels for ascribing significance to shatter
apart the data. Coding in qualitative research may be described as descriptive or
interpretive. They are commonly a generated priori (selective coding) or
inductively developed (coded openly) from data. Codes and sub-codes are
usually developed iteratively by the investigators in the qualitative approach.
They endeavor to add up their analysis through sorting, thematic analysis, and
through theory development in some cases.
Normally in qualitative researches, no statistical data analysis is
employed. The outputs are bestowed in an account form supported with more
examples and citations. The readers must be convinced that the accounts are
precisely exposing what was uttered and witnessed as well as how frequently
each was transpired.
Below are few examples of Qualitative Researches:
1. Walk and Talk: An Intervention for Behaviorally Challenged Youth
2. The Nuts and Dolts of Teacher Images in Children’s Picture
Storybooks: A Content Analysis
3. Roger Malaccas and His Third-Grade Classroom
4. Ferdinand E. Marcos: Rise and Fall in the Era of Dictatorship
Let’s Dig Deeper!
Here is an illustrative presentation of a qualitative research its questions and

the proper techniques to solve a given question or scenario. This will guide you
on how to approach a qualitative study.

Qualitative Research Questions, Strategies, and Data Collection Techniques

Purpose of the Possible Research Research Examples of Data
Study Questions Strategies Collection
Techniques
Exploratory:
 To investigate a  What is happening  Case Study  Participant
little-understood in this school?  Observation Observation
event, situation or  What are the  Field Study  Nonparticipant
circumstance important Observation
 To identify or themes/patterns in  In-depth
discover important the ways teachers’ Interviewing
variable behaviors in the  Selected
 To generate school? Interviewing
hypotheses for  How are these
further research themes or patterns
linked together?
Descriptive:
 To document an  What are the  Case Study  Participant
event, situation, or important  Field Study Observation
circumstance of behaviors, events,  Ethnography  Nonparticipant
interest attitudes,  Observation Observation
processes, and/or  In-depth
structures occurring Interviewing
in this school?  Written
Questionnaire
Explanatory:
 To explain the  What events,  Case Study  Participant
forces causing an beliefs, attitudes,  Field Study Observation
event, situation or and/or policies are  Ethnography  Nonparticipant
circumstance shaping the nature Observation
 To identify of the school?  In-depth
plausible causal  How do these Interviewing
networks shaping forces interact to  Written
an event, shape this school? Questionnaire
situation, or
circumstance
Predictive:
 To predict the  What is likely to  Observation  In-depth
outcomes of an occur in the future  Interview Interviewing
event, situation or as a result of the  Written
circumstance policies now in Questionnaire
 To forecast place at this
behaviors or school?
actions that might  Who will be
result from an effected, and in

event, situation, or what ways
circumstance
Mixed-Methods Research
Researchers may apply both approaches in a unitary research in the
analysis of data using mixed method. The use of this method may deliver a more
comprehensive thought of the research nuisances than the utilization of either of
the methods alone. It can help explain and elucidate relationships established to
happen between variables.
Types of Mixed Methods Design

I. Exploratory Design
This approach uses first a qualitative design to unleash the significant
variables essential to the event of concern and then employs a second,
quantitative, method. They pursue to unleash the relationship among the
identified variables. Outcomes of the qualitative phase provide the focus of
the quantitative approach. The results of the quantitative inquiry are utilized to
affirm or lengthen the qualitative results. Data analysis of the exploratory
design is distinct, conforming to the first stage of the study, and the second
stage. The first phase that is qualitative then followed by quantitative in the
second phase. It is often called as QUAL-QUANT Design.
II. The Explanatory Design

Most often, a researcher does a study employing a quantitative approach
which may necessitate additional knowledge to surface out the outcomes.
This is an objective of the explanatory approach. In this technique, the
investigator conducts first a quantitative investigation then utilizes a
qualitative approach to follow up and enhance the quantitative findings. Both
data are explored discretely. Using the outcomes of the qualitative findings,
the investigator magnifies the results of the quantitative inquiry. It will give
more meaning to the figures and quantities of the research.
III. The Triangulation Design

The researcher in the triangular design makes use of both quantitative and
qualitative approaches to analyze the same event in order to verify whether
the two data have single congregate analysis of the research question being
studied. Both designs are provided the same priority, and the data are
concurrently gathered.

Assessment
Directions: Encircle the letter of the best answer.

