Analysis

Rafael Perez Guardiola Homework Number 2 November 14, 2023

q
n+1 √ √
Exercise 1. Use Definition 2.2.3 to prove that lim 9n+1
= 13 . Hint: a− b= √
a−b√
a+ b
.

Solution. The sequence above converges if , for every ϵ > 0, there exists an N ∈ N such that
whenever n ≥ N , it follows that:
r
n+1 1
| − |<ϵ
9n + 1 3
s
1 n+1
| ( − 1)| < ϵ
3 n + 19
√ q
1 n + 1 − n + 19
| q |<ϵ
3 n+ 91

r r
√ 1 1
| n + 1 − n + | < 3| n + |ϵ
9 9
|a + b| + |a − b| ≥ |2a|
|a + b| + |a − b| ≥ 2 × |a|
1
× (|a + b| + |a − b|) ≥ |a|
2
In essence, the theorem states that the shortest distance between two points is a straight
line. We can therefore now begin this proof by applying the triangle inequality theorem and
the definition of the absolute value.

|a + b| + |a − b| ≥ |a + b + a − b|
|a + b| + |a − b| ≥ |2a|
|a + b| + |a − b| ≥ 2 × |a|
1
× (|a + b| + |a − b|) ≥ |a|
2
Having derived this we will now use the property of the absolute value (|a − b| = |b − a|) such
as to derive another expression.

|a + b| + |b − a| ≥ |a + b − a + b|
|a + b| + |b − a| ≥ |2b|
|a + b| + |b − a| ≥ 2 × |b|
1
× (|a + b| + |b − a|) ≥ |b|
2

1
 Analysis
Rafael Perez Guardiola Homework Number 2 November 14, 2023

Now that we have an expression for |a| and |b| we can write the expression:
1 1
|a| + |b| ≤ × (|a + b| + |a − b|) + × (|a + b| + |b − a|)
2 2
|b − a| = |a − b|
1 1
|a| + |b| ≤ × (|a + b| + |a − b|) + × (|a + b| + |a − b|)
2 2
|a| + |b| ≤ |a + b| + |a − b|

Therefore we have now proven that |a| + |b| ≤ |a + b| + |a − b|.

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 Analysis
Rafael Perez Guardiola Homework Number 2 November 14, 2023

a+b+|a−b|
For part (b) we will begin by proving that max{a,b} = 2
by considering all possible
cases for a and b. These 3 cases are:
- Case 1: a > b
- Case 2: a = b
- Case 3: a < b

For Case 1, a > b, meaning that max{a,b}= a and additionally a − b = |a − b|. This therefore
implies that a+b+|a−b|
2
= a+b+a−b
2
= 2a
2
= a. This therefore proves that it is true for a > b.
a+b+|a−b|
For Case 2, a = b, meaning that max{a,b}= a = b. This therefore implies that 2
=
a+a+|a−a|
2
= 2a
2
= a. This therefore proves that it is also true for a = b.

Finally for Case 3, a < b, meaning that max{a,b}= b and additionally −(a − b) = |a − b|.
This therefore implies that a+b+|a−b|
2
= a+b−(a−b)
2
= a+b−a+b)
2
= 2b
2
= b. This therefore proves
that it is also true for a < b.

We have therefore proven that the statement holds for all cases and for all a, b ∈ R. This
therefore proves that max{a,b} = a+b+|a−b|
2
.
a+b−|a−b|
Further on for part (b) we will proceed to prove that min{a,b} = 2
by consider-
ing all possible cases for a and b. These 3 cases are:
- Case 1: a > b
- Case 2: a = b
- Case 3: a < b

For Case 1, a > b, meaning that min{a,b}= b and additionally a − b = |a − b|. This there-
fore implies that a+b−|a−b|
2
= a+b−(a−b)
2
= 2b
2
= b. This therefore proves that it is true for a > b.
a+b−|a−b|
For Case 2, a = b, meaning that min{a,b}= a = b. This therefore implies that 2
=
a+a−|a−a|
2
= 2a
2
= a. This therefore proves that it is also true for a = b.