1. What kind of research permits investigators to go afar explanation,
forecasting and documentation of relationships to at least a partial
identification of what grounds them?
a. Ethnography c. Grounded Theory
b. Experimental d. Survey Research
2. The following are identified measures to lessen or remove threats due to
subject characteristics. Which is NOT?
a. Randomization c. Coding
b. Matching d. Holding certain variables constant
3. It is employed for one or two fundamental purposes to help expound essential
personal behavior or to predict likely results or for both.
a. Correlation Research c. Phenomenological Research
b. Experimental Research d. Ethnography
4. A researcher conducted a study on the effects of re-enforcer assessments as
behavioral intervention. There were two operant measures that appeared to
provide the most parsimonious accounts of the findings. What could be a
possible implication you can think of?
a. Research in the future may contemplate on the relativity of reinforcement
when designing behavioral interventions.
b. Another respondents from different environment must be used for the
investigation.
c. The experimental study is a failure and may be stopped.
d. The methodology employed does not fit to the identified scenario or the
problem.
5. Which of the problems may be employed using correlational research?
a. Effects of Outcomes-based Instruction to Students Performance
b. Study Habits and Academic Performance of Grade Three Students
c. The Journey of the Burnout Teachers
d. The Writings of Dr. Jose P. Rizal
6. What interpretation can you provide from the
figure to the right?

a. Teacher expectation of failure does not correlate to the quantity of
disruptive behavior in the class.
b. Expectation of the teacher of failure is never affected by the amount of
disruptive behavior in the class
c. One cannot tell that the more disruptive behavior the class has the more
failures the class would have.
d. Teacher’s expectation of failure is dependent on the amount of disruptive
behavior the class has.
7. A research was conducted on the use of internet, its abuse and dependence
among senior high school learners of a certain school. The question
pertaining to gender, race, age and ethnicity was included. What would the
researcher like to reveal?
a. Demographics c. Effects
b. Relationships d. Differences
8. Which of the following is a characteristic of an open-ended question?
a. Easier and faster to tabulate
b. May limit breath of responses
c. Requires more questions to cover the research topics
d. Allows more freedom of responses
9. How are data in qualitative research collected?
a. Numbers and figures c. Tables and graphs
b. Words and pictures d. Surveys and questionnaires
10. What is/are used to structure a research study?
a. Conclusion c. Implications
b. Assumptions d. Theoretical framework
Below is an example of tabulated results found in the researches conducted.

Give your own interpretation, valid conclusion and implications to discuss the
results of the identified investigation.
Table 2.1Correlation between Student’s Interest in Physics and their
Achievement
Variables Mean SD Computed Value Description
Interest 19.00 3.80
Achievement 80.60 4.25 0.812 0.004
Points Points
Rubrics for the Analysis
Possible Earned
Discussion and Conclusions: 20
Conclusion clearly and correctly addresses the 4
question of interest

Conclusion is supported by the appropriate 7
inferential procedure
Appropriate generalizations are made with 4
supporting evidence
Shortcomings and/or suggestions for improvement 5
are discussed
Total Points
Enrichment
Identify the flaws that you can discover from each of the given scenario.
1. There was an attempt to use a new technique in teaching Math in the class
for a semester. After the term, she reported that the student’s attention in the
subject was remarkably higher than that of the students she had in the past
with other classes using another approach.
2. Two groups of grade four students are matched with regard to their capacity
of running consequent to distinctive running program. One group is tried
during physical education class in the ground of the school while the other is
tried out after school in the football arena.
Here is a detailed result of the observations conducted in the research as

evidence or source of information. What conclusion, implications and
recommendations can you give based from the findings and in your own
analysis.
Participant A

Participant A’s contribution aided oneself to develop awareness of his
struggle with his sister and father. The approaches were deliberated; the
researcher does not believe that Participant A conformed to a good amount of
new life skills. What can be entailed more is time and awareness to help one
manage with the number of challenges one experienced outside of school.
Participant A is attending the art therapy class. His outputs in the class displayed
a convincing advancement. The initial drawing was very small, not founded, and
“floating.” The art therapist noted that it signified an emotion of littleness,
weakness, and low self-esteem. The last drawing portrayed a well-defined boy
and girl- Participant A and little sister- in his bedroom with all his expensive
belongings. In the drawing, both children were amused and Participant A
appeared to be like a caring big brother.
References
Aquino, G. V. ((1972). Essentials of research & thesis writing, Phoenix Publishing

House, Inc., Quezon City, Philippines.
Fraenkel, J. R. et al. (2013). How to design and evaluate research in education,

Mc. Graw Hill International Edition, New York USA.
Oriondo, L. L. & Antonio, E. D (1989). Evaluating educational outcomes, Rex

Bookstore Inc., Quezon City, Philippines.

Obaob, G. S. (2019). Data Analysis made easy, Cebu Normal University, Cebu
City, Philippines.
Padua, R. N. (2000). Elements of Research and statistical models, MPSC

Publishing House, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines.
Shadish, Cook & Campbell (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental

designs, Wadsworrth Cengage Learning, USA.
Trochim, W. M. K. & Donnelly, J. P. (2008). The research methods knowledge

base, Cengage Learning, USA.
.
What you liked
WOWs Wishes

APPENDICES

Appendix A:
Ethics Clearance

Appendix A:
Ethics Clearance

Appendix A:
Ethics Clearance

Appendix A:
Ethics Clearance

Appendix A:
Ethics Clearance

Appendix A:
Ethics Clearance

Appendix A:
Ethics Clearance

Appendix A:
Ethics Clearance

Appendix A:
Ethics Clearance

Appendix A:
Ethics Clearance

Appendix A:
Ethics Clearance

Appendix A:
Ethics Clearance

Appendix A:
Ethics Clearance

Appendix A:
Ethics Clearance

Appendix A:
Ethics Clearance

Appendix B:
Research Agenda

Appendix C:
Guidelines for Authors from Selected Research Journals

Appendix C:

Appendix C:

Appendix C:

Appendix C:

Appendix C:

Appendix C:

Appendix C:

Appendix C:

Appendix C:

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

Appendix D:
Sample Researches

ABOUT THE AUTHORS
AMELIA MANTILLA BONOTAN
AMELIA M. BONOTAN, Associate

Professor V of Cebu Normal University, Cebu
City, finished her Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in
Education major in Educational Administration at
the University of the Philippines, Diliman,
Quezon City and completed the academic
requirements for Ph.D. Education major in
Research and Evaluation, at the University of
San Carlos, Cebu City. She graduated BS in
Mathematics for Teachers, Magna Cum Laude,
at the Philippine Normal University. She has
presented her research papers in national and
international conferences and won Best Paper Presenter Awards. She has also
published research articles in CHED accredited and reputable international
journals. She was a recipient of the 2019 Presidential Citation Award for having
published in a CHED Accredited journal and brought honors to Cebu Normal
University. Likewise, she has produced patents of utility models and industrial
design.
CYRIL ASOMBRANO CABELLO
CYRIL A. CABELLO is a part-time instructor in

the College of Teacher Education at Cebu Normal
University. He is currently pursuing his doctorate
degree in the same university with the concentration
in Research and Evaluation. He graduated BEED –
Science and Health at Mindanao State University –
Iligan Institute of Technology (MSU-IIT). His
undergraduate thesis was chosen as the Most
Outstanding Paper in his batch in MSU-IIT. He
graduated his master’s degree major in Educational
Management in Misamis University. He has presented his research papers in
national and international conferences.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS
ERWIN FABI CORALES
ERWIN F. CORALES is a graduate of

Doctor of Education in Science Education at
Cebu Normal University in 2019. He
earned his Master in Education major in
General Science at De La Salle University,
Manila on 2005 under the Summer Institute
for Graduate Studies scholarship program
of DLSU. He graduated Bachelor’s degree
in Education in General Science at Divine
Word University, Tacloban City (now the
Liceo del Verbo Divino) in 1995. At present,
an Associate Professor II of Cebu Normal
University, he teaches graduate and
undergraduate courses in line with Science Education, his expertise. He received
the 2019 Presidential Citation Award as one of the Outstanding Teachers in the
field of Instruction in Cebu Normal University. Though involved in research
conventions, presentations and publications, he still considers his classroom
teaching as the best of all these experiences, since it gives him the direct
opportunity to make a difference in his students’ lives.
GERONIMO SABAYTON OBAOB, Jr.

GERONIMO S.OBAOB, Jr. is at
present Professor IV of the Cebu Normal
University. His teaching experiences
include teaching children in the remote
areas with low performance and with less
interest in going to school. With his three
years’ experience in the Department of
Education, he was able to encourage many
young children to value education, taking
him as a role model. He worked with the
Philippine International School in Abu
Dhabi, United Arab Emirates as a School
Director for fifteen years. In his return to the
Philippines, he was designated as the
Supervisor of the Integrated Laboratory
School – Cebu Normal University for three
years. He finished bachelor’s degree in Elementary Education “CUM LAUDE”
and awarded “Best Student Teacher” of his batch in Cebu Normal University,
Cebu City.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS
RUBY ABAN PEREZ
RUBY A. PEREZ is a candidate for the

degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Education major
in Research and Evaluation, Cebu Normal
University. She is a licensed professional teacher,
a registered nurse, a researcher, book author and
writer. She has published two journals titled
“Gerontology Embracing Technology & Social
Media: It’s Impact in Education” and co-
authored “Innovation for 21st Century
Practices”, a research journal. She has two
published books titled “The Price of Internet
Addiction” and “Andragogical Theory in
Research”.
JO ANN MAGLASANG PETANCIO
JO ANN M. PETANCIO is a faculty