Finally for Case 3, a < b, meaning that min{a,b}= a and additionally −(a − b) = |a − b|.
This therefore implies that a+b−|a−b|
2
= a+b+(a−b)
2
= a+b+a−b)
2
= 2a
2
= a. This therefore proves
that it is also true for a < b.

We have therefore proven that the statement holds for all cases and for all a, b ∈ R. This
therefore proves that min{a,b} = a+b−|a−b|
2
.

3
 Analysis
Rafael Perez Guardiola Homework Number 2 November 14, 2023

Exercise 2. A simple mathematical model for the size of an undisturbed fish population is
given by
bpn
pn+1 =
a + pn
where pn is the fish population in year n and the constants a > 0 and b > 0 model environ-
mental circumstances. Assume that p1 > 0, so by induction it follows that pn > 0 for all
n ∈ N.

Prove the following statements:

(a) If the sequence (pn ) converges, then either lim pn = 0 or lim pn = b − a.

(b) For a < b we have the following cases:

(i) if 0 < p1 < b − a, then b − a − pn > 0 and pn+1 − pn > 0 for all n ∈ N.

(ii) if p1 > b − a, then b − a − pn < 0 and pn+1 − pn < 0 for all n ∈ N.

(c) If a < b, then the sequence (pn ) converges. Also determine lim pn .

(d) If a > b, then lim pn = 0 (meaning that the population dies out).

Solution. For part (a) we will use a proof by contradiction. We will begin by assuming that
p √
3 − 2 is a rational number which can be expressed as pq where q, p ∈ Z, q ̸= 0 and p and
q have no common divisors meaning that gcd(p,q)=1.
√
q
p
= 3− 2
q
p2 √
= 3 − 2
q2
√ p2
2=3− 2
q
√ 3q − p2
2
2=
q2
Since we know that q and p are both integers, we therefore know that p2 and q 2 are also
integers and as such 3q 2 − p2 will also
√ be an integer since it is essentially a subtraction of
3q 2 −p2
integers. This therefore means that 2 = q2 = m n
where m = 3q 2 − p2 and n = q 2 are
integers as defined previously.
√
This therefore leads to a contradiction as 2 is an irrational number meaning that it can not

4
 Analysis
Rafael Perez Guardiola Homework Number 2 November 14, 2023
p √
be expressed as ab where a and b are integers. Therefore we have proved that 3 − 2 is an
irrational number by contradiction.
√
Furthermore we will also prove that 2 is an irrational by contradiction
√ such as to back
up our claim made previously. We will begin by assuming that 2 is a rational number
which can be expressed as xy where x, y ∈ Z, y ̸= 0 and x and y have no common divisors
meaning that gcd(x,y)=1.
x √
= 2
y
x2
=2
y2
x2 = 2y 2
x = 2k
(2k) = 2y 2
2

4k 2 = 2y 2
y 2 = 2k 2

This therefore proves that both x and y are both even which leads to a contradiction which
is that gcd(x,y) ̸= 1 because since they are both even they have a greatest common
p divisor
√ √
of 2 and as such we have proven by contradiction that 2 is irrational and thus 3 − 2 is
an irrational number by contradiction.

For√ part (b) we will also use a proof by contradiction. We will begin by assuming that
ln( 5)
ln(2)
is a rational number which can be expressed as pq where q, p ∈ Z, q ̸= 0 and p and q
have no common divisors meaning that gcd(p,q)=1.
√
ln( 5) p
=
ln(2) q
√
q ln( 5) = p ln(2)
√
eq ln( 5)
= ep ln(2)
1
e 2 ×q ln(5) = ep ln(2)
q
5 2 = 2p

This leads to a contradiction since 5 and 2 have no common factors due

√
to both of them being
ln( 5)
prime numbers. Therefore we have proven by contradiction that ln(2) is irrational.

5
 Analysis
Rafael Perez Guardiola Homework Number 2 November 14, 2023

Exercise 3. For any number x ∈ R we define its floor as ⌊x⌋ = sup{k ∈ Z : k ≤ x}. For
example, we have ⌊π⌋ = 3 and ⌊−π⌋ = −4.

Let (an ) be any sequence in R and define a new sequence (bn ) by setting bn = an − ⌊an ⌋.
Prove that there exists a subsequence (bnk ) and a number b ∈ [0, 1] such that lim bnk = b.

Solution. We know that s=sup A if and only if for every choice of ϵ > 0 there exists an a ∈ A
which satisfies s − ϵ < a which we can rewrite as s − 2ϵ < a since ϵ is arbitrary.

Furthermore, we know that i =inf B if and only if for every choice of ϵ > 0 there exists
a b ∈ B which satisfies i + ϵ > b which we can rewrite as i + 2ϵ > b since ϵ is arbitrary.

Therefore we now have that s − 2ϵ < a and i + 2ϵ > b yet since we have that sup A =
s= inf B = i, these inequalities become s − 2ϵ < a and s + 2ϵ > b. These can be further
rewritten into:
ϵ
−(s − ) > −a
2
ϵ
s+ >b
2
ϵ ϵ
−s + + s + > b − a
2 2
ϵ>b−a

This means that all elements in B are larger than or equal to all elements in A, since the
lower bound of B is equal to the least upper bound of A.

This thus suggests that b − a ≥ 0 for all a ∈ A and all b ∈ B which we can use to de-
duce the b − a = |b − a| since it will always be positive.

Thus we can now write down that ϵ > |b − a| since b − a = |b − a|. Hence, for any ϵ > 0 there
exist elements a ∈ A and b ∈ B such that |b − a| < ϵ.

6
 Analysis
Rafael Perez Guardiola Homework Number 2 November 14, 2023

Exercise 4. Determine whether each of the following series converges or diverges:

P∞ n
(a) n=1 4n

P∞ cos(nπ)
(b) n=1 ln(n+1)

P∞ √
(c) n=1 ( 1 + n2 − n)

Solution. To test whether a series diverges or converges we can simply find the limit as n
tends to infinity for its sequence an . If this limit is not equal to 0 we know that the series
will diverge since the limit being different from 0 means that eventually the values of the
sequence as n gets infinitely higher will reach this limit and thus the series will constantly
be adding/subtracting the value of this limit for every n to Sn .

Additionally we can also perform the ratio test which consists in finding the limit of two
consecutive terms in a sequence and depending on the value of the limit we can determine
whether the series converges, diverges or if the test is inconclusive.

an+1
r = lim | |
n→∞ an
If we obtain that r < 1 we know the series converges. If we obtain that r > 1 we know the
series diverges. If we obtain that r = 1 this means the test is inconclusive meaning we must
find a different way to find if the series converges or diverges.

7
 Analysis
Rafael Perez Guardiola Homework Number 2 November 14, 2023

For part a) we will begin by performing the ratio test:

n
an =
4n
n+1
an+1 = n+1
4
an+1
r = lim
n→∞ an
n+1
4n+1
r = lim
n→∞ nn
4
n
4 (n + 1)
r = lim
n→∞ 4n+1 (n)
4n (n + 1)
r = lim
n→∞ 4n 4n
n+1
r = lim
n→∞ 4n
1 1
r = lim +
n→∞ 4 4n
1
r=
4
1
Since we obtain that r = 4
we can therefore conclude that the series for part a) converges.

For part b) we will begin by performing the ratio test:

n
bn =
4n
n+1
an+1 = n+1
4
an+1
r = lim
n→∞ an
n+1
4n+1
r = lim
n→∞ nn
4
n
4 (n + 1)
r = lim
n→∞ 4n+1 (n)

4n (n + 1)
r = lim
n→∞ 4n 4n
n+1
r = lim
n→∞ 4n
1 1
r = lim +
n→∞ 4 4n
1
r=
4

8
 Analysis
Rafael Perez Guardiola Homework Number 2 November 14, 2023

1
Since we obtain that r = 4
we can therefore conclude that the series for part a) converges.