member of the Cebu Normal University.
She is a Mathematics Student Teaching
Mentor to apprentice teachers and a guest
lecturer in the Graduate School of the same
university. She is a candidate of Doctor of
Philosophy in Education major in Research
and Evaluation in Cebu Normal
Universityandobtained Master of Arts in
Education major in Mathematics in 2017
from the same university. She graduated
Bachelor of Secondary Education major in
Mathematics, Magna Cum Laude at the
Cebu Normal University (CNU) and was a
topnotcher (TOP #2) in the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET) in 2005.
She received a Presidential Citation for Outstanding Faculty Member from 2017-
2019. She had published researches singly and with partners in CHED accredited
and peer reviewed journals. She also has produced a patent of utility model.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS
MARCHEE TABOTABO PICARDAL
MARCHEE T. PICARDAL is a faculty member

of the CNU’s College of Teacher Education.
She is a Doctor of Education major in Science
Education from Cebu Normal University, Cebu
City. She completed her Master of Arts in
Education major in Science Education; and
her Bachelor’s degree in Science Education
major in Biological Sciences at Ateneo de
Zamboanga University, Honorable Mention,
and worked as Science Research Assistant on
Fungi Research. A passionate research
teacher, she served the Department of
Education – Cebu City Division for 5 years and
has been a winning coach (Science
Investigatory Projects – Life Science Category) from 2016-2019 in the Regional
Elimination Rounds (Science and Technology Fair). Some of her researches were
published in CHED, ASEAN Citation and Clarivate Analytics-indexed journals.
JOJE MAR PERINO SANCHEZ

JOJE MAR P. SANCHEZ is a faculty member
of the College of Teacher Education of Cebu
Normal University. He is currently writing a
dissertation for his doctorate degree in Education
in Science Education at CNU. He earned his
Master’s degree in Education in Chemistry at the
University of the Philippines - Cebu in 2016.He
obtained his baccalaureate degree in Secondary
Education in Physical Science, Magna cum
Laude and awarded Best Student Teacher of
the Year from Cebu Normal University. He
previously taught Chemistry and Research
subjects to Junior and Senior High School
students in PAREF Springdale School, Inc., Cebu City. In CNU, he teaches
professional education and specialization subjects such Technology for Teaching
and Learning 1, Principles of Teaching, School Health, First Aid and Nutrition,
Ecology and Astronomy. He is a guest lecturer of Graduate Chemistry at the
University of the Philippines-Cebu. He has published his researches in CHED,
ASEAN citation and Clarivate Analytics-indexed journals. His research interests
include Chemistry and Physics education, Environmental education, Educational
data mining, and Science investigatory project instruction.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

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Cebu Normal University

College of Teacher Education

Amelia M. Bonotan, Ph.D.

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach

Amelia M. Bonotan, Ph.D.

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach ii

Our Dear Students and Faculty,

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach iii

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach iv

* Reproduced from www.cnu.edu.ph on September 1, 2020

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach v

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach vi

Cebu City, August 19, 2020

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach vii

Message from the President

Letter to our Dear Students ……………………………………………........ vi

Course Outline for Educ 7- Educational Research……………………... x

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach viii

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach ix

Education 7: Educational Research

 Demonstrate content knowledge of principles, ethics, rigors and processes in

 Conduct educational research in groups of 2-3 members/group under the

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach x

Unit 5 Language of Research, Research Methodologies and designs

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach xi

Upon completion of this module, you must have:

This module introduces you to the nature of educational research, its

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach

Course Contents and

2. Give at least two (2) characteristics of research/educational?

3. Explain the scientific method. What are its steps?

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach 2

b. Quantitative and qualitative research

5. Explain briefly the research process.

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach 3

We’re on Our Way!

Let’s Dig Deeper!

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach 4

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach 5

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach 6

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach 7

c. Invention of the first airplane by American Wright brothers – William

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach 8

Nature of Educational Research

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach 9

But strictly speaking, research refers to the “systematic process of

1. Identification of the research problem

Table 2. The Research Process

Hence, when your teacher asks you to research on a certain topic, he or

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach 10

To summarize, educational research is a systematic investigation,

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach 11

Basic or Pure or To advance the frontiers of knowledge for the

2. According to type of Data: What type of data is collected?

Quantitative ResearchData is numerical and uses statistical tests and

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach 12

Answer the following questions below.

2. Explain the following distinguishing features of educational research:

3. What are the steps in the Research Process?

4. Differentiate the following types of researches

Educational Research Made Easy: A Modular Approach 13

b. Quantitative, qualitative, mixed researches

5. Explain the following five (5) characteristics of Educational Research: