BBA AA Ancillary Services

ANCILLARY SERVICES
SYLLABUS
UNIT I
Ground Handling Services – Role and Responsibilities of Ground Handlers – Ground Handling: Self Handling vs.
Outsourcing – Ground Handling: Case Studies at India and Abroad – IATA Ground Handling Council
UNIT II
Passenger Services – Passenger Handling: Departure Concourse – Passenger Handling: Transit and Arrivals –
Passengers' Baggage Handling – Specialized Handling of Passengers: VVIPs, VIPs, Physically Challenged
UNIT III
Cargo Services – Cargo Services at Export Shed – Cargo Services at Import Shed – Cargo Services at Transit
Shed – Cargo Aircraft Handling, Air Cargo – Concept – Cargo Handling – Booking of Perishable Cargo and Live
Animals – Industry Relation – Type of Air Cargo – Air Cargo Tariff, ratios and Charges – Airway Bill, Function,
Purpose, Validation
UNIT IV
Other Services: Responsibilities – Catering: Preparation, Escort and Security, Inter-terminus Transfers – Medical
Services, Accommodation and Hospitality, Information Dissemination – Airport Operations – Airport
Management
UNIT V
Aviation Security: Infrastructural Requirements – Planning and Design Considerations for Security at Airports –
Annex 17: SARPs (Standard and Recommended Practices) – Access Control and Alarm Monitoring Mechanisms,
Security Screening Infrastructure and Procedures – In Flight Safety & Security
5
Airport Ground
Handling
UNIT I
6
Ancillary Services
LESSON 7
Airport Ground
Handling
1
AIRPORT GROUND HANDLING
CONTENTS
1.0 Aims and Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What is Ground Handling?
1.3 Functions of Ground Handling
1.4 Ground Handler
1.5 Roles and Responsibilities of Ground Handler
1.5.1 Inside the Airport Terminal
1.5.2 Outside the Airport Terminal
1.6 Categories of Ground Handling
1.7 Self-handling and Outsourcing/Third Party Handling
1.7.1 Self-handling Companies
1.7.2 Third Party Ground Handling Companies
1.8 Let us Sum up
1.9 Lesson End Activity
1.10 Keywords
1.11 Questions for Discussion
1.12 Suggested Readings
1.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z Describe the Functions of Ground Handling
z Discuss the Ground Handler and their Roles and Responsibilities
z Appreciate the Categories of Ground Handling
z Differentiate the terms Self Handling and Outsourcing/Third Party Handling
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Access to the airport from the surrounding community is an integral part of the overall
passenger. The access link of an airport's passenger handling system includes all of the
ground transportation facilities such as ramp services, baggage services, cargo
services, passenger services, etc. These preliminary services of an airport start from
the check-in process and ends to the final destination. Preferably, ground handlings
are performed to decrease ground time and thus to increase aircraft productivity. In
general, ground handling services are an essential part of the final product offered by
an airline to the customer.
8
Ancillary Services 1.2 WHAT IS GROUND HANDLING?
Ground Handlings are the preliminary services of an airport which starts from the
check-in process and ends to the final destination. These ground handling services
starts from the point of departure to one’s arrival on the ground and are generally
parked at a terminal gate of an airport.
According to the International Air Transport Association (IATA), Approximate
50 per cent of the ground handling at the world's airports are outsourcing by airlines.
Ground handling addresses the requirement of many ancillary services from the times
of arrival to departure at a terminal gate.
Ground handling covers a wide variety of services for airlines delivered at airports in
support of the operation of air services. It includes not only highly technical services
such as maintenance, fuel and oil services and freight handling, but also services
which are essential to passengers' safety and comfort, such as passenger check-in,
catering, baggage handling and surface transport at the airport.
The market in ground handling services is covered by the Directive 96/67/EC dating
from October 1996 which gradually opened up the services to competition. This was
necessary since the checking-in of passengers, baggage handling, the provision of
catering services, etc. used to be a monopoly at many European airports and many
airlines complained about the relatively high prices for the services provided and sub-
optimal efficiency and service quality.
Source: http://www.airport-technology.com/news/newseu-lawmakers-back-proposal-revised-ground-handling-policy-
airports
Figure 1.1: Ground Handling
1.3 FUNCTIONS OF GROUND HANDLING

For the purpose of this advisory circular, “ground handling” will include the facilities,
equipment, personnel, policies and procedures for—
1. Ticketing of passengers and baggage
2. Acceptance and processing of cargo, including dangerous goods
3. Cleaning the aircraft interior
4. Servicing of restroom supplies
5. Servicing of galley supplies
6. Servicing of blankets, pillows and magazines 9
Airport Ground
7. Servicing of the aircraft Handling
8. Fueling of the aircraft

9. Loading of the cargo, including dangerous goods
10. Computation and provision of mass and balance data
11. Computation and provision of performance data
12. Correction or deferring of maintenance irregularities
13. Provision of flight planning information
14. Provision of operational flight plan
15. Security screening of passengers and carry-on baggage
16. Enplaning the passengers and their carry-on baggage
17. Marshalling, towing or assisting the aircraft in departing the gate
18. Deicing of the aircraft
19. Preparation of parking area for arrival of the aircraft
20. Marshalling and parking of the aircraft after landing
21. Deplaning the passengers and their carry-on baggage
22. Off-loading of cargo and baggage
23. Provision of the baggage to the deplaned passengers
24. Security for the aircraft while parked
25. Communications as necessary associated with flight handling, departure and
arrival
26. Retention of required records associated with flight handling, departure and
arrival
27. Implementation of emergency procedures associated with an incident or accident
Ground handling management has to deal with very diverse tasks. Preferably, these
operations are performed simultaneously to decrease ground time and thus to increase
aircraft productivity. Airlines pay at the most part for the delays that their aircrafts
experience. Therefore, they strongly emphasizes the time-efficiency of ground
operations provided either by themselves, or the airport authority or independent
companies. It makes the task even tougher for ground handlers whose efficiency relies
on technology-advanced equipment, coordination of staff and information support
systems.
1.4 GROUND HANDLER

Ground handlers, also known as ground handling staff, are employees of airline
companies or airports who load and unload baggage and freight, as well as perform
various odd jobs to prepare planes for flight. They deal with the turn around of the
aircraft where after the plane have stopped to drop off its passengers. The ground
handlers will come onto the plane and sort out the aircraft by making sure it's clean
and in a reasonable condition for the next batch of passengers to arrive onboard.
10
Ancillary Services 1.5 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF GROUND
HANDLER
The roles and responsibilities of airport ground staff may vary from one airport to
another and will depend on whether they are working for a specific airport
management company, or an airline.
1.5.1 Inside the Airport Terminal

z Checking passengers in for flights.
z Re-routing or re-booking passengers whose flights have been cancelled or delayed
z Assisting disabled passengers or those travelling with young children.
z Giving passengers up-to-date information on flights.
z Assisting passengers with all enquiries, including lost or delayed baggage.
z Assisting staff in carrying out security checks as and when the situation arises.
z Delivering high levels of customer service to passengers and those travelling
through the airport.
1.5.2 Outside the Airport Terminal

z Handling all the loading and uploading of passenger bags from the aircraft.
z Helping direct passengers on to and off the aircraft.
z Directing landed aircraft to taxi spots.
z Providing services such as steps from the aircraft for passengers and crew to
disembark the aircraft.
General Responsibility
1. Operators are responsible for the safe ground handling of their aircraft following
cargo and passenger loading, refueling, cleaning, catering and the completion of
pre-flight maintenance and servicing.
2. Instructions must be given to ensure that ground handling tasks are carried out in a
parking gate, that each task is fully and correctly completed, and that any damage
is reported immediately.
3. Where ground handling tasks are contracted out to other organizations, contracts
must include the operator's requirements for safe conduct of the task and the
performance of the contractor, in respect of safety, must be monitored regularly.
Primary Responsibility
1. Operators should nominate a person with the responsibility for ground operations,
which would include:
(a) Airside safety management;
(b) The use of air bridges and other means of embarkation/disembarkation for the
purposes of evacuation and the subsequent handling of passengers; and
(c) The allocation of responsibilities between coordinating agencies for passenger
safety during embarkation and disembarkation.
2. An aircraft operator and the handling agent involved in emplaning and/or
deplaning passengers generally share responsibility for safety while they are
moving between the terminal building and the aircraft.
Coordination of Responsibilities 11
Airport Ground
1. The allocation of these areas of responsibility should be clearly set out in the Handling
operations manual and taught to all staff who is involved. Items should include:
(a) Responsibility for passenger safety and the point(s), during the embarkation/
disembarkation process, at which responsibility for their safety is transferred
(b) How liaison is to be established between an aircraft operator and any
appointed ground handling agent to ensure that their individual emergency
procedures are compatible and effective
(c) Clarification that any decision to initiate an unplanned disembarkation and the
selection of an appropriate method of achieving this is the responsibility of the
pilot in command or delegated aircraft crew member
(d) Advice that, in some instances when an aircraft is on parking gate, a
precautionary disembarkation using the normal access/egress routes may be
more desirable than initiating an emergency evacuation using slides.
Operators must consider when and how such a rapid disembarkation may
be safely managed and how staff is to be informed of the intended
method.
Consideration should be given to producing a 'rapid disembarkation'
checklist procedure for use in circumstances that will not involve the
deployment of evacuation slides.
The use of normal egress routes during the initial stages of a rapid
disembarkation does not preclude use of evacuation slides if the situation
demands.
Crew training should include selection and implementation of appropriate
rapid disembarkation or evacuation measures;
(e) An instruction that the pilot in command or nominated crew member should be
inside an aircraft whenever passengers are emplaning, on board or deplaning.
The operations manual must specify how this responsibility is to be
discharged.
The pilot in command is not present during embarkation/disembarkation,
then a member of the aircraft crew must be delegated to be responsible for
passenger safety;
(f) Confirmation that when any passengers are on board or in the process of
emplaning or deplaning, the pilot in command or the aircraft crew member
delegated to be responsible for passenger safety may initiate aircraft rapid
disembarkation or evacuation procedures.
This person should broadcast intended actions and the need for external
assistance.
Crew training should stress that from the time an aircraft comes on a
parking gate until it departs, excluding periods when there are no persons
on board, an external means of disembarkation should be available.
Aircraft operators' procedures for arming and disarming evacuation slides
should be clearly defined and compatible with the provision of external
support
(g) A requirement that when an air bridge is in use, and passengers are on board
the aircraft, the pilot in command or the aircraft crew member delegated to be
responsible for passenger safety should ensure through the ground service
12 providers that egress from the air bridge into the terminal can be maintained in
Ancillary Services
the event of an emergency.
In this context the term "in use" means the period from when an aircraft
stops on the parking gate and the air bridge is attached until the time
when, after the aircraft has left the parking gate, it is able to move under
its own power.
(h) Confirmation that, in exceptional circumstances, if company procedures and
arrangements with service providers have not ensured the availability of air
bridges when a rapid disembarkation becomes necessary, then evacuation via
normal evacuation methods should take place.
(i) A requirement to ascertain the availability of an air bridge or steps before
deciding what would be the best method to use.
(j) A requirement to make no assumption that emergency services have already
been alerted.
(k) A need to ensure that ground handling staff (maintenance, loading and
catering staff) whether employed by the operator or under contract to him
should ensure that the pilot in command is aware of any emergency situation
that is observed.
(l) Managing responsibility for an 'out of service aircraft'.
The operator retains responsibility for nominating a suitably trained
individual to be in charge of that aircraft when any person is on board e.g.
cleaners, maintenance, etc.
Training should include emergency procedures for the rapid disembarkation
of occupants of an out of service aircraft should the need occur.
2. Other ramp safety issues that the operator should address through the person
responsible for ground operations, working in co-operation with contracted
organizations (who could include handling agencies and airport authorities) to
ensure that safety hazards are quickly identified and corrective measures are
instituted to the satisfaction of all parties which include.
(a) Coordination, by the operator, of the ground handling of the aircraft. The
operator is ultimately responsible for the safe operation and fitness of the
aircraft for the intended flight.
(b) The need for discipline to carefully planned procedures for aircraft handling on
the ramp, both to ensure safety of the aircraft and to minimize the danger of
injury to, or death of ground handling personnel who include maintenance,
agency staff, fueling, loading, catering, servicing and any other persons
employed in connection with the arrival, preparation and ground handling of
the aircraft.
(c) The need to report immediately any damage caused to aircraft by vehicles. If
this is not reported before an aircraft departs, the safety of the aircraft,
passengers and crew will be endangered.
The operator is responsible for ensuring that any damage to the aircraft, or
failure to close doors and panels etc., is identified prior to flight and that
loading, fueling, catering, servicing and maneuvering are safely
accomplished.
This can be achieved by a final inspection carried out by a member of the
operator's maintenance or operating staff. Any damage to the aircraft must
be reported and assessed for airworthiness significance prior to flight.
Check Your Progress 1 13
Airport Ground
State whether the following statements are true or false: Handling
1. Ground handling covers a wide variety of services for airlines delivered at

airports in support of the operation of air services.
2. Ground handlers deal with the turn around of the aircraft where after the
plane have stopped to drop off its passengers.
3. The market in ground handling services is covered by the Directive
96/67/EC dating from October 1996.
4. Air Lines strongly emphasize the time-efficiency of ground operations
provided either by themselves, or the airport authority or independent
companies.
1.6 CATEGORIES OF GROUND HANDLING

The Ground Handling Services (GHS) are an essential part of the final product offered
by an airline to the customer. These GHS services are divided into five main
categories: ramp handling, baggage handling, fright/mail handling, fuel oil handling,
passenger handling and other services.
Source: http://www.garsonline.de/Downloads/070616/Orak_Petkov_Groundh__GARS.pdf
Figure 1.2: Overview of the Ground Handling Activities

1. Ramp Handling: Ramp services offers the following services with its experienced
staff and state of the art technology. It includes
Meeting and marshalling the aircraft
Offloading and loading the aircraft
Equipment supply
Provision of Ground Power Unit, Air Condition Unit and Aircraft Push-Back
Tractor services
Interior cleaning
14 Provision of toilet and water services to the aircraft
Ancillary Services
Deicing of aircraft in adverse weather conditions and taking measures for
antiicing
Passenger and crew transport between aircraft and passenger terminals
Storage of pallets, containers and other unit load devices
Source: http://www.skyport.co.jp/en/?cat=5
Figure 1.3: Ramp Handling

2. Baggage Handling: It includes the processing of baggage in the sorting area,
baggage sorting, baggage preparation for departure, baggage loading and
unloading to and from the systems used to transport it from the aircraft to the
sorting area, and vice-versa, as well as conveying baggage from the sorting area to
the distribution area.
Source: http://www.controlsystemsgroup.com/transportation-and-logistics/
Figure 1.4: Baggage Handling

3. Freight/Mail Handling: It includes the following services:
For Freight: physical handling of export, transfer and import freight, handling
of related documents, customs procedures and implementation of any security
procedure agreed between the parties or required by the circumstances.
For Mail: physical handling of incoming and outgoing mail, handling of
related documents and implementation of any security procedure agreed
between the parties or required by the circumstances.
15
Airport Ground
Handling
Source: http://www.123rf.com/photo_4095075_transportation-by-air-aircraft-loading-cargo-at-dallas-forth-worth-
international-airport.html
Figure 1.5: Freight/Mail Handling
4. Fuel Oil Handling: It offers the following services like, organizing and providing
fuelling and refueling services, including storage and fuel supply quality control
and topping up oil and other fluid levels.
5. Passenger Handling: Passenger handling, including all forms of assistance
required by passengers departing, arriving, in transit or between connecting
flights, and more specifically, inspection of tickets and travel documents, baggage
check-in and the conveying of baggage to the airport sorting systems.
Source: http://www.senaiairport.com/biz.asp?menuid=100071&rootid=100002&splid=&parentid=100061
Figure 1.6: Passenger Handling
6. Other Services: Ground administration and supervision services, Aircraft cleaning
and servicing, Aircraft maintenance services, Ground transport services and
Aircraft catering services etc comes under aircraft ground handling services.
1.7 SELF-HANDLING AND OUTSOURCING/THIRD PARTY

HANDLING
These above mentioned 5 activities could be done by the airlines themselves, called
self-handling or could be done by a third party called outsourcing. The third party
handlers can be airports, specialized ground handling companies, or another airline,
which serves as a third party handler. The global market for GHS was estimated to
have a size of about 32bn €.
16
Ancillary Services
Source: http://www.garsonline.de/Downloads/070616/Orak_Petkov_Groundh__GARS.pdf
Figure 1.7: Freedoms and Possible Restrictions of Council Directive 96/97/EC

Some examples of self handling and third party handling are as follows:
Madrid is the one with the highest percentage of self-handling which is near about
73%. Out of the third party handling market, Iberia holds 60% and Ineuropa 40%.
The market shares of Alitalia and EAS (Air One) are mostly due to self-handling
while ADR (the airport operator) controls about 75% of the third party handling
market.
In Rome Fiumicino, (28.1m passengers in 2004) the market is restricted to the airport
operator (the former monopolist) and two airlines (Alitalia and Air One), which self-
handle their flights, and provide also third party handling. There are no independent
handlers and, although there is a third self-handling license, no airline has requested
its service.
The fourth largest European airport Amsterdam Schiphol has 42.5 m passengers in
2004. There are four third party handlers present in Amsterdam: KLM, AviaPartner,
Penauille Servisair and Menzies. Martinair has a license for third party handling,
conducts, however, only self-handling.
1.7.1 Self-handling Companies

(a) For an airport with more than two million passenger movement or 50,000 tones of
fright per year, all air carriers are free to handle themselves, but, in case of
practical constraints at the airside the airport operator may reserve the right to self
handling for two air carriers as a minimum for the following categories of ground
handling services as described in appendix C:
Baggage handling
Ramp handling
Fuel and oil handling
Freight and mail handling (physical, between air terminal and aircraft)
Provided that such air carriers are selected on the basis of their operational
activities at the airport i.e. total number of annual passenger movement or total
tones of freight.
(b) For an airport with less than two million passenger movement or 50,000 tones of 17
Airport Ground
freight per year, air carriers are free to handle themselves, but, in case of practical Handling
constraints at the airside the airport operator may reserve the right to Self handling
for one air carriers as a minimum for the above four categories of ground handling
services.
(c) Provided that such air carrier is selected on the basis of its operational activities at
the airport i.e. total number of annual passenger movement or total tones of freight.
(d) For other ground handling categories, not mentioned above, all air carriers are free
to handle themselves and such applications can not be denied or limited for the
following categories of ground handling services as described.
Ground administration & supervision.
Passenger handling.
Aircraft services.
Aircraft maintenance.
Flight operations & crew administration.
Surface transport.
Catering services.
(e) Temporary and exceptional - exemptions to the provisions of section 140.7 are
possible, but the necessity thereof has to be proven to CARC, wherein CARC may
check the validity of the need for an exemption and may reject the exemption in
part or in whole.
(f) Airport may keep for itself the management of centralized infrastructures, such as
baggage sorting, de-icing, water purification and fuel distribution systems and
may require the self handlers and Ground handling companies to use these
infrastructures. Airport operator should be transparent, objective and non-
discriminatory and should not hinder access of the users to ground handling.
Ground handling Companies and self handlers (may) have to pay for the use of
these facilities.
1.7.2 Third Party Ground Handling Companies

(a) Airports with more than two million passenger movement or 50,000 tones of
fright per year) should ensure "free access by suppliers of ground handling
services to the market for the provision of ground handling services to third
parties. But they may limit the number of suppliers to two for the airside
categories of ground handling services. At least one of these suppliers should be
independent of the airport operator and of the national air carriers.
(b) Airports with less than two million passenger movement or 50,000 tones of freight
per year may limit the number of ground handling companies to one for the airside
categories of ground handling services.
Selection Procedure for Ground Handling Companies

(a) The airport operator shall establish criteria to select ground handling organizations
subject to the CARC Chief Commissioner/ CEO approval.
(b) The airport operator may petition the CARC Chief Commissioner/ CEO for the
approval of directly appointing a ground handling company to carry out any
specific ground handling services if it is warranted by the operational requirement
of the airport. The petition shall contain relevant justification for submitting it.
18 (c) Ground handling companies are selected for at least seven years period.
Ancillary Services
(d) If a ground handling company relinquishes its ground-handling activities before
the end of the period for which it was selected, it is to be replaced by another
ground handling company using the same selection procedure, subject to the
conditions established in subpart B of the this part.
Check Your Progress 2

Fill in the blanks:
1. The ………………. Services are an essential part of the final product
offered by an airline to the customer.
2. Passenger handling includes all forms of ………………. required by
passengers departing, arriving, in transit or between connecting flights.
3. The ………………. handlers can be airports, specialized ground handling
companies, or another airline.
4. The traffic is higher than 2 million passengers or 50,000 tones of freight
per annum; the Member State is allowed to reserve the right to …………
1.8 LET US SUM UP

Ground handling services starts from the point of departure to one’s arrival on the
ground and are generally parked at a terminal gate of an airport. These covers a wide
variety of services for airlines delivered at airports in support of the operation of air
services. It includes not only highly technical services such as maintenance, fuel and
oil services and freight handling, but also services which are essential to passengers'
safety and comfort, such as passenger check-in, catering, baggage handling and
surface transport at the airport. The market in ground handling services is covered by
the Directive 96/67/EC dating from October 1996 which gradually opened up the
services to competition.
Ground handlings services are usually done by ground handlers, called ground
handling staff. These are employees of airline companies or airports who load and
unload baggage and freight, as well as perform various odd jobs to prepare planes for
flight. They deal with the turn around of the aircraft where after the plane have
stopped to drop off its passengers. The roles and responsibilities of airport ground
staff may vary from one airport to another and these are different at internal and
outside airport terminals. GHS services are divided into five main categories; ramp
handling, baggage handling, fright/mail handling, fuel oil handling, passenger
handling and other services.
1.9 LESSON END ACTIVITY

List out the national and international ground handling services of aircrafts.
1.10 KEYWORDS
Ground Handling: It means the services provided to airport users at airports.
Self Handling Airline: Airline that does the ground handling itself (excluding the
handling of alliance partners).
Third Party Handling Airline: Airline which provides ground handling services for
another, airline.
Independent Ground Handling Company: Ground handling company, not linked to 19
Airport Ground
an airport operating company or an airline. Handling
Ramp Agent: Coordination and control of the handling processes on the apron.
Airport Apron: It means the defined area of the airport provided for the stationing of
aircraft for the embarkment and disembarkment of passengers, the loading/unloading
of cargo, and parking
Air Mail Centre: Means any premises, building or part of building equipped with
facilities for the receipt and sorting of mail from inbound flights, sorting of
transhipped air mail, and the delivery of air mail to outbound flights.
1.11 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Discuss the ground handling services of Indian aircraft.
2. How much of the ground handling market on the airport does the airline comprise
as a third party handler?
3. Does the airline as a third party handler provide ground handling services for
alliance partners at the airport?
4. Do ground handlers and the airport operator work together to enhance the safety
systems at the airport?
Check Your Progress: Model Answers

CYP 1
1. True
2. True
3. True
4. True
CYP 2
1. Ground Handling
2. Assistance
3. Third party
4. Third party handling
1.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Wensvee, J.G. (2007), Air Transportation: A Management Perspective, Ashgate
Young, S. and Wells. A.(2011), Airport Planning and Management, McGraw-Hill
Professional
Horonjeff, R. & McKelvey, F. et al. (2010), Planning and Design of Airports,
McGraw-Hill Professional
Graham, A. (2008), Managing Airports, Routledge
20
Ancillary Services LESSON
2
IATA GROUND HANDLING
CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 International Air Transport Association (IATA)
2.2.1 Aims of IATA
2.3 IATA’s Two-tier Systems
2.4 Growth and Development
2.5 IATA: Form a New Trade Association to a New Strategic Thrust
2.6 Ground Handling Council
2.7 Let us Sum up
2.9 Keywords

z Describe the International Air Transport Association (IATA)
z Discuss the IATA’s two-tier system along with its growth and development
z Explore the IATA’s new strategic thrust
z Understand IATA’s ground handling council
z Learn ineffectual decision making from the illustrated case of Denver
International Airport
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The International Air Transport Association was founded in Havana, Cuba, in April
1945. It is the prime vehicle for inter-airline cooperation in promoting safe, reliable,
secure and economical air services – for the benefit of the world’s consumers. The
international scheduled air transport industry is now more than 100 times larger than it
was in 1945. Few industries can match the dynamism of that growth, which would
have been much less spectacular without the standards, practices and procedures
developed within IATA. At its founding, IATA had 57 Members from 31 nations,
mostly in Europe and North America. Today, it has over 270 Members from more
than 140 nations in every part of the globe. The modern IATA is the successor to the
International Air Traffic Association founded in The Hague in 1919 – the year of the 21
IATA Ground Handling
world’s first international scheduled services.
2.2 INTERNATIONAL AIR TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION

(IATA)
International air transport is one of the most dynamic and fastest-changing industries
in the world. It needs a responsive, forward-looking and universal trade association,
operating at the highest professional standards. IATA is that association. IATA brings
together approximately 265 airlines, including the world’s largest. Flights by these
airlines comprise 94 per cent of all international scheduled air traffic. Since these
airlines face a rapidly changing world, they must cooperate in order to offer a
seamless service of the highest possible standard to passengers and cargo shippers.
Much of that cooperation is expressed through IATA, whose mission is to “represent,
lead and serve the airline industry”.
Continual efforts by IATA ensure that people, freight and mail can move around the
vast global airline network as easily as if they were on a single airline in a single
country. In addition, IATA helps to ensure that Members’ aircraft can operate safely,
securely, efficiently and economically under clearly defined and understood rules. For
consumers, IATA simplifies the travel and shipping process. By helping to control
airline costs, IATA contributes to cheaper tickets and shipping costs. Thanks to airline
cooperation through IATA, individual passengers can make one telephone call to
reserve a ticket, pay in one currency and then use the ticket on several airlines in
several countries – or even return it for cash refund.
Source: http://arabiangazette.com/mideast-passenger-traffic-iata/
Figure 2.1: IATA

IATA is also a collective link between third parties and the airlines. Passenger and
cargo agents are able to make representations to the industry through IATA and derive
the benefit of neutrally applied agency service standards and levels of professional
skill. Equipment manufacturers and third-party service providers are able to join in the
airline meetings, which define the way air transport goes about its business. IATA
allows airlines to operate more efficiently. It offers joint means – beyond the resources
of any single company – of exploiting opportunities, reducing costs and solving
problems. Airlines knit their individual networks into a worldwide system through
IATA, despite differences in language, currencies, laws and national customs.
IATA is a useful means for governments to work with airlines and draw on their
experience and expertise. Working standards within the aviation industry are
developed within IATA. In fostering safe and efficient air transport, IATA serves the
stated policies of most of the world’s governments.
22 2.2.1 Aims of IATA
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z To promote safe, regular and economical air transport for the benefit of the
peoples of the world, to foster air commerce, and to study the problems connected
therewith.
z To provide means for collaboration among the air transport enterprises engaged
directly or indirectly in international air transport service.
z To cooperate with the newly created International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO – the specialized United Nations agency for civil aviation) and other
international organizations.
The most important tasks of IATA during its earliest days were technical, because
safety and reliability are fundamental to airline operations. These require the highest
standards in air navigation, airport infrastructure and flight operations. The IATA
airlines provided vital input to the work of ICAO, as that organization drafted its
Standards and commended Practices. By 1949, the drafting process was largely
complete and reflected in “Annexes” to the Chicago convention, the treaty which still
governs the conduct of international civil aviation. In those early days, ICAO
coordinated regional air navigation and support for airports and operational aids in
countries, which could not themselves, afford such services. IATA provided airline
input to ICAO and to sessions of the International Telecommunications Union on
wavelength allocation.
The standardization of documentation and procedures for the smooth functioning of
the world air transport network also required a sound legal basis. IATA helped to
interlock international conventions, developed through ICAO, with US air transport
law, which had developed in isolation prior to World War Two. The Association made
a vital input to the development of Conditions of Carriage, the contract between the
customer and the transporting airline. One early item on the legal agenda was revision
and modernization of the Warsaw Convention – originally signed in 1929 – on airline
liability for passenger injury or death and cargo damage or loss. This work continues
once they were operating within a sound technical and legal framework. Airlines’ next
requirements were for answers to questions such as: who can fly where? What
prices are to be charged? How is the money from multi-airline journeys – that is,
interlining – to be divided up, and how do airlines settle their accounts?
The Chicago Conference of 1944, which gave birth to the Chicago Convention tried to
achieve a multilateral answer to the first two questions, but failed to do so. The
questions of who flies, and where, were resolved on a bilateral basis. The benchmark
Bermuda Agreement of 1946 between the US and the UK was the first of almost
4,000 bilateral air transport agreements so far signed and registered with ICAO. In the
early days, governments insisted on the right to oversee the prices charged by
international airlines, but could not in practical terms, develop those prices for
themselves. IATA was delegated to hold Traffic Conferences for this purpose, with all
fares and rates subject to final government approval. The aim was twofold: ensuring
that fares and rates would not involve cut-throat competition, while ensuring that they
could be set as low as possible, in the interests of consumers.
A coherent pattern of fares and rates pattern was established, avoiding inconsistencies
between tariffs affecting neighbouring countries – and thereby avoiding traffic
diversion. The predictability of fares and rates in this pattern also enabled airlines to
accept each other’s tickets on multi-sector journeys and thus gave birth to interlining.
Today, 50 million international air passengers a year pay for their ticket in one place,
in one currency, but complete their journey using at least two, and sometimes five or
more, airlines from different countries using different currencies. The first worldwide
Traffic Conference was held in Rio de Janeiro in 1947. It reached unanimous
agreement on nearly 400 resolutions covering all aspects of air travel. Fare 23
construction rules for multi-sector trips, revenue allocation – pro-rating – rules,
baggage allowances, ticket and air waybill design and agency appointment procedures
were typical details agreed at this pioneering meeting.
Today, that pioneering work is reflected in the currently applicable IATA Resolutions
dealing with these and many other subjects. Notable examples are:
z Multilateral Interline Traffic Agreements: These are the basis for the airlines’
interline network. About 300 airlines have signed and accepted each other’s
tickets and air waybills – and thus their passenger and cargo traffic – on a
reciprocal basis.
z Passenger and Cargo Services Conference Resolutions: These prescribe a
variety of standard formats and technical specifications for tickets and air way
bills.
z Passenger and Cargo Agency Agreements & Sales Agency Rules: These govern
the relationships between IATA Member airlines and their accredited agents with
regard to passenger and cargo.
Debt Settlement between airlines, largely arising from interlining, takes place through
the Clearing House, which began operations in January 1947. During its first year, 17
airlines cleared (US) $26 million. By 1994, the Clearing House had 380 participants
including non-airlines. The total cleared was (US) $22.8 billion. Typically, almost 90
per cent of debts between participants are offset and there is no need for cash
transfers.
2.3 IATA’S TWO-TIER SYSTEMS

Between the late 1940s and the early 1970s, it could be said that flight was
transformed from “a scientific phenomenon to a public utility at the disposal of the
entire world.” At the same time, the popularization of civil aviation led to growing
demands that the “public utility” view of the industry on the part of governments be
modified to encompass greater competition and wider access to markets. These
demands were fuelled by competition for leisure travellers provided by charter
companies and the challenge of stimulating demand to fill the new wide-bodied
aircraft. Potential demand for air travel had extended well beyond the original client
base of bureaucrats, businessmen and the well to do. New travel products and greatly
increased price flexibility were needed. As a result, the old basis for conducting IATA
Traffic Conferences needed modification.
At the same time, the US Government, which had first given IATA Traffic
Conferences immunity from national anti-trust law in 1946, began its own review of
air transport regulation, which, although domestic in scope, was bound to have
international repercussions. The international dimension of the US review resulted in a
“Show Cause Order”. Hearings took place in 1979, at which IATA was called upon to
show causes why anti-trust immunity should not be removed from its Tariff
Coordination activities. The outcome mainly affected North Atlantic passenger fares
which, for some years, were subject to special rules under an inter-governmental
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between the US and ECAC states. The
present position is that all Tariff Coordination activities continue to be protected.
Eventually, IATA was re-organized on a two-tier basis in October 1979. The tiers
comprised:
z Trade Association: (technical, legal, financial, traffic services and most agency
matters)
24 z Tariff Coordination: (passenger fares, cargo rates, and related conditions and
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charges)
2.4 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Taking account of its present size and average annual world growth rates in the range
of 5-6 per cent – typically, twice the rate of general economic growth – air transport
has a dynamism undiminished from its pioneering days. IATA’s role in it remains
central. The market for air transport has changed beyond recognition during the
history of the modern IATA. The industry continues to change and IATA is adapting
to meet the new needs. However, one thing has not changed – the necessity to provide
service. IATA helps the airlines to achieve this objective as they meet the new
demands of the 21st century. In large measure, the airlines have created a modern,
interdependent world over the past 50 years. IATA is working to ensure that the
world’s most exciting industry meets its greatest possible potential.
International air transport grew at double-digit rates from its earliest post-1945 days
until the first oil crisis in 1973. Much of the impetus for this growth came from
technical innovation. The introduction of turbo-propeller aircraft in the early 1950s,
transatlantic jets in 1958, wide-bodied aircraft and high by-pass engines in 1970 and
later, advanced avionics were the main innovations. They brought higher speeds,
greater size and better unit cost control and, as a result, lower real fares and rates.
Combined with increased real incomes and more leisure time, the effect was an
explosion in demand for air travel. Increased demand for air travel led to increased
activity for IATA.
Technical work evolved into seven broad areas. These are as follows:
z Avionics and Telecommunications included the vital air navigation function
z Engineering and Environment developed IATA policy on aircraft noise and other
emissions
z Airports defined airline requirements for airport terminals
z Flight Operations worked on safety factors such as minimum aircraft separation
standards and air routings
z Medical monitored health standards for flight crews and facilitated air travel for
disabled passengers
z Facilitation attempted to speed the flow of people and goods through airports –
particularly, customs and immigration
z Security worked on measures to safeguard passengers and cargo by preventing
hijacking and sabotage and on minimizing fraud and theft of tickets.
IATA's legal efforts anticipated the effects of new technology associated with the
period of rapid growth. It was able to advise the industry on new aircraft and systems,
electronic data processing and advances in sales and marketing techniques. Since acts
of hijacking and sabotage became more frequent during this period, IATA assisted in
the development of the Tokyo, Hague and Montreal Conventions, the first
international legal countermeasures.
Automation became commonplace in airline operations during the 1960s.
Standardisation in its use was less commonplace and IATA began its involvement in
perfecting standard message formats for inter-company data exchange, which
continues to this day.
The goal has been to save money for the airlines, while enhancing airline service. This
philosophy was carried over to many activities during the 1950s and 1960s.
Development of the Clearing House was followed by the establishment of Billing and 25
Settlement Plans and Cargo Accounts Settlement Systems – in effect, one-way
clearing houses to speed the flow of revenue from agents to airlines. Sales Agents
were given the opportunity to prove their professional status under an accreditation
process, and training – in conjunction with the Universal Federation of Travel Agents'
Associations and the Federation of Freight Forwarders' Associations – was introduced.
The pattern for airline-agent relations was set with the introduction of the Standard
Agency Agreement in 1952. There are now nearly 81,000 IATA agents worldwide
and 135,000 students have enrolled for IATA-sponsored agency training courses since
they were introduced.
International air transport creates special problems of taxation. This was a concern
even before World War II. IATA makes specific challenges to the legality of certain
taxes and points out to governments the counter-productive effect of excessive
aviation taxation in general. User Charges – payment for using airports and air
navigation services – mushroomed during the 1960s and 70s. IATA's task is to
minimise their impact by ensuring that the charges are for facilities actually required,
that charges are cost-related and that productivity improvements are built into cost
projections. Currency earned by airlines abroad is sometimes blocked by the central
bank of the country in which it is earned. IATA works to free it, for transfer back to
the airline that earned it.
Unit Load Devices, or ULDs – principally, containers – allow rapid, economical cargo
handling. IATA Members developed the technical specifications for containers and
created a ULD control centre, to keep track of their movements. Until 1955, there was
a complete embargo on the air transport of toxic, flammable or corrosive materials.
Then IATA developed Dangerous Goods Regulations for their safe carriage. A decade
later, Live Animals Regulations provided for suitable standards for the in-flight
welfare of animals.

State whether the following statements are true or false:
1. The International Air Transport Association was founded in Havana,
Cuba, in April 1945.
2. IATA is also a collective link between third parties and the airlines.
3. International air transport is one of the most static and slowest-changing
industries in the world.
4. Debt Settlement between airlines, largely arising from interlining, takes
place through the Clearing House.
5. IATA's legal efforts anticipated the effects of new technology associated
with the period of rapid growth.
2.5 IATA: FORM A NEW TRADE ASSOCIATION TO A

NEW STRATEGIC THRUST
The IATA that emerged since 1979 has put an increasing share of its resources into
trade association activities. IATA also changed the basis of its funding. Much of the
association's funding is now done through the marketing of its products and services to
member airlines, other airlines and others in the travel, transport and tourism industry.
As a result, airlines can access a broader array of professional services, tapping into
IATA’s expertise. In addition, IATA has greater flexibility in the way it approaches its
tasks, while remaining devoted to its not-for-profit operations principles.
26 In many ways, those tasks remained the same as in 1945, or even in 1919. However,
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IATA gave them new relevance and focus by redefining its mission and goals in 1994:
z Safety & Security: To promote safe, reliable and secure air services.
z Industry Recognition: To achieve recognition of the importance of air transport
worldwide social and economic development.
z Financial Viability: To assist the industry to achieve adequate levels of
profitability, by optimising revenues (yield management) while minimising costs
(fuel, charges and taxation).
z Products & Services: It provide high-quality, value for money, industry required
products and services that assist the airlines in meeting the needs of the consumer.
z Standards & Procedures: To develop cost-effective, environmentally-friendly,
standards to facilitate the operations of international air transport.
z Industry Support: To identify and articulate common industry positions and
support the resolutions of key industry issues (congestion, infrastructure).
These objectives proved to be relevant and most were carried over to the new
millennium, where they still form most of IATA’s current mission. While the 20th
century saw the creation and formidable ascension of the air transport industry, the
beginning of the 21st century is a time of challenge for the viability of aviation, and a
time of major changes. The terrible events of 9/11 showed the economical fragility of
a number of major airlines.
The fast increase in jet-fuel prices and additional taxes put an additional burden on
airlines. This made IATA’s role as a trade association more crucial as ever. IATA’s
Director & CEO since 2002, Giovanni Bisignani, completely restructured the
association to increase its relevance and speed in driving a broad agenda for industry
change.
Since 2002, IATA has spearheaded an industry agenda to enhance safety and improve
efficiency. Two major IATA initiatives were launched, re-shaping important parts of
the industry:
z The IATA Operational Safety Audit (IOSA), the first global standard for airline
operational safety management.
z The Simplifying the Business programme, using technology to improve customer
convenience while reducing costs in five focus areas: E-ticketing, Bar Coded
Boarding Passes (BCBP), E-freight, Common Use Self-Service (CUSS) and
Radio Frequency ID (RFID).
Giovanni Bisignani has also strengthened IATA’s position as the voice of the industry,
with firm advocacy and lobbying to focus governments on the long-term issues for the
viability of aviation including liberalisation, environment and taxation.
IATA's role remains central to ensure that air transport stays one of the most dynamic
industries. The market for air transport has changed beyond recognition during the
history of the modern IATA. The industry continues to change and IATA is leading it
to meet the new needs.
However, one thing has not changed – the necessity to provide service. IATA helps
the airlines to achieve this objective as they meet the demands of the 21st century. The
airlines have created a modern, interdependent world over the past 60 years. IATA is
working to ensure that the world's most exciting industry meets its greatest possible
potential.
27
2.6 GROUND HANDLING COUNCIL IATA Ground Handling
The IATA Ground Handling Council (IGHC) brings together over 350 airlines,
ground handlers, airports and authorities and serves as a platform where matters of
mutual concern regarding ground operations can be discussed. The IATA Ground
Handling agenda focuses on four pillars:
z Safe flight and safe ground operations
z Operational efficiency and quality service delivery
z Open, effective market
z Sustainability
The Council
z The IATA Ground Handling Council (IGHC) is the principle forum of
organisations involved in worldwide airline ground handling services. The IGHC
brings together IATA and non-IATA airlines, independent ground handling
companies, airports, participants in the IATA Partnership Programmes and other
parties to address issues related to ground handling.
z The IGHC shall deal with ground handling matters of concern to the aviation
industry in general and in particular the range of services outlined in IATA
Standard Ground Handling Agreement. It shall also participate in the
development, use, maintenance and standard interpretations of the Standard
Ground Handling Agreement.
It is recognised that the IGHC has a consultative role only and is providing
guidance to the IATA groups responsible for the adoption of standards. The IGHC
may also undertake any other specific assignments as approved by the by the ASC
or its Chairman.
Who Can Join

z IGHC membership is open to all IATA member airlines, Non-IATA airlines,
Independent ground handling companies, Airports and Persons that provide or
arrange for ground handling activities by IATA Standard Ground Handling
Agreement.
z Independent ground handling companies and other persons who provide or
arrange ground handling services will require evidence of at least one airline
customer for whom it provides or arranges the services specified in its
membership application.
z Application for Membership shall be submitted to the Secretary in the form
prescribed by the IGHC. IATA Industry Associates, Registered Suppliers and
Travel Partners may also participate in the annual IGHC meeting, and other
activities as appropriate.
Membership Fees
z Membership and other fees (except as set forth below) shall be established by the
Secretariat in consultation with the IGHC.
z Annual Membership fees are payable by the 1st of January of each year.
z The Secretary, in consultation with the Chairman and Vice-Chairmen, may
establish a meeting attendance fee for guests, and representatives of members in
excess of three persons.
28 z In consultation with the Chairman and Vice-Chairmen, the Secretary may
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establish conference fees for a meeting.
Termination of Membership
z A member may terminate its Membership in the IGHC upon thirty days (30)
written notice to the Secretary. Fees which have been paid will not be refunded
z The Secretary may terminate the Membership of any member of the IGHC upon
thirty days written notice if;
After receiving a reminder of fees due and owing the Member has not paid
such fees within sixty (60) days or
The member ceases to qualify for Membership.
Annual General Meetings

1. Meetings of the IGHC shall be held annually at the time and place determined by
its preceding meeting or as determined by the Chairman of the IGHC in
consultation with the Vice-Chairmen and the Secretary. Special meetings of the
IGHC may be called upon the written request of the majority of its Members,
upon the written request of the majority of the appointed Members of the ASC, or
by the Chairman and Vice-Chairmen of the IGHC in consultation with the
Secretary.
2. Notice of the annual meeting of the IGHC shall be given to the Members at least
seventy-five (75) days prior to the date of the meeting requesting submission of
items for the Agenda. The Agenda and documentation for such meeting shall be
available to all Members of the IGHC at least forty-five (45) days prior to the date
of the meeting. Notice of special meetings shall be given to the Members of the
IGHC at least thirty (30) days in advance of the date of the meeting and the
Agenda and documentation for such meetings shall be available at least ten (10)
days in advance of the date of the meeting.
Additional items may be added to the Agenda of a regular or special meeting at a
later time, but for discussion purposes only and no action may be taken upon any
such item at the meeting of submission unless the majority of the members at the
meeting so agree.
3. A member of the IGHC may attend all meetings of the IGHC and any Working
Groups established by the IGHC. Participation in all meetings and any Working
Groups is pursuant to these Operating Rules. IATA Industry Associates,
Registered Suppliers/Travel Partners have the right to attend meetings but not the
right to vote. Subject to the approval of the Chairman, observers may also be
invited to attend meetings in a non-voting capacity.
4. Each IATA Member shall inform the Secretary in writing of its Accredited
Representative and one Alternate in advance of the meeting.
5. No member may send more than three representatives to any meeting unless
permission is received in advance from the Chairman.
6. A quorum for the annual meeting and any special meeting shall consist of twenty
five (25) accredited representatives, or alternates, of IATA Members which are
Members of the IGHC plus twenty five (25) accredited representatives, or
alternates, of Members of the IGHC which are not members of IATA.
7. All recommendations of the IGHC referring to the IATA Airport Handling
Manual shall be taken by a two-thirds (2/3) majority vote of the IATA Members
present and voting. Abstentions do not count in the vote. Any approved
amendments to the Airport Handling Manual will be forwarded to the ASC for 29
further consideration.
8. All other decisions of the IGHC shall be taken by a two-thirds (2/3) majority vote
of the Members of the IGHC present and voting.

Fill in the blanks:
1. Each IATA Member shall inform the ……………. in writing of its
Accredited Representative.
2. IGHC shall be taken by a ……………. vote of the Members of the IGHC
present and voting.
3. A member may terminate its ……………. in the IGHC upon thirty days
(30) written notice to the Secretary.
4. The ……………. is the principle forum of organisations involved in
worldwide airline ground handling services.
Case Study 1: At Abroad Denver International Airport Baggage

Handling System –An illustration of Ineffectual Decision-making
Dysfunctional decision making is the poison that kills technology projects and
the Denver Airport Baggage System project is a classic example. Although
several case studies have been written about the Denver project, the following
paper re-examines the case by looking at the key decisions that set the project
on the path to disaster and the forces behind those decisions.
Background
What was to be the world’s largest automated airport baggage handling
system, became a classic story in how technology projects can go wrong.
Faced with the need for greater airport capacity, the city of Denver elected to
construct a new state of the art airport that would cement Denver’s position as
an air transportation hub. Covering a land area of 140 Km2, the airport was to
be the largest in the United States and have the capacity to handle more than
50m passengers annually.
The airport's baggage handling system was a critical component in the plan.
By automating baggage handling, aircraft turnaround time was to be reduced
to as little as 30 minutes. Faster turnaround meant more efficient operations
and was a cornerstone of the airports competitive advantage.
Despite the good intentions the plan rapidly dissolved as underestimation of
the project’s complexity resulted in snowballing problems and public
humiliation for everyone involved. Thanks mainly to problems with the
baggage system, the airport’s opening was delayed by a full 16 months.
Expenditure to maintain the empty airport and interest charges on construction
loans cost the city of Denver $1.1M per day throughout the delay.
The embarrassing missteps along the way included an impromptu
demonstration of the system to the media which illustrated how the system
crushed bags, disgorged content and how two carts moving at high speed
reacted when they crashed into each other. When opening day finally arrived,
the system was just a shadow of the original plan. Rather than automating all
three concourses into one integrated system, the system was used in a single
Contd…
30 concourse, by a single airline and only for outbound flights. All other baggage
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handling was performed using simple conveyor belts plus a manual tug and
trolley system that was hurriedly built when it became clear that the
automated system would never achieve its goals.
Although the remnants of the system soldiered on for 10 years, the system
never worked well and in August 2005, United Airlines announced that they
would abandon the system completely. The $1 million per month maintenance
costs exceeded the monthly cost of a manual tug and trolley system.
Basic Mode of Failure
As with all failures the problems can be viewed from a number of levels. In its
simplest form, the Denver International Airport (DIA) project failed because
those making key decision underestimated the complexity involved. As
planned, the system was the most complex baggage system ever attempted.
Ten times larger than any other automated system, the increased size resulted
in an exponential growth in complexity. At the heart of the complexity lay an
issue known as “line balancing”. To optimize system performance, empty
carts had to be distributed around the airport ready to pick up new bags.
With more than 100 pickup points (check in rows and arrival gates) each
pickup needed to be fed with enough empty carts to meet its needs. The
algorithms necessary to anticipate where empty carts should wait for new bags
represented a nightmare in the mathematic modelling of queue behaviours.
Failure to anticipate the number of carts correctly would result in delays in
picking up bags that would undermine the system’s performance goals.
Failure to recognise the complexity and the risk involved contributed to the
project being initiated too late. The process of requesting bids for the design
and construction of the system was not initiated until summer of 1991. Based
on the original project schedule, this left a little over two years for the
contracts to be signed and for the system to be designed, built, tested and
commissioned. The closest analogous projects were the San Francisco system
and one installed in Munich. Although much smaller and simpler, those
systems took two years to implement. Given the quantum leap in terms of size
and complexity, completing the Denver system in two years was an
impossible task.
The underestimation of complexity led to a corresponding underestimation of
the effort involved. That underestimation meant that without realising it, the
Project Management team had allowed the baggage system to become the
airport’s critical path. In order to meet the airport’s planned opening date, the
project needed to be completed in just two years. This clearly was insufficient
time and that misjudgement resulted in the project being exposed to massive
levels of schedule pressure. Many of the project’s subsequent problems were
likely a result of (or exacerbated by) shortcuts the team took and the mistakes
they made as they tried to meet an impossible schedule.
Key Decisions that Led to Disaster
Although the basic mode of failure is fairly clear, to understand the root cause
and what should have been done differently we need to examine how the
critical decisions that triggered the failure were made. Project failures usually
involve numerous flawed decisions, but within those many missteps, certain
key decisions are the triggers that set in motion the sequence of events that
lead to disaster.
Contd…
Key Decision 1 – A Change in Strategy 31
At the start of a project strategic decisions are made that set the project’s
direction. In the DIA case, a strategic error was made that resulted in “flip-
flop” being made part way through the project.
Prior to requesting bids for an integrated system in the summer of 1991, the
airport’s Project Management team had assumed that individual airlines
would make their own baggage handling arrangements. United Airlines had
indeed proceeded with their own plan by engaging BAE (Boeing Airport
Equipment Automated Systems Incorporated) directly. Continental Airlines
had however not made any arrangements and given that the airport was not
yet fully leased out, other sections of the airport were not being addressed.
In the summer of 1991, the airport’s Project Management team changed their
strategy and realised that if an integrated system was to be built, they needed
to take responsibility back from the individual airlines and run the project
themselves. This change in strategy came a little more than two years prior to
the airport’s planned opening date and the timing of the decision was in large
part the trigger behind the excessive schedule pressure the project was
exposed to.
In one way the change in strategy made sense because an integrated system
required centralized control and the airport’s Project Management team was
the only central group that could run the project. Clearly the timing of the
decision was however extremely poor. Had the correct strategy been set at the
outset, there would have been two additional years in which to develop the
system. Those two years may well have been enough to allow designers to
understand the complexity issue more deeply and to find ways to either
overcome it or agree with the stakeholders on a simpler design.
The delay in setting the correct strategy is likely rooted in the history of how
prior airport construction projects had been run. Because earlier generation
baggage facilities were dedicated to individual airlines, airlines had
historically built their own systems when a new airport was built. The advent
of the integrated airport wide system required a change in mindset. The
integrated nature of the new systems meant that instead of airlines looking
after their own facilities, airport’s needed to take control.
The key point the airport’s Project Management team failed to see was that
the shift in technology required a corresponding shift in organizational
responsibilities. The failure to recognise that shift represents a planning failure
that dated back to the very start of the construction project. The public record
does not detail how the original strategy was set or even if the topic had been
directly considered. However, people typically see the world through the eyes
of their prior experiences and given that almost all prior airport projects had
left this responsibility to the airline, it is very likely that the question was
simply never discussed.
In broader terms, the mistake made was a failure to link the airport’s overall
strategy (the goal of having one of the world’s most efficient airports) with the
sub-strategy of how to build the baggage system.
The mode in which that failure occurred may well simply have been a failure
to ask the critical question of where responsibility for development of the
baggage system needed to be.
Contd…
32 Key Decision 2 – The Decision to Proceed
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Although the change in strategy is somewhat understandable, what is less
understandable is why both the airport Project Management team and BAE
decided to proceed with the full scale project despite clear indications that
there was insufficient time left for the project to be completed successfully.
Prior to entering into the BAE contract, there were at least three indications
that the project required more than two years or was simply not feasible:
z The 1990 Breier Neidle Patrone Associates report indicated the
complexity was too high for the system to be built successfully,
z Analysis of the three bids received indicated that none of the vendors
could build the system in time for the Oct 1993 opening
z Experts from Munich airport advised that the much simpler Munich
system had taken 2 full years to build and that it had run 24/7 for 6 months
prior to opening to allow bugs to be ironed out Reports indicate that the
decision to proceed was based on the communications between the
airport’s Chief Engineer (Walter Slinger) and BAE’s Senior Management
team. While BAE had initially chosen not to bid for the airport wide
contract, the rejection of the three official bids resulted in the airport team
speaking directly to BAE about the possibility of expanding the United
Airlines system that was already under development. Those discussions
resulted in the preparation of a specification and the creation of a large
scale prototype (reported to have filled up a 50,000 sq. ft. warehouse).
Demonstration of the prototype to is said to have been the factor that
convinced Slinger that the system was feasible. Despite the fact that BAE was
talking directly to Slinger about the possibility of building the system, some
reports indicate that within BAE several managers were voicing concern.
Again the issues related to whether or not it was feasible to build such a large
system in such a short period of time. Reports indicate that several managers
advised the BAE Senior Management team that the project was at minimum a
four year project, not a two year project.
The failure by both Slinger and BAE’s Senior Management team to heed the
advice they were receiving and the failure of the airport’s Project
Management team to have the BAE proposal and prototype independently
reviewed is the epicentre of the disaster.
Although published reports do not indicate why the expert advice was
ignored, it is clear that both Slinger and BAE’s Senior Management team
underestimated the complexity of the project and ignored information that
may have corrected their positions. Many factors may have led them into that
trap and likely issues that may have influenced the decision making include:
1. From Slinger’s perspective:
(a) Denver was to be a state of the art airport and as such the desire to
have the most advanced baggage system would likely have been a
factor behind Slinger’s willingness to proceed.
(b) Slinger’s prior experiences with baggage handling will have been
based on simple conveyor belts combined with manual tug and
trolley systems. Those prior experiences may have led Slinger to
underestimate the complexity of moving to a fully automated system.
Contd…
(c) As a Civil Engineer, Slinger was used to the development of physical 33
buildings and structures rather than complex technology systems; this
may have predisposed him to underestimate the mathematical
complexity associated with an issue such as “line balancing”.
(d) Slinger is reported to have been a hands-on leader who liked to solve
problems himself. As such Slinger may have been inclined to make
decisions on his own rather than seeking independent advice.
(e) Slinger dealt with the discussions with BAE personally, given that he
was responsible for the complete airport, he will have had
considerable other duties that would have limited the amount of time
he had to focus on the baggage system.
(f) On the surface the prototype may well have made it look as if BAE
had overcome the technical challenges involved in building the
system and as such Slinger may have been lured into a false sense of
security.
2. From BAE’s perspective:
(a) The project was a big revenue opportunity and represented a chance
to grow the business. The prestige of securing the DIA contract would
position BAE to secure other large contracts around the world. New
airports or terminals were planned for Bangkok, Hong Kong,
Singapore, London and Kuala Lumpur and BAE would be a strong
contender if they could win the DIA project.
3. Other factors:
(a) Both BAE and Slinger will have recognized that they were working
within a tight timeframe and the pressure to move quickly may have
caused them to put due diligence to one side.
(b) The belief that due to the airport’s size, a manual system would not be
fast enough to meet aircraft turnaround requirements. Note however
that this belief was unfounded as the airport functions happily today
using a manual system.
Key Decision 3 – Schedule, Scope and Budget Commitments
The schedule, budget and scope commitments a team enter into are amongst
the most critical decisions they will make. The seeds of project success or
failure often lie in the analysis that goes into making those decisions and the
way such commitments are structured.
In the DIA case, BAE committed to deliver the complete system under a fixed
scope, schedule and budget arrangement. The decision to give a firm
commitment to scope, schedule and budget transferred considerable risk onto
BAE’s shoulders. This move indicates strongly that those in the highest level
of BAE’s management structure had completely failed to recognize the level
of risk they were entering into. Had they been more aware, they almost
certainly would have taken steps to limit the risk and to find ways to limit the
scope to something that was more achievable in the time available.
Again the finger prints of excessive schedule pressure can be seen in the
commitments BAE entered into. The contractual conditions for the agreement
and the scope of work were hammered out in just three “intense” working
sessions. Although BAE had some level of understanding because of their
contract with United Airlines, clearly the three working sessions will not have
provided sufficient time for the different parties to develop an in-depth
Contd…
34 understanding of what was involved or for them to fully understand the risks
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they were taking.
BAE and the airport Project Management team made another major mistake
during the negotiations. Although the airlines were key stakeholders in the
system they were excluded from the discussions. Excluding stakeholders from
discussions in which key project decisions are made is always a losing
strategy. When previously excluded stakeholders are finally engaged, they
usually ask for significant changes that can negate much of the previous work
done on the project.
Key Decision 4 – Acceptance of Change Requests
Not surprisingly, as the project progressed the airlines did indeed ask for a
number of significant changes. Although in the original negotiations, BAE
had made it a condition that no changes would be made, the pressure to meet
stakeholder needs proved to be too strong and BAE and the airport’s Project
Management team were forced into accepting them. Among the major
changes were; the adding of ski equipment racks, the addition of maintenance
tracks to allow carts to be serviced without being removed from the rails and
changes to the handling of oversized baggage. Some of the changes made
required significant redesign of portions of work already completed.
Accepting these changes into a project that was already in deep trouble raises
some further troubling questions. Did the team fail to understand the impact
the changes might have? Did they fail to recognise how much trouble the
project was already in? Although answers to those questions are not available
from the public record, the acceptance of the change requests again hints at
the communications disconnects that were occurring inside the project.
Clearly some of the people involved will have understood the implications,
but those voices appear not to have connected with those who were making
the overall decisions.
Key Decision 5 – Design of the Physical Building Structure
Rather than being separate entities, the baggage system and the physical
building represented a single integrated system. Sharing the physical space
and services such as the electrical supply the designers of the physical
building and the designers of the baggage system needed to work as one
integrated team.
Largely because the design of the building was started before the baggage
system design was known, the designers of the physical building only made
general allowances for where they thought the baggage system would go.
When the baggage system design was eventually started, the baggage system
design team was forced to work within the constraints left to them by the
designers of the physical building (estimates to change the physical structure
to suit the needs of the baggage system are reported to have been up to
$100M).
The resulting design meant that the baggage system had to accommodate
sharp turns that were far from optimal and increased the physical loads placed
on the system. Those stresses were key contributors to the system’s reliability
problems. In particular, navigating sharp turns is reported to have been one of
the major problems that lead to bags being ejected from their carts. These
problems ultimately proved so severe that the speed of the system was halved
from 60 cars per minute to 30 cars in order to reduce the physical forces when
Contd…
negotiating tight turns. That quick fix however had the side effect that it began 35
to undermine the performance goals the system was trying to meet.
Although the designers of the physical building likely did their best to make
allowance for the baggage system, this portion of the story once again
illustrates a breakdown in the overall planning of the project. The allowance
of spaces in which the baggage system would operate represented a key
interface between the design of the physical building and the baggage system.
To make effective decisions about how to design the physical building, the
designers of the physical building needed to be working alongside people who
had expertise in designing baggage systems. Clearly this did not happen.
What is not clear is if the designers of the physical building requested such
expertise be provided or if they just went ahead in isolation. In either case, the
Project Management team should have recognised the significance of the
interface between the baggage system and the physical building and arranged
for the appropriate people to work together.
Key Decision 6 – The Decision to Seek a Different Path
Following the embarrassing public demonstration to the press in Apr 1994,
the Mayor of Denver recognized that the project was in deep trouble. The
demonstration had been an unmitigated disaster and pressure was building
from various sources pushing the Mayor to intercede. When the Mayor did
step in, Mattias Franz of Logplan Consulting of Germany (a specialist in the
design and construction of baggage handling systems) was called in to review
the situation. Despite United Airlines instance that the automated system be
finished, based on Logplan’s recommendation the Mayor slashed project and
ordered that a manual trolley system built at an additional cost of $51M.
While the Mayor was correct in taking action, the timing of the intervention
again reveals something about the internal dynamics of the project. By the
time the Mayor took action, the airport was already 6 months behind schedule
and four opening dates had already been missed. In addition the disastrous
demonstration of the system had shown to the world how bad the state of the
project really was.
The four missed opening dates and the disastrous demonstration indicate that
those at the highest level really had little idea what the true status of the
project was. Bringing in an external consultant to review the project was
certainly a good decision, but again it was a decision that was made far too
late. A project of this size, complexity and risk should have had a number of
such reviews along the way and independent expert assessment should have
been a continual part of the project.
Other Failure Points
While the underestimation of complexity, lack of planning, ineffective
communications and poor management oversight drove the failure, the project
suffered many other difficulties that compounded the problems. Some of those
issues were unavoidable, but others were likely a result of the schedule
pressure the project was working under. Among the other issues that affected
the project.
Risk Management Failures
The project encountered a number of major technical problems for which no
allowances had been made. One of the most significant was caused by the fact
that the electrical system suffered from power fluctuations that crashed the
Contd…
36 system. The resolution to the problem required filters to be built into the
Ancillary Services
electrical power system to eliminate surges. Delivery and installation of the
filters took several months, during which time testing was severely
constrained.
Such issues were likely predictable had the team focused on risk management
activities. Again possibly as a result of the schedule pressure under which they
were working, appropriate risk management strategies appear not to have been
developed.
Leadership Change
In October of 1992 Walter Slinger died. Singer was the system’s de facto
sponsor and his death left the project without much needed leadership.
According to reports, Mr Slinger’s replacement lacked the in-depth
engineering knowledge required to understand the system. In addition the
replacement manager retained their prior responsibilities and hence was
stretched to the limit.
Architectural and Design Issues
A number of reports indicate that the design the team chose to use was
particularly complex and error prone. Among the issues noted:
1. The system had more than 100 individual PCs that were networked
together. Failure of any one of the PCs could result in an outage as there
was no automatic backup for failed components,
2. The distributed nature of the design (with PCs dotted around the different
concourses) added to the difficulty of resolving problems when they
arose, The system was unable to detect jams and as a result when a jam
occurred, the system simply kept piling up more and more bags making
the jam that much worse.
Again schedule pressure may well have been a factor in the design problems.
When under excessive schedule pressure teams often settle for the first design
they think of. In addition schedule pressure often forces teams to focus on the
“happy path” design while spending little time thinking through how to deal
with problems and how to make the system fault tolerant.
Conclusion
The Denver debacle is a template for failure that many other projects have
followed. As with so many other failures, Denver suffered from:
1. The underestimation of complexity
2. A lack of planning resulting in subsequent changes in strategy
3. Excessive schedule pressure
4. Lack of due diligence
5. Making firm commitments in the face of massive risks and uncertainty
6. Poor stakeholder management
7. Communications breakdowns
8. People working in silos
9. Poor design
10. Failure to perform risk management
Contd…
11. Failure to understand the implication change requests might have 37
12. Lack of management oversight
While the above points represent contributors to the failure, there is one
central problem that triggered the fiasco. Successful projects are projects in
which people make effective decisions and making effective decisions
requires a number of ingredients. Chief among those ingredients are
knowledge and expertise. Walter Slinger, the airport’s Project Management
team and even the BAE’s Senior Managers did not have prior experience of a
system of this scale. In addition, given that automated baggage systems were
relatively new, even BAE’s Senior Management team only had a limited
understanding of what was involved. That lack of knowledge, combined with
the fact that expert advice was routinely ignored, is the epicentre of the
failure.
Question
Make a summary note on the main contents of the given case.
Source: http://www5.In.Tum.De/~Huckle/Diabaggage.Pdf
Case Study 2: At India/Abroad the No Frills Model

Analysing Southwest Airlines and how, in India, Air Deccan is Coping
with the Competition
Southwest Airlines Co., incorporated in 1967, is a US domestic airline that
provides predominantly short haul, high-frequency, point-to-point, low-fare
service in the United States. The Company focuses principally on point-to-
point, rather than hub-and-spoke, service in markets with frequent,
conveniently timed flights and low fares.
As of December 31, 2003, Southwest served 337 non-stop city pairs.
Examples of markets offering frequent daily flights are Dallas to Houston,
35 weekday round trips; Phoenix to Las Vegas, 19 weekday round trips, and
Los Angeles International to Oakland, 22 weekday round trips. Southwest
complements these high-frequency short haul routes with long haul non-stop
service between markets such as Baltimore and Los Angeles; Phoenix and
Tampa Bay; Seattle and Nashville, and Houston and Oakland.
Presently, Southwest is the third largest US airline in number of national
passenger flights. Its principal competitors are the so called legacy carriers –
Delta, American Airlines, US Airways, United, Continental and Northwest.
The company itself has been profitable for 24 consecutive years and is the
only major airline in the US to realize a profit in 2001. It has had a perfect
safety record and lowest lost-baggage claims.
So what differentiates Southwest from the 'Legacies'?
Southwest's average aircraft trip stage length in 2003 was 558 miles, with an
average duration of approximately 1.5 hours.
The Company's point-to-point route system, as compared to hub-and-spoke,
provides for more direct non-stop routings for customers and, therefore,
minimizes connections, delays and total trip time.
Southwest focuses on non-stop (not-connecting) traffic. As a result,
approximately 79% of the Company's customers fly non-stop.
z In addition, Southwest serves many conveniently located satellite or
downtown airports such as Dallas Love Field, Houston Hobby, Chicago
Contd…
38 Midway, Baltimore-Washington International, Burbank, Manchester,
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Oakland, San Jose, Providence, Ft. Lauderdale/Hollywood and Long
Island Islip airports, which are typically less congested than other airlines'
hub airports. This enhances the Company's ability to:
sustain high employee productivity
ensure reliable on time performance
lower landing and parking fees
achieve high asset utilization
z Aircraft are scheduled to minimize the amount of time the aircraft are at
the gate (approximately 25 minutes), thereby reducing the number of
aircraft and gate facilities that would otherwise be required.
z The Company operates only one aircraft type, the Boeing 737, which
simplifies scheduling, maintenance, flight operations and training
activities.
z Southwest does not interline or offer joint fares with other airlines, nor
does it have any commuter feeder relationships.
z Southwest offers a ticketless travel option, eliminating the need to print
and process a paper ticket altogether. In 2003, more than 85% of
Southwest's customers chose the ticketless travel option and
approximately 54% of passenger revenues came through the Internet.
For the past five years, low-cost airlines have been growing at more than 40
per cent a year, while the full-service airlines are yet to recover from the crisis
that hit them post 9/11. Taking a cue, Capt. G R Gopinath launched Air
Deccan in September 2003, India's first no-frills airline.
z Airbus 320 can accommodate 180 seats while IA has 145 seats including
executive class. The extra 35 seats are in ` 500 – ` 2,500 bracket.
z In contrast to the hub-and-spoke model, Air Deccan follows the point-to-
point concept, which removes hindrances like waiting for connecting
flights and through baggage check-in.
z Result: greater flexibility. Each Airbus 320 flies for 10 – 11 hours
compared to the 7 – 8 hours clocked by other airlines.
z Air Deccan has just two air hostesses compared to six in other airlines. All
this reduces the cost on overheads.
z The model is akin to any other low-cost carrier. Even the most expensive
ticket on offer is 35 per cent lower than usual fares on any sector. In the
Delhi-Bangalore sector for instance, the first 40 seats are available
between ` 500 – ` 2,500, the next 110 seats up to ` 5,000 and the
remaining don't cross ` 7,000.
z Unlike IA, Jet and Sahara who go in for acquisition of new aircraft, Air
Deccan has recently taken three Airbus 320 planes on lease from
Singapore Aircraft Leasing Enterprise (SALE) to complement its fleet of
seven French-made ATR 48-seater aircraft. This has enabled Air Deccan
to minimize its debt-to-investment ratio.
But unlike low cost airlines in the US and Europe, Air Deccan and its
followers face serious hurdles in the form of abysmal infrastructure and
government regulation on private airlines.
Contd…
z Air Deccan cannot shave off costs by using secondary airports. The 39
Naresh Chandra Committee, however, has suggested a compromise –
lower landing and parking charges for low-cost airlines. Towards this, the
new Hyderabad airport plans to keep aside some space for low cost
airlines to get them to fly more often to the airport.
z Plans to launch services on trunk routes have been delayed as it has not
been allotted parking bays and ticket counters in Mumbai and Delhi
airports.
z The operations of Air Deccan to Guwahati and Dibrugarh are not by
choice but are part of the Category 2 and Category 2A routes which are
compulsory for a private airline operating on metro routes. This need for
compliance though has bled full-service airlines what with their larger
capacity fleets.
Question
Analyse the case and interpret it.
Source: http://www.foolonahill.com/mbaaviation.html
2.7 LET US SUM UP

IATA was founded in Havana, Cuba, in April 1945. It is the prime vehicle for
inter-airline cooperation in promoting safe, reliable, secure and economical air
services – for the benefit of the world’s consumers. The IATA Ground Handling
Council (IGHC) is the principle forum of organisations involved in worldwide airline
ground handling services. The IGHC brings together IATA and non-IATA airlines,
independent ground handling companies, airports, participants in the IATA
Partnership Programmes and other parties to address issues related to ground handling
IATA’s position is that Air Transport should not be treated different from any other
industry whose goods and services are traded across borders. However, the airline
industry continues to be hampered by operating, ownership and control restrictions
imposed to varying degrees by governments worldwide. In this regard, IATA is
appreciative of the efforts undertaken by the Australian government in concluding
Open Skies treaties with the US and other countries in the world.

Prepare a presentation on operations and rules of IATA (International Air Transport
Association) ground handling council.
2.9 KEYWORDS
International Air Transport Association (IATA): It is the prime vehicle for inter-
airline cooperation in promoting safe, reliable, secure and economical air services –
for the benefit of the world's consumers.
Tariff: A tax applied to imported and exported goods in order to increase the revenue
of a regional or national government.
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU): A memorandum of understanding (MoU) is
a document describing a bilateral or multilateral agreement between two or more
parties.
Freight Forwarders: Firm specializing in arranging storage and shipping of
merchandise on behalf of its shippers
40 Unit Load Devices: A Unit Load Device (ULD) is a pallet or container used to load
Ancillary Services
luggage, freight, and mail on wide-body aircraft and specific narrow-body aircraft.
Regulations: The rule of order having the force of law, prescribed by the competent
authority or higher, relating to the actions of those under the authority's control.
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO): The International Aviation
Organization of Governments, ICAO is an agency of the United Nations. It was
organized to insure orderly worldwide technical development of civil aviation.

1. What are the roles of IATA ground handling council?
2. Who can be the member of IATA and what is the membership fee of IATA
member?
3. Describe show cause order in IATA.
4. Discuss the composition of IATA tires.
5. “Technical work in IATA evolved into seven broad areas.” Explain.
6. Highlight the two major IATA initiatives, which were launched, re-shaping
important parts of the industry.
7. Elucidate Global Regulatory Requirements and Maintaining Product Quality
section.

CYP 1
1. True
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. True
CYP 2
1. Secretary
2. two-thirds majority
3. Membership
4. IATA Ground Handling Council (IGHC)

Evans, et al. (2008). Transport and Logistics. Career FAQs.
Morrell, Peter, S. (2012). Moving Boxes by Air: The Economics of International Air
Cargo. Ashgate Publishing.
Hertwig, et al. (2010). Risk Management in the Air Cargo Industry: Revenue
Management, Capacity Options and Financial Intermediation. Diplomica Verlag.
Wensveen, John. G. (2012). Air Transportation: A Management Perspective. Ashgate
Publishing.
Skinner, Richard L. (2011). Security of Air Cargo During Ground Transportation
(Redacted). DIANE Publishing.
41
Passenger &
Baggage Handling
UNIT II
42
Ancillary Services
LESSON 43
Passenger &
Baggage Handling
3
PASSENGER & BAGGAGE HANDLING
CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Passenger Handling
3.3 Passenger Arrival & Departure Procedures (International & Domestic)
3.4 Passenger Management
3.5 Passenger Flow in the Airport
3.6 Transit of Passengers
3.6.1 General
3.6.2 Embarkation
3.6.3 Disembarkation
3.6.4 Problems with Passengers
3.7 Baggage Handling
3.7.1 Types of Baggage
3.7.2 Steps in Baggage Handling
3.8 Airport Passenger and Baggage Reconciliation Systems in Use
3.9 Let us Sum up
3.11 Keywords

z Discuss the concept of Passengers Handling
z Know the procedure of passenger arrival & departure during international and
domestic flights
z Understand the passengers management and passenger flow in the airports
z Discuss the transit of passengers
z Appreciate the term baggage handling along with its types and steps
z Identify the airport passenger and baggage reconciliation systems in use
44
Ancillary Services 3.1 INTRODUCTION
Despite the ongoing and immediate global economic pressures, the outlook for air
travel is positive, with the International Air Transport Association (IATA) predicting
that airlines will carry some 3.6 billion passengers in 2016 – an increase of around
800 million on 2011 passenger numbers. The industry consensus is that passenger
numbers will expand by an average of 5.3% per annum between 2012 and 2016. This
period will also see nearly 500 million new passengers traveling on domestic routes
and 331 million new passengers on international routes.
An efficient handling of passengers and baggage is essential for reliable terminal
processes. Airports with their complex infrastructure represent a central component of
today’s traffic system and have to satisfy a variety of different tasks. From the
passenger point of view, the building is primarily designed for providing handling
processes for departure and arrival. Since the entire progress of terminal handling
depends on the individual behaviour of the passengers.
3.2 PASSENGER HANDLING

The passengers carried in the company aircraft are, first, fellow associates and,
second, guests or clients of the company. As such, they deserve courtesy and
consideration while they are in and around company aircraft. More important, they
often are not familiar with aircraft operations, and their safety.
Passenger handling includes services inside the airport terminal such as:
z Providing check-in counter services for the passengers departing on the customer
airlines.
z Providing Gate arrival and departure services. The agents are required to meet a
flight on arrival as well as provide departure services including boarding
passengers and closing the flight.
z Staffing the transfer counters, customer service counters and airline lounges.
In addition to technical training on passengers’ check-in codes and conducts as well as
check-in system operation, dangerous articles handling, safety and security standards.
It gives paramount importance to its personnel code of conducts and ethics especially
when handling passengers.
Maintenance personnel section is often the first contact that passengers have with
corporate aviation. Therefore, maintenance personnel carry a special burden because
they must ensure that the passengers are cared for properly. Although passenger
service representatives and the flight crew normally are responsible for passenger
handling, maintenance personnel are an integral part of their care.
3.3 PASSENGER ARRIVAL & DEPARTURE PROCEDURES

(INTERNATIONAL & DOMESTIC)
The procedure for arrival and departure can be summarized as follows:
z Before entering the Airport Entry terminal passenger has to show his/her tickets
(the printout of the e-ticket) to the security in order to enter the airport.
z Inside the airport passengers will find various airlines boarding pass issuance
counter. At the counter passenger has to produce the e-ticket printout and his
photo ID.
z If passenger has any check-in luggage, passenger has to place it on the conveyor
next to the boarding pass issuance counter and the weight, etc. will be checked
and the baggage will be passed for check-in. The common weight limit for the 45
Passenger &
check-in baggage will be around 20kg. Different airlines have different weight Baggage Handling
limits. The limits may vary between airlines.
z Passenger can also mention their seat preference (Window, Center or Aisle) and
would be allotted as per availability.
z In case where a passenger has a cabin baggage a tag will be fixed to the same.
Without the tag the bag will not be allowed in the cabin. The cabin bag allowed
would be around 6 to 7 kg. But the weight will not be checked.
z Subsequent to this passenger will have to go to the check-in terminal (specified on
boarding pass) and go through security. Passengers should avoid carrying any
foods/liquids with them.
Figure 3.1: Flow Chart of Passenger Arrival & Departure

z After the security scan of passenger & the cabin baggage, passenger has to wait
near the boarding counter for the check-in.
z The airlines personal would announce the boarding and passenger can then go to
the terminal for boarding. Once through passenger might either have to travel to
the plane by a bus or sometimes the plane will be connected to the boarding
terminal.
After entering the plane, the cabin crews would guide passengers through the flying
procedures.
46
Ancillary Services 3.4 PASSENGER MANAGEMENT
Passenger flows at airports display two particular features which lead to an inevitable
build-up of queues: variability in the time between successive passengers arriving for
service at a particular process (such as check-in, security screening, or the inwards or
outwards control points); and the fact that passengers often arrive in groups rather than
individually. Processing times at each stage are also subject to variability. This
variability can lead to delays (i.e. queues) even when average passenger flow rates are
lower than average processing rates. A particular characteristic of airport queues is
that they can develop relatively quickly, over a period of as little as a few minutes, and
take a much longer time to dissipate.
Since queues are unavoidable, effective management of waiting passengers is
important to provide an acceptable passenger experience. Issues such as infrastructure
availability and configuration affect not only the amount of queuing passengers are
subjected to but also the quality of that experience. Passenger management is
especially important when there are infrastructure limitations to overcome. Effective
passenger management can also have flow-on efficiencies in terms of Customs
processes. By removing delays caused by passengers being unprepared for
forthcoming procedures, the whole process can operate more smoothly and quickly.
3.5 PASSENGER FLOW IN THE AIRPORT

"Passenger Flows" is a record for all employees from check-in, security, manning of
passport controlling, baggage handling to customs. It gives an overview of airport
areas which are used by passengers and which distances the passengers have to cover
within the airport. It distinguishes between departing and arriving local passengers,
as well as arriving and departing transfer passengers. The below mentioned figure 3.2
of passenger flow in airport will help you to understand the processing of passengers
from arrival to departure.
Source: http://www2.imm.dtu.dk/courses/02735/ORCopenhagenAirport.ppt
Figure 3.2: Passenger Flow in the Airport

There is an overview of the various areas of the airport, the number of passengers seen
in each area, and the routes the passengers have taken between areas.
47
Passenger &
Baggage Handling
Source: http://www2.imm.dtu.dk/courses/02735/ORCopenhagenAirport.ppt
Figure 3.3: Various Areas of the Airport

You will clearly understand the departure, transit and arrival of passengers by the
example; Distribution of passengers at Zurich Airport.
Source: http://www.zurich-airport.com/Portaldata/2/Resources/documents_unternehmen/investorrelations/Passenger-
Flows_1st_half-year_2013.pdf
Figure 3.4: Spatial Distribution of Passenger Types

48
Ancillary Services 3.6 TRANSIT OF PASSENGERS
3.6.1 General
Transit passengers connecting from a domestic flight to an international flight must
complete baggage check-in 30 minutes prior to the departure time at the airport
baggage counter. Transit of passengers is performed only after the clearance.
Different procedures may apply according to:
z Transit via passenger boarding bridge
z Transit via buses and passenger stairs
The flow of the passenger can be controlled by the responsible personnel:
z The ramp agent
z The flight crew
z The passenger service agent
3.6.2 Embarkation
Transit should start 30 min. before departure time but not without first having
obtained boarding clearance from flight-deck and cabin crew. Specialized passengers
as disabled passengers, unaccompanied minors and families with infants and VVIPs,
VIPs, physically challenged should be pre-boarded, if possible.
If the aircraft is parked in such a way that the passengers have to pass the wing area in
order to reach the entrance door care must be taken to direct passengers around the
wing.
It must further be ensured that the passengers:
z Board the right aircraft
z Do not mix with arriving passengers
z Do not leave items in security areas
z Boards the aircraft and do not abscond and
z No unauthorized persons board the aircraft
The handling agent shall check that the number of checked-in passengers correspond
to the number of passengers on board the aircraft.
The cabin crew shall check that the number of passengers onboard correspond to the
passenger manifest.
3.6.3 Disembarkation
Before initiating the passenger disembarkation it is required that:
z The engines are shut-down
z The stairs or loading bridge are properly placed
z Passenger should be advised to remain stay in the airplanes until the engines have
been shut down.
z During the passengers disembarkation the cabin attendants control the assigned
doors
z In case no loading bridges available, the passengers shall be either taken to the 49
Passenger &
terminal by vehicle or escorted, ensuring that they remain in a group, refrain from Baggage Handling
smoking and be kept clear of dangerous areas while on the aeroplane movement
area.
Transfer/Transit Passengers: (International Transfer Passengers with a Domestic

Connection Flight)
Passengers arriving from abroad are subject to visa and passport controls to enter the
country at the Arrivals Floor before they proceed for their domestic connection flight.
The passenger then proceeds to the Domestic Terminal and finalizes his/her transfer
procedure in the relevant lounge by presenting his/her boarding card issued in the
country of origin. If a boarding card is not issued at the origin airport then the
passenger needs to go through check-in at the Domestic Terminal. If the journey
continues on a different airline, please ensure that you have the adequate information
on whether or not you need to claim your luggage and check your ticket.
Some airlines transfer the luggage automatically onto the connection flight. Therefore,
the passenger does not have to claim their luggage in between flights. Please ensure
that luggage is labelled until the final destination to ensure that it is not left in the
terminal.
Transit Passengers: (Domestic Transfer Passengers with an International

Connection Flight)
A passenger arriving on a domestic flight to continue flying abroad proceed to the
International Terminal and finalize his/her transit procedures by going through
passport control with the boarding card issued in the origin country and going to the
relevant lounge. If a boarding card is not issued then one should be obtained at the
International check-in counters. Please ensure that the luggage is labelled till the final
destination to ensure that it is not left in the terminal.
Transfer Passengers: (Domestic Transfer Passengers with a Domestic Connection

Flight)
A passenger arrives on a domestic flight and has a domestic connection flight, she/he
proceeds to the Domestic Terminal Isolated Area and then into the relevant lounge
provided that he/she has a boarding card for the entire journey and that the baggage is
checked in until the final destination. If the baggage is not checked in until the final
destination and/or he/she has not got a boarding card then he/she claims the baggage
and goes through check-in again at the relevant counter within the Departures Lounge.
Transit Passengers: (Passengers Continuing Their Journey on the Same Flight)

The grounding time of the relevant flight should be excessively long; both
international and domestic transit passengers are issued a transit card and taken to the
transit lounge. They are taken back on board the same aircraft once refuelling and/or
maintenance procedures are complete. Should the grounding time not be sufficient the
passengers remain on board. Refuelling is done while passengers wait on board.
Baggage remains in the aircraft during transit flights.
3.6.4 Problems with Passengers

The plane can only take off if the owner of the checked-in baggage is on board, if not,
the agent has to find and remove the checked-in baggage. This takes a lot of time and
can cause flight delay which can lead to further problems and delays costing the
airline a significant amount of money and efforts.
50 There are several possibilities why a passenger is late at the boarding gate: the
Ancillary Services
passenger can get lost, cannot find the way to the correct gate, it is stocked at the long
queue of border control or security check, arrived simply too late at the airport, it was
lost within the shops or any of the airport facilities, forgot the time and the flight,
cannot understand or hear the loud speaker in case of gate change, or is simply to
absent-minded, the signs of the airport are not clear enough, or even some medical
problem or emergency occurred etc. Whatever the real reason, it costs money for the
airline.

1. Passenger Flows is a record for all employees from check-in, security,
manning of passport controlling, baggage handling to customs.
2. Specialized passengers as disabled passengers, unaccompanied minors
and families with infants and VVIPs, VIPs, physically challenged should
not be pre-boarded in flights.
3. Before entering the Airport Entry terminal passenger has to show his/her
ticket to the security in order to enter the airport.
4. Effective passenger management can also have flow-on efficiencies in
terms of Customs processes.
3.7 BAGGAGE HANDLING

Baggage is any item a passenger carries on his journey for his comfort or convenience.
Baggage admitted for carriage as passenger baggage containing such articles, effects
and other property of a passenger as are necessary for wear, use, comfort and
convenience in connection with his or her trip. The purpose of the baggage handling
process is to accept the baggage from the passenger, transport it from station A to B,
and returns it to the passenger in the exact same condition as when it was checked in.
Whether the baggage handling is proper or not can be checked by observing if the
bags are moving at the same pace as the traveller, or not. At the situations where the
luggage is traveling slower than the owner, then would irritate passengers because
they need to wait too long for their bags. The situation can get worse if the luggage
misses the connecting flight on time.
In the contrary scenario, if the bags move too fast, then too passengers would feel
irritated. There is a probability that the luggage makes it to the connecting flight but
the passenger misses it. Thus, there must be adequate balance so as to prevent this.
The baggage handling system essentially has three main objectives:
1. Luggage needs to be transferred from check-in area to departure gate.
2. Bags are required to be shifted from one gate to another.
3. Transferring the bags from the arrival gate to the baggage-claim counter.
In the remaining part of time when passengers are at the airport, the luggage remains
with them. Though, the point that every airport has its own needs cannot be neglected.
The time taken by the passenger to move from check-in area to the gate can differ at
various airports. At few airports, it is just a walk where others, the passengers may
have to take a train. The luggage of the passenger travels according to the time taken
by the passenger to reach the suitable terminal. In general, baggage handling system
incorporates some remarkable technologies for the shifting of bags. There is no
requirement of any manual intervention and the luggage is shifted from the check-in 51
Passenger &
counter to the departure gate in an automated way. The following steps are initiated: Baggage Handling
z Initially, the destination coded vehicles or the automated carts loads and unloads
bags. This is without any manual intervention and it continues without stopping.
z Next is the job for the automated scanners that scans the labels on the luggage,
again without any manual help.
z Lastly, the conveyers equipped with junctions and sorting machines channel the
bags to the gate.
All above handling mechanisms are conducted automatically. It would be very
tiresome if heavy luggage of each passenger is carried manually. A baggage handling
system can exactly be compared to a road system in a city in which case the conveyers
are the local roads, DCV tracks are highways and your bags are of course the vehicles.
Though, unlike a road system, the baggage handling system has the freedom to make
the decision as to where your bag will be going.
Source: http://www.siemens.co.uk/en/news_press/index/news_archive/2013/siemens-delivers-baggage-handling-solu
tions.htm
Figure 3.5: Baggage Handling
3.7.1 Types of Baggage

1. Checked baggage: This is the baggage the airline takes sole responsibility of and
is characterized by the following:
It bears a tag baggage) showing the station of arrival, serial number, name of
passenger and flight numbers.
A portion the tag is given to the passenger (the claim tag) to enable the
passenger identify his baggage at the point of destination arrival).
It is weighed at counters and carried in the baggage hold compartment of the
aircraft.
Checked-in baggage is not accessible to the passenger during the flight.
2. Unchecked baggage: This is the baggage a passenger takes sole responsibility of
during the flight and is carried in the cabin of the aircraft. It is carried free of
charge and it should weigh 7kgs (IATA Standards).
IATA stipulated certain articles to be carried free of charge by passengers during
their flight. You may carry some Baggage, free of charge, subject to our conditions
and limitations, which are available upon request, include:
z Ladies’ handbags
z Jewellery purse
z An umbrella
52 z A few reading material e.g. magazines, novels
Ancillary Services
z Laptop
z Overcoat/sweater
z Infants' carrying baskets
z Fully collapsible wheel Chair/pair of clutches.
z A seeing/hearing dog.
z The free carry-on baggage are carried free of charge on top of checked baggage
allowance.
Baggage Acceptance
All baggage for check-in must be well packed in suitcases or containers which must
be sufficiently rigid and resistant to pressure to ensure safe carriage by air. It is the
responsibility of the passenger to pack and mark their baggage. All baggage should
have the passenger’s name before it is accepted. The carrier reserves the right to refuse
the carriage of more than the baggage allowance in the same flight as the passenger
travels. Enter the pieces and weight in the passenger ticket.
3.7.2 Steps in Baggage Handling

The baggage handling system at an airport plays a crucial role in keeping travellers
happy. There are five steps in baggage handling.
1. Check-in or acceptance
2. Make-up
3. Loading
4. Transfer
5. Unloading and claim area
These are explained below:
1. Check-in: This is the stage at which baggage is accepted from the passenger for
transportation by an airline to the passenger’s destination. A baggage tag is provided
and attached to the baggage, reading the final destination of the baggage, transiting
stations, if any, and the flights and dates the baggage is to be transported on.
Exceptional baggage: This is the baggage which cannot be transported on the
conveyor belt because it is fragile, heavy and bulky or in need of special treatment
such as live animals, sporting equipment, musical equipment, baby strollers,
courier baggage, etc. Every airport has its own procedure for the handling of
exceptional baggage i.e.
Who is to bring the baggage to the make- up/sorting area, how this person will
be notified that there is exceptional baggage and which route to be used from
the check-in to the make-up area.
Communication is done via radio in channel 3 for Romeo One (ramp
supervisor).
Exceptional baggage, if small enough in size, is placed in tubs which are then
sent to the make-up area on the conveyor belt. This prevents the baggage from
rolling about or breaking.
For large, heavy, bulky and oddly shaped baggage, the staff from the make-up
area collects the baggage and uses the southern gate to take baggage from the
check-in area to the make-up area.
Late check in: Passengers usually check-in after the positive close-out time for a 53
Passenger &
flight and each airport and airline has its own routine on the handling of these Baggage Handling
passengers and their baggage. Late check baggage procedures determine how the
baggage will be taken to the aircraft and reconciled with the passenger. This
baggage is usually received.
Baggage taken at boarding gate: This is baggage usually retrieved from a
passenger at the last boarding gate because baggage may be too large or heavy to
be put in the cabin holds, or, there might not be enough space in the cabin to store
this baggage.
2. Make-up: It is concerned with sorting and preparing baggage for loading onto the
aircraft. The main points to be taken into account when dealing with baggage
make-up are:
Sorting by flight
Separation by type, i.e. interlines transfer, online transfer, and local baggage.
Separation by class of travel
3. Loading: Aircraft loading is concerned with loading and securing of baggage,
cargo and mail. Loading must be carried out with special emphasis on, and
attention to, basic principles.
Loading to facilitate handling - All items should be loaded onto the aircraft
according to the order in which in which they will be unloaded. Baggage should
always be unloaded in the following order;
1st interline transfer baggage
2nd online transfer baggage
3rd local/terminating baggage
4th other (cargo, mail, etc.)
It should be noted that some airlines require First/Business class baggage to
be offloaded before economy baggage and therefore first class baggage is
loaded after economy baggage.
Loading to prevent damage - Depending on the length of the journey, some pieces
of baggage can weigh more than 20kgs. As a result baggage must be loaded
vertically rather than horizontally to prevent baggage on the floor of the aircraft
from being crushed by that loaded on top of them.
4. Transfer: At each airport, Minimum Connecting Times (MCT) is established by
the scheduled airlines. AMCT Refers to the time required to transfer passengers
and their baggage successfully between airlines at an airport. MCTs are sent in
order to ensure that there is enough time to transfer baggage. That is because; in
general it is quicker to transfer passengers (arrival to departure gate) than it is to
transfer baggage. This is because baggage has to undergo various processes, i.e. it
must be sorted, screened, transferred, reconciled and loaded again.
5. Unloading: When dealing with loading, it was mentioned in what order baggage
should be unloaded. The Baggage Transfer Message (BTM), which includes the
baggage tag number, passenger name and flight details of the connecting baggage
(if any) before the aircraft arrives.
Claim area: The factors which might be taken into account at check-in also apply
to the claim area, i.e. exceptional baggage cannot be transported on the normal
conveyor system. Procedures dealing with exceptional baggage must be
established at each airport,
54 Check Your Progress 2
Ancillary Services
Fill in the blanks:
1. ………….. loading is concerned with loading and securing of baggage,
cargo and mail.
2. Make-up is concerned with ………….. and preparing baggage for loading
onto the aircraft.
3. Baggage is any item a ………….. carries on his journey for his comfort or
convenience.
4. All baggage for check-in must be well packed in suitcases or containers
which must be sufficiently rigid and resistant to pressure to ensure
………….. by air.
5. Exceptional baggage cannot be ………….. on the normal conveyor
system.
3.8 AIRPORT PASSENGER AND BAGGAGE

RECONCILIATION SYSTEMS IN USE
After arriving at the airport, the traveller enters the terminal building at the departure
hall. There the passenger checks-in himself and his baggage, which will be part of the
Departure Control System (DCS). The DCS after entering all the necessary data will
print a Boarding Pass and the long Baggage Tag (BagTag) with a barcode. The
Boarding Pass is printed to inform the passenger of the flight number, boarding time,
boarding gate number and seat number, and it is used to identify the passenger at the
security and immigration check and boarding gate too. The barcode of the checked-in
baggage serves the identification until the final destination. The longer part of this
BagTag is put on the checked-in baggage. The passenger receives the smaller slip that
contains the same barcode as the checked-in baggage. In case of baggage loss the
airline is able to identify and find out where the baggage has been lost. Without the
passenger having this receipt the airline is not obliged to find the lost luggage and
compensate the passenger.
In recent years industrial deployments have changed the previous infrastructure of the
departure hall. The operation of the check-in system has not changed much, but for
lowering the cost, the used tools (check-in desks, boarding card) have changed. The
operation became more automatic and the passengers are more independent. Currently
on many airports there are different facilities available:
1. Traditional check-in desks with an agent: serving mostly the business, frequent
flyer and the through check-in passengers.
2. Self check-in kiosks: where the passenger has to check-in himself, following the
indications of the touch-screen kiosks. The passenger has to provide the requested
data and can print his own boarding pass and baggage tag and then continue to the
Baggage Drop to weight and drop off the checked-in baggage. When self check-in
kiosks are introduced, an agent can help the passengers.
3. Portable Agent Workstations, Mobile Check-in device: agents circulate around
the check-in area looking for customers for checking them in with a hand-held
personal computer. These agents can also print the boarding pass and baggage tag,
and then the passenger can to continue to drop off its luggage. This method is
rarely used (e.g. Kingfisher is using it at Madras Airport).
4. A mixture of the above mentioned possibilities.
5. A new trend is for passengers without checked-in baggage: 55
Passenger &
Web check-in: the boarding pass is issued through the web and the passenger Baggage Handling
has to print it at home
Mobile check-in: the passenger can check in via his mobile and the boarding
pass will be sent by SMS/MMS to the passenger’s mobile phone. Solutions
are being prepared for this kind of check-in for passengers with checked-in
luggage too.
Remote Check-in: In some cities (e.g. Las Vegas) it is possible to check-in in
the hotel or in other cities (e.g. Hong Kong) at major interchanges and the
airline will deliver the checked-in baggage to the airport.
The above mentioned check-in possibilities can use several tools too:
1. Boarding Passes:
Traditional Magnetic Strip
Bar Coded Boarding Pass: using 2D barcode printed on a paper from the
airport’s
Check-in facility or outside the airport from the web or sent to mobile phones
or PDAs in SMS/MMS format. It should be used by all IATA member airlines
by the end of 2010, and it should completely replace the magnetic strip
2. Baggage Tag:
Barcode: this is the commonly used solution
RFID tags embedded in the back of barcode paper: some airports and airlines
have adopted it after some trials (e.g. Las Vegas, Hong Kong).
After the check-in the ways of the passenger and the baggage will separate, and unite
again at the Baggage Claim of the final destination. The following figure shows the
way and the steps a passenger and a luggage takes while travelling by an airplane.
Source: http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/8498/InTechImproving_on_passenger_and_baggage_processes_at_airports_
with_rfid.pdf
Figure 3.6: Boarding Pass with Bar Code and with RFID in a Paper
56 The passenger is attending the security and immigration checks, the order depends on
Ancillary Services
the airport and then at the time of boarding it will proceed to the plane. In the
meantime, after the baggage check-in, the baggage passes through security check and
baggage sorting. In the sorting room, with today’s reconciliation technology, the
stevedore scans the BagTag’s barcode with a scanner that translates the encoded
barcode and shows the stevedore to which baggage cart or container and airplane the
luggage should be directed to. After arrival of the flight, in case of a direct passenger,
the passenger continues to the immigration check and then to the baggage claim to
collect his baggage and leaves the airport through the arrival hall. At the exit of the
baggage claim nobody checks if the baggage was taken by its owner or another
person. In case of a transfer passenger and baggage, the passenger stays in the transit
of the terminal building after leaving the aircraft, and he passes through immigration
check (depending on the destination) and a security check before re-boarding.
Case Study: Transfer Passengers’ Perceptions of Airport Service

Quality of Incheon International Airport
Airport passengers can be divided into different groups such as departing,
arriving and transfer passengers. Each of these groups will have a different set
of needs and wishes when they use different facilities at the airport. For
example, transfer passengers have discretionary time waiting and they will
likely to value their experience in airport facilities differently compared to
origin and destination passengers. The needs of transfer passengers are quite
different from those of origin and destination passengers. After deregulation
and privatization, many large international airports have served as hubs for
transfer passengers therefore the importance of transfer passengers have been
increased. Thus, understanding and catering for the specific needs of transfer
passengers are fundamental in achieving growth in today’s competitive airport
environment. Here the effect of airport service quality on the transfer
passenger traffic of Incheon International Airport (IIA) is explored by
examining a conceptual model that considers airport service quality as well as
a number of other factors that simultaneously influence transfer passenger’s
behaviour.
Service quality is customer’s long-term, cognitive evaluations of a firm’s
service delivery. Customers compare what they expect to get with what they
actually receive during the post-purchase stage of the service purchase
process. Before customers purchase a service, they have an expectation about
service quality that is based on individual needs, past experiences, word-of-
mouth recommendations, and a service provider’s advertising. After buying
and consuming the service, customers compare its expected quality with what
they actually received. A frequently used and highly debated measure of
service quality is the SERVQUAL scale. According to its developers,
SERVQUAL is a diagnostic tool that uncovers a firm’s broad weaknesses and
strengths in the area of service quality. The SERVQIAL instrument is based
on five service quality dimensions that were obtained through extensive focus
group interviews with consumers. The five dimensions include tangibles,
reliability, responsiveness, assurance, and empathy, and they provide the basic
skeleton underlying service quality.
Delivering high service quality has been recognized as the most efficient way
of ensuring that a company’s offerings are uniquely positioned in a market
filled with look-alike competitive offerings. Improving the quality of
manufactured goods has become a major strategy for both establishing
efficient, smoothly running operations and increasing demanding higher and
Contd…
higher quality. Providing high quality service and ensuring customer 57
Passenger &
satisfaction are widely recognized as important factors leading to the success Baggage Handling
of the various service industries. It is commonly believed that higher service
quality can lead to a customer’s higher overall satisfaction and subsequently
to positive behavioural intentions. Like other service industries, service
quality is an important issue in the airport management. The overall airport’s
experience perceived and recollected by international travellers may have a
significant impact in promoting or discouraging future international tourism
and business activities in the corresponding country. Thus, the evaluation of
passenger satisfaction levels on airport services has become an important
issue for airport management.
Customers experience various level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction after each
service experience according to the extent to which their expectations were
met or exceeded. Because satisfaction is an emotional state, their post-
purchase reactions can involve anger, dissatisfaction, irritation, neutrality,
pleasure, or delight. The importance of customer satisfaction cannot be
overstated. Without customers the service firm has no reason to exist. Every
service business needs to proactively define and measure customer
satisfaction. Companies who command high customer satisfaction ratings
seem to have the ability to insulate themselves from competitive pressures,
particularly price competition. Past research studies have suggested that
perceptions of service quality affect feelings of satisfaction, which then affect
loyalty and post-purchase behaviours. Satisfaction is perceived as being an
important mediator of store loyalty drivers.
Customer satisfaction has always been considered an essential business goal
because it was assumed that satisfied customers would buy more. Recently,
the evaluation of passenger satisfaction levels on airport services has become
an important issue for airport management to understand their consumers and
in designing their marketing strategies. The general definition of value is a
consumer's perception of the subjective worth of some activity or object
considering all net benefits and costs of consumption. Service value has been
identified as an important variable of customer satisfaction and behavioural
intentions. Corporate image is described as the overall impression made on
the minds of the public about a firm. Image is a perception of an organization
held in consumer memory which influences the perception of the operation of
the company also it is another important factor in the overall service
evaluation. Image is based on all of a customer's consumption experiences,
and service quality is representative of these consumption experiences. Hence,
the perception of service quality directly affects the perception of image.
Questions
1. Study and analyse the above case.
2. Write down the case facts.
3. What do you infer from it?
Source: http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ibr/article/download/9893/7838
3.9 LET US SUM UP

Passenger and baggage handling is the main concern of airlines. Passenger handling is
any kind of assistance to arriving, departing, transfer or transit passengers, including
checking tickets and travel documents, registering baggage and carrying it to the
sorting area. While the Baggage handling is sorting, preparing, departing, loading it
58 onto and unloading it from the devices designed to move it from the aircraft to the
Ancillary Services
sorting area and vice versa, as well as transporting baggage from the sorting area to
the reclaim area. The purpose of the baggage handling process is to accept the
baggage from the passenger, transport it from station A to B, and returns it to the
passenger. Baggage handling is generally of two type i.e. checked baggage and
unchecked baggage. The process of baggage handling starts from check in or
acceptance, Make-up, Loading, Transfer and ends up on unloading and claim area.
Passenger Flows is a record for all employees from check-in, security, manning of
passport controlling, baggage handling to customs. It gives an overview of airport
areas which are used by passengers and which distances the passengers have to cover
within the airport. There is an overview of departure, arrival and transit of passengers
at various areas of the airport, the number of passengers seen in each area, and the
transit routes the passengers have taken between areas.

Make a chart of passenger handling services by different airlines.
3.11 KEYWORDS
Passenger: Means any person, except members of the crew, carried or to be carried in
an aircraft pursuant to a ticket.
Passenger Coupon or Passenger Receipt: Means that portion of the ticket issued by
or on behalf of carrier, which is so marked and which ultimately is to be retained by
the passenger.
Teletype Passenger Manifest (TPM): This must contain information about checked-in
passengers and their checked in baggage. It is sent by telex immediately after
completion of check-in.
PSM/PIS/PIL: The Passenger Service Message must contain information about each
passenger who needs assistance or Special handling, either at final station and or
reroute stations of the flight concerned.
PTM: It contains information about checked in transfer passengers and their checked
baggage.
Endorsement: This is the signing of a passenger ticket by the airline official so that
the passenger can be transferred to fly on another airline in case of a flight interruption
or cancellation. An electronic ticket cannot be endorsed. It has to be re- issued as a
paper ticket in order to be endorsed.
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID): It is a technology incorporated into a silicon
chip that emits a radio signal which matches a user-defined serial number with an
item. In this case the item is a piece of check-in baggage.

1. Discuss the passenger handling services of Indian aircraft.
2. What do you mean by baggage handling? Discuss the types of baggage handling.
3. Define the Indian aviation’s passenger services during arrival and departure.
4. What services and facilities the airlines provide to their passengers to make their
journey happy?
Check Your Progress: Model Answers 59
Passenger &
Baggage Handling
CYP 1
1. True
2. False
3. True
4. True
CYP 2
1. Aircraft
2. Sorting
3. Passenger
4. Safe Carriage
5. Transported

Turcu, C. (2010), Sustainable Radio Frequency Identification Solutions, InTech
Young, S. and Wells, A. (2011), Airport Planning and Management, McGraw-Hill
Professional
Horonjeff, R. and McKelvey F. et al. (2010), Planning and Design of Airports,
Okun, D.T, Hillman. J. et al. (2004), Express Delivery Services: Competitive
Conditions Facing U.S. based Firms in Foreign Markets, Diane publishing
60
4
SPECIALIZED HANDLING OF PASSENGERS
CONTENTS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Specialised Passenger Handling: Classification
4.2.1 Special Needs Passengers
4.3 Infants and Children
4.4 Unaccompanied Minor (UMNR)
4.5 Pregnant and Expectant Women/Mothers
4.6 Sick/Disabled/Physically Challenged Passengers
4.6.1 PRM (Person with Reduced Mobility)
4.6.2 Quality Parameters for Assistance to PRM
4.6.3 WCHR (Wheelchair Ramp)
4.6.4 WCHS (Wheelchair Steps)
4.6.5 WCHC (Wheelchair Carry)
4.6.6 Blind Passengers Service (BLND)
4.6.7 Deaf Passenger Service (DEAF)
4.6.8 Stretcher Passenger
4.6.9 Persons with Disabilities (PWDs)
4.6.10 MEDA Passengers
4.7 VIP Passengers Handling
4.8 VVIP Passengers Handling
4.9 Let us Sum up
4.10 Lesson End Activities
4.11 Keywords

z Discuss the Classifications of Passengers in Airlines
z Understand the Specialized Needs Passengers in Airlines
z Identify Infants, Children and Unaccompanied Minors 61
Specialized Handling
z Describe Pregnant and Expectant Women and their Traveling Conditions in Airlines of Passengers
z Explore the Conditions and Assistance to Sick/Disabled/Physically Challenged

Passengers in Airlines
z Appreciate the Assistance to Stretcher and Medical Case Passengers
z Know the Assistance provided to VVIPs and VIPs Passenger by Airlines
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Airlines and airports around the world compete to offer excellent customer service,
investing huge sums in state of the art in-flight entertainment, luxury lounges, self-
service check-in facilities and countless high quality shops and restaurants to pamper
the customer and differentiate themselves from the competition.
Airports with their complex infrastructure represent a central component of today’s
traffic system and have to satisfy a variety of different tasks. From the passenger point
of view, the building is primarily designed for providing handling processes for
departure and arrival. These procedures possess different environmental demands,
which result from safety/security and legal requirements. From the airport point of
view, safety and security of the processes are a major issue, whereas the passenger
expects adequate service and comfort levels.
4.2 SPECIALISED PASSENGER HANDLING:

CLASSIFICATION
The processing of passengers as they pass through airports is high profile and at the
core of the travel experience. For many, it will be the first and last contact they will
have with airline staff on their journey. Increasing volumes of passenger traffic,
increased security restrictions, increased check-in options and an increasing demand
for punctuality and profitability all place pressure on those trying to deliver
competitive and efficient passenger handling. Understanding the processes involved
and the mandatory and optional services and facilities available to departing and
arriving passengers at airports is key to being able to meet these requirements as part
of the travel experience. It is essential to understand special passenger-handling
services and facilities.
The classifications of passengers are as follows:
Adults: Male and female are defined as persons of an age of 18 years and above.
Children: Are defined as persons of an age of two years and above but who less than
12 years of age.
Infants: Are defined as persons who are less than 2 years of age.
4.2.1 Special Needs Passengers

The classification of handlings of specialized passengers is as follows:
z Infants and Children
z Unaccompanied Minor (UMNR)
z Pregnant and Expectant Women/Mothers
z Sick/Disabled/ Physically Challenged Passengers
z VVIP passengers
62 z VIP passengers
Ancillary Services
z Type of travel and required documentation for passengers under these
classifications may differ for each airline
4.3 INFANTS AND CHILDREN

An infant must be placed on the lap of the adult passengers; therefore only one infant
can accompany one adult unless a separate seat has been booked for the second infant.
In such cases the maximum number if allowed a person with Reduced Mobility
(PRM) has to be reduced by one.
Children below the age of 6 shall not be accepted to travel unaccompanied. An adult
or assigned crew must accompany the child. Request for extra crewmember must be
made well in advance.
4.4 UNACCOMPANIED MINOR (UMNR)

Children between the age of 5 and 12 years will be accepted to travel unaccompanied
provided that the parent or guardian both at the airport of departure and the airport of
arrival escort the child. If any pertinent information is missing in the reservation an
UMNR shall be properly issued and the parent/guardian shall remain with the child as
long as possible before boarding. Children between 12 and 16 years, so called young
persons (YP), may accept as UMNR if so requested.
Table 4.1: Maximum Number of UMNR Accepted versus Extra Cabin Crew Required
Source: http://www.frta.nl/frta2011/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=782&Itemid=
Specific UMNR Seats: In order to ensure proper acre during the flight, specific seats
for UMNR’s have been assigned in the cabin where UMNR’s must be seated.
Requirements of a UM Travelling
z UM shall be accepted only when he is confirmed on all flight segments up to his
final destination
z The UM handling Advice Form is completely filled-up
z The handling fee of PHP 500.00 is settled
Seating Requirements of UM
z UM should be seated at rows 2-3 only
z UM is not allowed to occupy an emergency exit seat
4.5 PREGNANT AND EXPECTANT WOMEN/MOTHERS

Expectant mothers who are not beyond 32 weeks of pregnancy are acceptable to
carriage under the following conditions:
z No tickets must be issued to a pregnant woman unless the Expectant Mother
Information Sheet (EMIS) has been accomplished.
z Open-dated ticket is not allowed.
z For expectant mother who is beyond 22 weeks of gestation must seek prior 63
approval from those particular airlines. Medical at least 24 hours before the of Passengers
departure time.
z Pregnant woman are not allowed to seat on an emergency exit seat.
Pregnant women with an expected birth within 2 weeks must not be accepted. In case
the birth is expected to take place within 2- 4 weeks, the passenger has to show a
medical certificate at check-in confirming that the transportation is approved of by a
physician from medical point of view, under the conditions that the duration of the
flight is no more than 4 hours.
Conditions for Acceptance

z Prior request is recommended
z Pregnant women in period of 7 days before or after due date is not accepted
z Pregnant passenger must have medical clearance before departure (MEDA
passenger) if she is in the following status:
Pregnant for more than 32 weeks
Uncertain time being pregnant or the bearing time
In previous had twin, triplet children
Some difficulties can be arisen when bearing
Pregnant by artificial insemination: This passenger must have medical
clearance before departure in the hospital where the artificial insemination has
made and controlled or in the other medical centres accepted by Airlines
1. Children between 12 and 16 years called young persons may accept as
UMNR.
2. Infants are defined as persons who are less than 7 years of age.
3. Pregnant woman are allowed to seat on an emergency exit seat.
4. Pregnant women in period of 7 days before or after due date is not
accepted to travel in airlines.
4.6 SICK/DISABLED/PHYSICALLY CHALLENGED

PASSENGERS
Passengers with special needs, disability and limited mobility (special physical
medical or mental conditions) will receive the full assistance by airlines. The
following assistance is as follows:
4.6.1 PRM (Person with Reduced Mobility)

PRM is understood to mean any person whose mobility is reduced due to a physical
incapacity (sensory or locomotory), an intellectual deficiency, age, illness or any other
cause of disability when using transport and whose situation needs special attention
and the adaptation to the person’s needs of services made available to all passengers.
From 26 July this year the EU Regulation (EC) 1107/2006 will transfer to airports the
responsibility for the assistance to Persons with Reduced Mobility (PRM) when
travelling by air.
64 4.6.2 Quality Parameters for Assistance to PRM
Ancillary Services
Passengers have to inform their travel agency or airline of their particular needs for
assistance at least 48 hours before the published time of departure of the flight. An air
carrier shall transmit this information at least 36 hours before the published departure
time for the flight.
Waiting times for departing and pre-booked PRM passengers, who are at the
“pick-up” point or check-in desk in time.
Table 4.2: Waiting Time for Pre-booked PRM Passengers
Source: http://www.viennaairport.com/jart/prj3/va/uploads/datauploads/Passagier/Quality_Standards_PRM_en.pdf
Waiting times for departing and non pre-booked PRM passengers, at the “pick-up”
point or check-in desk.
Table 4.3: Waiting Time for Non Pre-booked PRM Passengers
4.6.3 WCHR (Wheelchair Ramp)

It offers passenger who can ascend/descend steps and make own way to/from cabin
seat, but requires wheelchair for distance to/from aircraft across ramp
Assistance to the Aircraft

A passenger with a walking disability
z Requires a wheelchair or similar aid before embarkation or after disembarkation
z Requires assistance in the airport terminal to/from the gate or exit
z Can manage steps and use an apron passenger bus unaided
z Does not need assistance in the cabin
4.6.4 WCHS (Wheelchair Steps)

It offers passengers who cannot ascend/descend steps, but are able to make own way
to/from cabin seat, requires wheelchair for distance to/from aircraft and must be
carried up/down steps.
Assistance to the Aircraft Door

A passenger with a severe walking disability
z Has very restricted mobility
z Cannot manage steps unaided and is unable to use an apron passenger vehicle
z Does not, however, need assistance in the cabin
4.6.5 WCHC (Wheelchair Carry)

It offers to passenger who is completely immobile. He requires wheelchair to/from
aircraft and must be carried up/down steps and to/from cabin seat. (This device is
accompanied to individual aircraft).
Assistance to the Aircraft Seat 65
A passenger who is unable to walk: of Passengers
z But can use a passenger seat with the backrest in the upright position
z Cannot move unaided (e.g. on account of paraplegia or advanced multiple
sclerosis).
The assistance will be provided to the following passengers categories:
Table 4.4: Categories of Passengers

WCHR: Prior request is recommended and not limited
WCHS: 24 hours notice is required. Accompanied WCHS is not limited. The
maximum number of unaccompanied WCHS passengers allowed per flight is not
more than the number of main emergency exit of individual aircraft. In case passenger
requests WCHS service at airport which is not equipped with necessary equipment.
WCHC: 24 hours notice is required. The maximum number of accompanied WCHC
passengers allowed per flight is not more than the number of main emergency exit of
individual aircraft. The maximum number of unaccompanied WCHC passengers
allowed per flight is not more than half the number of main emergency exit of
individual aircraft.
These services are NOT required to have cabin crew accompanied. If the passengers
need these services, it is required to book and pay in advance. Accompanied cabin
crew service shall be charged separately from other special services charges and equal
to applicable fare respectively to the class of services used.
4.6.6 Blind Passengers Service (BLND)

It offers to passengers meeting difficulties in seeing, including
z Accompanied blind passengers
z Unaccompanied blind passengers
66 Conditions for Acceptance
Ancillary Services
z Accompanied BLND passengers are accepted as usual passengers.
z Unaccompanied BLND passengers:
Prior request is recommended
Only accept blind passengers who are able to make own way, self- service and
have the assistant at all stations on his route.
The maximum number of unaccompanied BLND allowed is not more than the
number of main emergency doors of the individual aircraft.
z The service is NOT required to have cabin crew accompanied. If the passengers
need this service, it is required to book and pay in advance. Accompanied cabin
crew service shall be charged separately from other Special services charges and
equal to applicable fare respectively to the class of services used.
z The seeing-eye dog of BLND passenger may be accepted for traveling as Pet in
checked baggage.
4.6.7 Deaf Passenger Service (DEAF)

It offers to passenger meeting difficulties in hearing, including:
z Accompanied deaf passenger
z Unaccompanied deaf passenger

z Accompanied deaf passenger is accepted as usual passenger.
z Unaccompanied blind passenger: Prior request is recommended and not limited.
crew service shall be charged separately from other Special services charges and
4.6.8 Stretcher Passenger

A booking request for stretcher passenger must be sent to reservation department
preferably 72 hours before the scheduled flight departure. Later requests do not
guarantee the transportation.
A doctor and an attendant competent to provide whatever assistance is required, must
always accompany all stretcher cases.
A passenger on a stretcher, either adult or child, will be accepted, subject to payment
of the following special fare:
z Stretcher passenger: 6 adult normal fares.
z Accompanying attendants: normal applicable fare(s) of the same class as the
stretcher passenger.
z Every such passenger is entitled to an established norm of free baggage allowance
for each fare paid.
4.6.9 Persons with Disabilities (PWDs)

PWDs are not considered medical case passengers. Thus, there is no need to
accomplish or present any form like incapacitated form or medical certificate. For any
assistance in going through the airport formalities, just approach any of our ground 67
staff who will be happy to assist. It is the responsibility of the airport to assist disabled of Passengers
passengers and passengers with reduced mobility.
Assistance and arrangements necessary to enable disabled persons and persons with
reduced mobility to:
z Communicate their arrival at an airport and their request for assistance at the
designated points inside and outside terminal buildings mentioned in article 5,
z Move from a designated point to the check-in counter,
z Check-in and register baggage,
z Proceed from the check-in counter to the aircraft, with completion of emigration,
customs and security procedures,
z Board the aircraft, with the provision of lifts, wheelchairs or other assistance
needed, as appropriate,
z Proceed from the aircraft door to their seats,
z Store and retrieve baggage on the aircraft,
z Proceed from their seats to the aircraft door,
z Disembark from the aircraft, with the provision of lifts, wheelchairs or other
assistance needed, as appropriate,
z Proceed from the aircraft to the baggage hall and retrieve baggage, with
completion of immigration and customs procedures,
z Proceed from the baggage hall to a designated point,
z Reach connecting flights when in transit, with assistance on air and land sides and
within and between terminals as needed.
z Immediate assistance via special phones with an instruction manual specially
designed to be visible and easily accessible day and night.
z Assistance centres in five different locations (Domestic terminal Departure and
Arrival, International Terminal Departure and Arrival, Subway Entrance).
z Crosswalk warning bumps indicating direction.
z Semi-dome shaped warning spots on the ground.
z Easy access to special phones and service areas enabled by the warning bumps.
z Belt conveyors and escalators with painted steps.
z Crosswalk warning bumps in front of elevators, escalators, belt conveyors and
ramps.
z Crosswalks for the disabled around the terminals and special warning signs for
drivers.
z Designated parking areas for the disabled.
z Induction loop systems at information desks for the hearing impaired.
z Information and directing kiosks.
4.6.10 MEDA Passengers

Passengers must confirm medical clearance before departure if he/she suffers from at
least one of the following status:
z Passenger is unable to serve himself due to mental or physical problems.
68 z Passenger is invalid, sick or in a bad state that can seriously affect other
Ancillary Services
passengers (i.e. passengers suffer from pernicious heart, severe disease that can
lead to uncontrolled situation, mental disease).
z Pregnant passenger who is/has:
Pregnant for more than 32 weeks
Uncertain about the time being pregnant or the bearing time
Previously had twins, or triplet children
The possibilities of some difficulties arising when bearing
Being pregnant by artificial insemination. This passenger must have medical
clearance before departure in the hospital where the artificial insemination
was made and controlled or in the other medical centres accepted by Vietnam
Airlines.
z A newly born child with unusual status or a prematurely born child.
z Passenger with two legs paralyzed or both legs and arms paralyzed or passenger
with legs and arms paralyzed during treatment time.
z Passenger’s health status could be worse due to flying: passenger with lung
disease, ear or nose diseases etc.
z Passenger with contagious disease: the disease that can be contagious during the
flight, especially chicken pox, pulmonary tuberculosis, measles, etc.
MEDA passenger can be accepted for carriage provided that they meet the following
requirements:
z Complete all procedures requested by Vietnam Airlines
z Carrying MEDA passenger does not affect to the safety of the plane, pilot, cabin
crew and other passengers as well as their property
z Accompanied MEDA passenger: Escort must be over 18 years old, healthy, and
able to take care of MEDA passenger during the flight (doctor, nurse is preferable)
z Unaccompanied MEDA passenger can only be accepted if:
MEDA passenger is not in serious status, able to comfort himself with his
illness, and is allowed to travel by medical centre appointed by Vietnam
Airlines
MEDA passenger is able to move, feed and serve himself during the flight
crew service shall be charged separately from other special services charges and
Oxygen Service
Oxygen services on board (OXYG) provide oxygen to MEDA passenger during the
flight, as requested by medical centre appointed by Vietnam Airlines.

z OXYG request must be made at least 72 hours prior to the estimated time of
departure.
z OXYG passenger must complete medical clearance before departure (MEDA
form).
z OXYG passenger must be accompanied by an escort, a doctor and a nurse are 69
preferable of Passengers
z A suitable space is available in aircraft for installing OXYG equipment. The
amount of space for installing OXYG is subject to individual aircraft.
z Not more than 01 OXYG passenger is accepted for carriage in one flight.
z OXYG passenger is only accepted for carriage in the Economy class.
z Meda passenger needing medicine and other medical treatment tools
MEDA passenger must have all necessary medicine and other medical treatment tools.
If a passenger needs to carry and use these tools (spray is excluded) on board he must
inform and has the acceptance from particular Airlines.
MEDA passengers with sugar urinate or MEDA needing to use injection needle in
flight as recommended by a doctor and carry injection needle on board should be
followed instructions:
z Meeting acceptance requirements.
z Application only for medium and long flight from 2h30 as time scheduled.
z Passenger is not allowed to carry injection needle include or not medical liquid on
board.
z Injection needle must be in sealed and checked by authority
z Injection needle should be used by MEDA, accompany MEDA or doctor
z Follow all the instruction of Vietnam Airlines staff.
Fill in the blanks:
1. PRM is understood to mean any person whose mobility is ……………..
due to a physical incapacity.
2. Passengers who cannot ascend/descend steps, but are able to make own
way to/from cabin seat called ……………..
3. ……………..offers to passenger who is completely immobile.
4. A booking request for …………….. must be sent to reservation
department preferably 72 hours before the scheduled flight departure.
4.7 VIP PASSENGERS HANDLING

Passengers wishing to get the most comfortable and convenient service, can use VIP-
terminal. VIP assistance will provide you with faster and more comfortable check-in
without waiting for arrival, departure or transfer at Airports.
VIP assistance includes

z Personal assistance by our Agent during your stay at the airport
z Assistance at check-in desk
z Assistance in processing passport and customs formalities
z Assistance at security checks
z Accompaniment when boarding / disembarking the aircraft
z In case of your interest we will accompany you to the airport lounge
70 z A separate entrance in the air terminal (A1);
Ancillary Services
z Private parking for passengers’ transport (in front of the hall);
z Individual approach to each passenger in the service;
z Registration of air tickets and baggage and carry-on items;
z Pre-flight inspection of passengers.
4.8 VVIP PASSENGERS HANDLING

VVIP and VIP Airport ‘meet and Greet’ Services include express release for the
passengers on arrival at the VIP lounge where the guests are made to sit. Where
necessary, the guest will be accompanied by a representative of passenger handling
office. This process will take less than 20 minutes and will saver precious time at the
airport even avoiding the hassle at customs. The representative will accompany the
VVIP and VIP guests from the arrival hall to pick up zone, solving all formalities
caused by the official registration of papers, delivery of luggage, etc.
AAI gave the list of passenger dignitaries who are entitled to take their vehicle up to
aircraft and the dignitaries exempted from this service. Action taken by airports for
handling VVIP/VIP guests:
z Documentation – After receiving message with respect to VVIP/VIP movement
airport terminal manager examine the message/tour programme/itinerary of
VVIP/VIP and inform airport director/director in charge in this regard. Director
in-charge enter the same in VIP register, he ensure that specific lounge reserved
be mentioned.
z Daily VIP Pro forma – This VIP pro forma enlist all VVIP/VIP movements
24 hours cycle. Copy of this pro forma is forwarded to all concerned by airport
terminal manager.
z VVIP/VIP Team Briefing – Sr. Airport Terminal Manager/Airport Terminal
Manager on shift duties shall inform all concerned in advance of the particular
VIP movements.
z Sr. Airport Terminal Manager/Airport Terminal Manager should tie all VVIP/VIP
movements with Airport Director/Airport-in-Charge or with an officer authorized
by Airport Director or Airport-in-Charge in this behalf.
z Sr. Manager Engg. (E)/(C) and Sr. Manager (Electronics) are well informed for
VIP movement to ensure that all requirements associated to their departments are
kept in proper operational status and desired shape. For the smooth handling of the
movement authorised officer should keep close liaison with office/residence of
representatives of VVIP/VIP.
z The concerned Airport Director/Airport-in-Charge takes overall responsibility for
smooth and efficient handling besides coordinating with all agencies/departments.
z VVIP/VIP Follow up Report – Sr Airport Terminal Manager submits VVIP
handling follow up report.
4.9 LET US SUM UP

The main responsibility of the cabin crew is to look after the wellbeing, comfort and
safety of passengers travelling in the aircraft. Understanding the processes involved
and the mandatory and optional services and facilities available to departing and
arriving passengers at airports is key to being able to meet these requirements as part
of the travel experience. It is essential to understand special passenger-handling 71
services and facilities. of Passengers
The special needs passengers are infants, children, unaccompanied minor, pregnant
and expectant women, sick or disabled or physically challenged passenger, VVIP
passengers and VIP passengers. Different airlines have different conditions of arrival
and departure, and assistance to these customers.
4.10 LESSON END ACTIVITIES

1. Prepare a flowchart depicting the passenger handling services at airport.
2. Outline the specialized passenger journey through the airport.
4.11 KEYWORDS
Airport Authority: Similar to a port authority but with the single purpose of setting
policy and management direction for airports within its jurisdiction.
Special Rates: Rates that apply to traffic under special conditions in selected makers.
Examples of such rates are container rates, exception ratings, and surface-air rates.
Special Need Passenger: The passengers who identify as having special needs (that
fall under the categories of special needs as defined by each airline) will require
specific attention.
WCHS (Wheelchair Steps): The passengers who cannot ascend/descend steps, but are
able to make own way to/from cabin seat.
WCHC (Wheelchair Carry): The passengers who are completely immobile.

1. Analyse the roles and responsibilities of the different organisations involved in the
specialized handling of passenger.
2. Explain what measures can be used to overcome congestion problems.
3. Explain how physically challenged passenger handling processes are
co-coordinated at airlines.
4. Discuss the facilities and services of airlines provided to VVIPs and VIPs in India.

CYP 1
1. True
2. False
3. False
4. True
CYP 2
1. Reduced
2. WCHS (Wheelchair Steps)
3. WCHC (Wheelchair Carry)
4. Stretcher passenger
72
Ancillary Services 4.13 SUGGESTED READINGS
Turcu, C. (2010), Sustainable Radio Frequency Identification Solutions, InTech
Young, S. and Wells, A. (2011), Airport Planning and Management, McGraw-Hill
Professional
Horonjeff, R. and McKelvey, F. et al. (2010), Planning and Design of Airports,
Okun, D.T., Hillman. J. et al. (2004), Express Delivery Services: Competitive
Conditions facing U.S. Based Firms in Foreign Markets, Diane publishing
73
Cargo Aircraft Handling
UNIT III
74
Ancillary Services
LESSON 75
5
CARGO AIRCRAFT HANDLING
CONTENTS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Cargo Aircraft Handling
5.2.1 Air Express
5.2.2 Overnight Air Express
5.2.3 Air Freight
5.3 Cargo Services at Export Shed
5.3.1 Two Classes of Export
5.3.2 Export Procedure
5.4 Cargo Services at Import Shed
5.5 Cargo Services at Transit Shed
5.6 Air Cargo: Industrial Relation
5.6.1 Air Cargo Today
5.6.2 Future of Air Cargo Sector
5.7 Cargo Handling: Perishable Cargo and Live Animals
5.7.1 Perishable Cargo
5.7.2 Hatching Eggs
5.7.3 Flowers
5.7.4 Fresh Fruits and Vegetables
5.7.5 Sea Food
5.7.6 Vaccines and Medical Supplies
5.8 Live Animals – AVI
5.8.1 General
5.8.2 Stowage on the Aircraft
5.8.3 In-flight Attention
5.8.4 Health and Hygiene – General
5.8.5 Shipper’s Certification
5.8.6 Marking and Labelling
5.8.7 Government Regulations
5.8.8 Wet Cargo
5.9 Cargo Acceptance – General
5.9.1 Acceptance from Known Shipper or Forwarder
Contd…
76 5.9.2 Acceptance from Unknown Shipper or Forwarder
Ancillary Services
5.10 Let us Sum up
5.12 Keywords

z Discuss the history and concept of Cargo Aircraft handling
z Describe the cargo services at Export Shed, Import Shed and Transit Shed
z Understand the Air Cargos in today and future scenario
z Identify the classifications of cargo handling in perishable cargos and live animals
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Carrying cargo has been far more important than carrying passengers for almost every
mode of transportation ever used by humankind. This was true of beasts of burden,
water-borne carriers, and wheeled vehicles, including railroads. The only exception so
far has been aircraft. Many people believe that aircraft will always be primarily
passenger carriers. Others believe that aircraft will be carrying more cargo than
passengers by the next century. However, there is no doubt that cargo volume has
been increasing more rapidly than passenger volume for the past two decades.
5.2 CARGO AIRCRAFT HANDLING

Air cargo got its start on May 28, 1910, when Glenn Curtiss flew a sack of mail from
Albany to New York City for the Post Office Department, covering the 150 miles in
two and a half hours. Alternatively, you could say it all started on November 10, 1910,
when the Wright Company flew 65 miles from Dayton to Columbus, Ohio, with five
bolts of silk cloth strapped into the passenger seat of the plane for a department store
that wanted to sell strips of the cloth as mementos of “the first air shipment.”
These were interesting events, but they did not mark the start of any regular air cargo
service. Actually, there are three separate elements of air cargo services – air mail, air
express, and air freight – and therefore three histories to trace. Air mail is self-
explanatory, but “air express,” as originally used, included what we now call “air
freight,” a term that did not come into use until the first all-cargo aircraft were
introduced. Today, air express refers to small packages that usually have a higher
priority of carriage than air freight. Until the mid-1970s, air express was also
distinguished from air freight by the fact that it was a cooperative effort among
airlines, using a separate ground operator, the Railway Express Agency (REA). The
REA accepted shipments from customers and distributed them over the available
routes of the associated carriers to give the customer the most expeditious service.
Air freight, on the other hand, has always been marketed independently by airlines in
competition with one another. In recent years, the lines of distinction between air
express and air freight have become less clear. In 1989, Federal Express, the pioneer
of overnight small-package air service and now the largest carrier in that business,
acquired Flying Tiger, the world’s largest all-freight carrier. The weight limit on
express shipments was removed, causing some industry analysts to conclude that the 77
boundaries between freight and express are blurring and may soon disappear.
Air mail service, the first of the air cargo services, was an important factor in the
formation of air transportation in the United States. The first air mail service, which its
founders hoped would be permanent, started with an experimental service between
Washington D.C. and New York. During the three-month test, the Post Office
Department moved 193,021 pounds of mail, collected $159,700 from the sale of its
24-carat air mail stamp; and showed a profit of $19,103. This experiment marked the
real beginning of air mail service, because it convinced the Post Office Department
that air service was feasible.
For the next nine years, the Post Office Department completely controlled airmail
service – even the operation of the airplanes – using both Army Air Corps and civilian
pilots. In 1925, Congress ordered the government out of the business of flying the
mail and established procedures for contracting with private operators. By 1927, the
government had ceased aircraft operations for mail services completely. Airmail
began to grow more rapidly after the Post Office Department turned operations over to
private contractors.
It is difficult to overemphasize the importance of airmail to the early aircraft
operators. The first commercial aircraft were built primarily to transport mail, and
mail was the principal revenue source for the operators for many years. Airmail was
responsible for the beginnings of the U.S. airline system, as we know it today. Mail
continued to be the dominant revenue source for the airlines until the arrival of the
DC-3 in 1935. This craft could carry 21 passengers across the country in 15 hours, but
more importantly, it was the first aircraft that could be operated profitably on
passenger revenues alone. The introduction of the DC-3 began to shift the focus away
from airmail and toward passenger operations. Although airmail would continue to be
a significant revenue source to the airlines, it would gradually slip in relative
importance. Today, mail accounts for less than 3 per cent, of the airlines’ revenues.
5.2.1 Air Express

Whereas mail had its greatest impact on air transportation in the early days of the
industry air express has only recently begun to fulfil its promise. Air express service
was inaugurated at Hadley Field near New Brunswick, N.J., on September 1, 1927, by
National Air Transport, a predecessor of United Airlines, created specifically for the
purpose of carrying air express, and by the American Railway Express Agency
(REA). Three other carriers joined the effort to provide a comprehensive express
service: Colonial Airlines, Boeing Air Transport, and Western Air Express.
The carriers affiliated with the REA tried to persuade other air carriers to join them in
this enterprise, but American, Eastern, TWA, and several others were concerned over
the choice of the REA as the ground operator. They were afraid that the REA’s rail
operations would be in conflict with the air service and preferred a more neutral
operator. These airlines decided instead to organize General Air Express. Established
in August 1932, General Air Express claimed to provide “the largest and most
complete air express service in the world, serving 125 cities directly by air and
offering connections to Canada, Mexico, the West Indies, and Central and South
America. However, the REA’s head start was too much for General Air Express to
overcome; General Air Express folded at the close of 1935, and the REA became the
sole express agent for the US Air Carrier industry.
Even with the REA acting as coordinator for all the carries, air express was a small
part of the airlines income. When the mail contract was cancelled in 1933, United
Airlines was earning almost 60 per cent of its revenues from the carriage of mail and
78 40 per cent from passengers. Its express business accounted for only a little over 1 per
Ancillary Services
cent of the gross—some $133,000 a year.
Air express did not become the important revenue source the carriers hoped it would.
While airline managements concentrated on winning passengers away from the
railroads, the REA and the airline cargo staffs struggled with air express, often at odds
over who should control the product and how revenues should be shared. On
November 12, 1975, the REA declared bankruptcy. In place of the coordinated joint
effort, each carrier introduced its individual air express service, foregoing the
nationwide coverage they were able to provide with the REA.
5.2.2 Overnight Air Express

On April 17, 1973, Frederick W. Smith begins his Federal Express operations at 13
airports. Smith’s concept was to provide a door-to-door overnight service for small
packages. The new key element is the overnight feature. Until then, air express service
relied almost entirely on passenger flights that operate during daylight hours.
Packages tendered after the close of business generally sat at the origin airport until
the next morning and were not delivered until the second day. By f1ying dedicated
aircraft, FedEx was able to fly at night and deliver packages the next business day.
Operationally, Fred Smith revolutionized the air industry by introducing the hub-and-
spoke system, routing all packages and aircraft through a hub in Memphis. A large
portion of FedEx’s work force was made up of college students who performed the
sorting and loading functions at Memphis each night.
In 1975, its third year of operation, FedEx was grossing $173 million in revenues but
still losing money. ‘What helped turn FedEx profitable was the demise of the REA.
By then, Smith’s company was big enough to enable it to pick up the pieces from the
REA, his fleet having grown to 30 Falcon 20 mini freighters, each with a capacity of
350 to 400 packages.
Therefore, the banner was passed from the passenger carriers to FedEx. In addition,
FedEx has carried it very high indeed. From an average of fewer than 500 packages
handled per night in 1973, FedEx has grown at a phenomenal rate, to garner half of
the express traffic in the United States and become a significant factor in international
service.
5.2.3 Air Freight

Like any other growing industry, the air freight industry is expanding exponentially.
The issues faced by the industry are complex ones and its impact on other business
operators is tangible.
If we accept the original definition of air freight as traffic carried in all-cargo aircraft,
then the birth of air freight operations would date back to 1931 when Transcontinental
& Western Air began overnight air freight service between New York and Kansas
City. It used “specially constructed freight planes cruising over 100 miles per hour.”
The planes were unscheduled; they departed in the evening whenever a full cargo load
became available. They made six intermediate stops in Philadelphia, Harrisburg,
Pittsburgh, Columbus, Indianapolis, and St. Louis. Customers could ship between any
two of the points served for the same “astonishingly low price” of $11 per 100
pounds. As part of the promotion for “the first air freight service,” TWA introduced a
new shipping document, the air freight waybill, and offered a souvenir copy to any
customer who requested one.
The first regularly scheduled all-cargo service was started by United Airlines in 1940
between New York and Chicago. The flight left New York at 11:30 P.M. and arrived
in Chicago at 3:40 A.M.
Air freight received a big boost at the end of World War II with two landmark 79
decisions by the Civil Aeronautics Board. The first, in April of 1948, legitimized air
freight forwarders as middlemen between shippers and airlines, giving them the right
to consolidate individual shipments and tender them to the airlines at the carriers’
volume rates. Although opposed by most of the air carriers, the official recognition of
the forwarder added a new dimension to air freight, greatly increasing marketing and
sales efforts and stimulating new traffic.
The second CAB decision gave operating rights to three all-cargo carriers: Slick, U.S.
Airlines, and Flying Tigers. The last-named airline had been formed by Bob Prescott
in 1945 under the name National Skyway Freight Corporation. However, it soon came
to be known by its slogan, “The Line of the Flying Tigers,” because it was equipped
with surplus military transports, flown by pilots who had served with Prescott under
General Chennault, defending the Burma Road. It was the first of the three all-cargo
carriers to be certificated, on September 21, 1949.
The halcyon days of air freight began in the 1960s. In October 1962, American
Airlines ordered its first 707 freighters, and United followed suit in 1964 by ordering
727-QCs (for “quick change”). These planes had removable passenger seats so that
they could be flown in the daytime as passenger aircraft and at night as freighters. By
1969, American was operating a fleet of 39 of the 707 freighters; United had 15 DC-8
freighters plus 30 QCs; and TWA was flying 12 of the 707s and 8 QCs. Even with all
this dedicated lift, however, cargo still accounted for only 10 per cent of the revenues
for these carriers.
5.3 CARGO SERVICES AT EXPORT SHED

The top 5 export markets for U.S. air freight services in 2002 were Japan, the United
Kingdom, Hong Kong, Germany and France. Export to Japan totalled $813 million, an
increase of 5.7% from 2001, whereas export to United Kingdom reached $693 million,
repeating a gain of 3.4% over the previous year. U.S. export of air cargo services to
Hong Kong, Germany and France in 2002 totalled $349 million, $310million, and
$279 million respectively, the Asia pacific was the fastest growing region for U.S. air
freight export in 2002.during that year, U.S. export of air cargo services to India grew
100% to Indonesia 50% and to China 30%.
India has a mission to capture 2% of the global share of trade by 2010, up from the
present level of less than 1%. Export is one of the lucrative business activities in India.
The government also provides various promotional schemes to the exporters for
earning valuable foreign exchange for the country and for meeting their requirements
for importing modern technology and essential inputs. Besides, the income from
export business is also exempted to the specified extent under the Income Tax Act,
1961, Refund of Central Excise and Custom Duty on export is also made under the
Duty Drawback Scheme of the Government. There is no Sales Tax on products meant
for exports. Exports can be of goods which can be moved physically from one country
to another or can be of service rendered.
5.3.1 Two Classes of Export

z Physical Exports If the goods physically go out of the country or services are
rendered outside the country then it is called as physical export.
z Deemed Exports Where the goods do not go out of the country physically they
can be termed as deemed exports. Under Deemed Exports, the goods may be
supplied to the manufacturer exporter who ultimately export a finished product of
which this supply forms a part and ultimately go out of the country.
80 5.3.2 Export Procedure
Ancillary Services
Registration
The exporters have to obtain PAN based Business Identification Number(BIN) from
the Directorate General of Foreign Trade prior to filing of shipping bill for clearance
of export goods. Under the EDI System, PAN based BIN is received by the Customs
System from the DGFT online. The exporters are also required to register authorised
foreign exchange dealer code (through which export proceeds are expected to be
realised) and open a current account in the designated bank for credit of any drawback
incentive.
Whenever a new Airline, Shipping Line, Steamer Agent, port or airport comes into
operation, they are required to be registered into the Customs System. Whenever,
electronic processing of shipping bill etc. is held up on account of non-registration of
these entities, the same is to be brought to the notice of Assistant/Deputy
Commissioner in-charge of EDI System for registering the new entity in the system.
Processing of Shipping Bill - Non-EDI
Under manual system, shipping bills or, as the case may be, bills of export are
required to be filed in format as prescribed in the Shipping Bill and Bill of Export
(Form) regulations, 1991.
Processing of Shipping Bill - EDI
Under EDI System, declarations in prescribed format are to be filed through the
Service Centres of Customs. A checklist is generated for verification of data by the
exporter/CHA.
Octroi procedure, Quota Allocation and Other certification for Export Goods
The quota allocation label is required to be pasted on the export invoice.
z Arrival of Goods at Docks:
z System Appraisal of Shipping Bills:
z Status of Shipping Bill:
z Customs Examination of Export Cargo:
z Variation Between the Declaration & Physical Examination:
z Stuffing / Loading of Goods in Containers
z Drawal of Samples:
z Export of Goods Under Claim for Drawback:
z Generation of Shipping Bills
Source: http://www.tiact.co.jp/en/cargo/flow.html
Figure 5.1: Map of Route for Carrying In and Taking Out Cargo Services at Export and
Import Shed
81
5.4 CARGO SERVICES AT IMPORT SHED Cargo Aircraft Handling
In accordance with international practices, all goods imported into the country or
exported out of country by air or other routes are governed by the provisions of the
custom act, 1962 and other laws related to entry/exit from the country. Custom
administration ensures that the import and export of goods are in compliance with the
custom act and other laws in force.
Importing goods can be complex without the right expertise and resources. Air India
was appointed as an independent custodian at our base station Mumbai. As a
custodian, Air India looks after total cargo activities that is from the stage of receipt of
export shipments in the warehouse till placed on the aircraft with regard to export
cargo and from the stage of import shipments being received from the flight till
delivery to the consignee as regarding import activities. Facilities are available for
acceptance and storage of all kinds of cargo including special cargo, perishables,
dangerous goods, cargo requiring cold storage, valuables, live animals, heavy out-
sized cargo etc.
Flow of cargo for import: The procedures for importing cargo are as,
Box 5.1: Flow of Cargo for Import
Source: http://www.tiact.co.jp/en/cargo/flow.html
5.5 CARGO SERVICES AT TRANSIT SHED

Cargo (or freight) is goods or produce transported, generally for commercial gain, by
ship, aircraft, train, van or truck. In addition to people, airports are accountable for
moving in large volumes of cargo round the clock. Cargo airlines often have their own
on-site and adjacent infrastructure to rapidly transfer parcels between ground and air
modes of transportation.
Cargo airlines (or airfreight carriers) are airlines dedicated to the transport of cargo.
Some cargo airlines are divisions or subsidiaries of larger passenger airlines. Aircrafts
were first used for carrying mail as cargo in 1911. Eventually manufacturers started
designing aircrafts for other types of freight as well.
There are many commercial aircrafts suitable for carrying cargo such as the Boeing
747 and the bigger An-124, which was purposely built for easy conversion into a
cargo aircraft. Such large aircraft employ quick-loading containers known as Unit
Load Devices (ULDs), much like containerized cargo ships. The ULDs are located in
82 front section of the aircraft. Most nations own and utilize large numbers of cargo
Ancillary Services
aircraft such as the C-17 Globemaster III for airlift logistic needs.
5.6 AIR CARGO: INDUSTRIAL RELATION

5.6.1 Air Cargo Today
A fundamental reason for air cargo’s inability to surpass passenger revenues is that air
is a premium cost transportation mode compared to any surface system. It costs far
more to operate an airplane than to run a truck, ship, or railroad car. Thus, there has to
be a compelling reason for customers to use air services. Computer companies
regularly ship by air, for example, because the added cost of air transportation is more
than offset by getting the product to market and into service earlier. Shippers of
perishables – such as fresh fruits, flowers, and fish – use air transport because they
have no other way to reach their worldwide markets. However, shippers of most
commodities find surface delivery times acceptable and therefore choose the lower
transportation costs associated with surface modes.
Another reason freight lags behind passenger traffic is that aircraft being produced
today, and on which air cargo has relied in the past, have been designed primarily for
the carriage of passengers and are not particularly well suited for freight. Nor are we
likely to see, any time soon, the research and development funds needed to produce a
vehicle better suited to the carriage of cargo.
The unprofitable operations of freighter aircraft through the years also took a toll on
air cargo’s reputation. The fact that freighters lost money some-how translated to the
belief among senior management of the leading US carriers that air cargo was an
unprofitable business – certainly not a valid conclusion when you look at the profits
that are made by the carriage of cargo in combination aircraft. In any, event, the
perception that cargo was a loser has convinced many passenger airline managements
not to invest their scarce capital in any more freighter aircraft.
Table 5.1: Freight and Express Ton-miles and Revenues for US Air
Carrier Scheduled Services, 1990-2010
Although, air cargo has failed to achieve the preeminent position that was expected of
it, and in spite of the limitations imposed by the marketplace and the design of aircraft,
air cargo is alive and doing well. More and more companies are using air cargo
services as they experience the inventory reduction benefits that air transportation can
provide.
Air cargo has grown very rapidly during the past two decades, as shown in Table 5.1.
Freight and express ton-miles have tripled while revenues have increased more than
six fold during this period. Although cargo accounts for only 5 to 10 per cent of total
revenues for most of the combination carriers in the United States, it is a considerably
more important revenue source for many of the foreign-flag carriers, which continue
to operate jumbo freighters and Combi aircraft on international routes. Some of
them – such as Lufthansa, Japan Airlines, and Air France – earn as much as one-third
to one-half of their gross revenues from cargo on some routes.
The four largest markets – the North Atlantic, transpacific, Europe-Far East, and U.S. 83
domestic – account for nearly three quarters of air cargo shipments, with traffic
divided almost equally among them. In recent years, international traffic has grown
more quickly among than US domestic business.
The composition of the U.S. domestic market changed dramatically during this time,
as the integrated all-cargo carriers captured virtually all of the growth and became the
industry leaders. Today, the express carriers hold a two-thirds market share and earn
over 80 per cent of domestic air freight revenues.
The integrated carriers have successfully followed the strategy of offering superior
service at a premium price. By providing time-definite, guaranteed, door-to-door
service supported by real-time shipment tracking service, they are able to generate a
yield of about $ 2.00 to $ 250 per pound for domestic shipments. Their leading
competitors, the combination carriers, supply airport-to-airport service primarily on a
space-available basis, usually provide no service guarantees, offer little or no tracking
capability and typically earn $ 0.30 to $ 0.40 per pound for domestic freight.
The combination carriers appear to have little chance of reversing the trends of the
past 20 years and capturing a larger share of the domestic freight market. By offering
a consistently high level of service, the integrated carriers have raised the expectations
of freight shippers. The passenger airline freight product has changed little over the
past 20 years, and the gap between the level of service they can support and the level
demanded by the market is widening. Recent changes designed to improve the
profitability of passenger service, including grounding wide-body aircraft and
scheduling faster turn times, further limit cargo opportunities for combination carriers.
In addition, the integrated carriers have developed a variety of lower-cost second-day
and deferred service options through increased use of trucking. These services options
reduce the combination carriers’ price advantage: while preserving shipment tracking
and other integrated-carrier service advantages.
The most important competitive response by US combination carriers is the trend
toward contracting out airport cargo services. This may increase airline cargo
profitability by reducing labour costs, but it will not help the combination carriers
regain market share and may cause a further drop in share if it lowers their service
quality.
If current trends continue as expected, the volume of domestic traffic handled by the
integrated carriers will continue to grow rapidly. This will have important implications
for U.S. airports. Because almost all integrated-carrier domestic traffic moves in all
cargo aircraft, the number of all-cargo operations will rise. This will increase the
demand for cargo aircraft parking positions, particularly at spoke airports, where many
cargo aircraft remain parked from early morning until late evening. Integrated carriers
have more flexibility in locating cargo warehouses than do combination carriers,
which need access to passenger aircraft, so the demand for on-airport cargo warehouse
space will grow less rapidly than the demand for cargo aircraft parking. Parts of the
airport that do not have good access to passenger terminals and are not’ well suited for
combination-carrier freight warehouses may be suitable for integrated-carrier
facilities. The noise impacts from cargo may also increase, because most integrated-
carrier flights are operated at night, although the shift to quieter, Stage 3 aircraft will
offset the increase in the number of cargo operations in many cases.
The growth in U.S. airport freighter activity primarily reflects the development of
integrated-carrier flight routings. Most of the airports with the greatest activity and
growth are the integrated carrier hub/gateway airports: Memphis, Indianapolis,
Anchorage, Oakland, Newark, and Dallas Fort Worth for FedEx; Louisville,
Anchorage, Newark, Dallas-Fort Worth, Philadelphia, and Ontario for UPS; Dayton
84 for Emery Worldwide; and Toledo for Burlington Air Express. Because the integrated
Ancillary Services
carriers have established major facilities, cargo usually receives sufficient attention at
these airports. Where cargo may not always receive enough attention, and where the
increase in freighter activity makes it an important issue, is at the large airport that are
not integrated-carrier hub, such as, Atlanta, Chicago, Denver, Honolulu, Phoenix, and
Boston.
5.6.2 Future of Air Cargo Sector

Although air mail was the first of the air cargo products, it now accounts for only
about 7 per cent of the revenues for cargo carried by the world’s air, lines. Mail
growth has been steady but slow, advancing an average of about 4 per cent a year but
eclipsed by the faster growth in express and freight. Mail will probably continue to
grow at a leisurely pace, aided on the one hand by the expansion of international
commerce and beset on the other by the rapid growth of fax services and small-
package carriers. The real potential for air cargo growth lies with air express and air
freight. In the short term, most projections place air cargo growth in the order of 6 to 8
per cent a year.
Two primary factors influence freight growth: economic conditions and rate levels.
The outlook for both is positive for cargo. Moderate economic growth is expected to
continue into the future, with only a minor slowdown in the short-term. Cargo rates
should also remain low as several factors serve to keep the lid on prices.
A large number of new aircraft have been introduced in recent years. This new
capacity will help keep prices down. Labour costs for the world airlines should
continue to move downwards due to better utilization of the labour force to continued
industry consolidation.
In addition, the formation of an integrated European economic community should
result in increasing traffic to Europe from all areas of the world. The European market
will consist of some 330 million people, exceeding by half the size of the United
States.
Furthermore, to the extent that trade barriers are removed, customs procedures
simplified, and carriers given more flexible operating rights, air cargo traffic growth
will be stimulated. FedEx and UPS, the two major US express operators, are
expanding their international services so that they can offer worldwide distribution.
However, they face some formidable competition from well-established international
operators, notably DHL and TNT, both of which provide global service. The
competition promises to keep the small-package express market lively for a while.
The globalization of the world economy – the production of parts and the assembly of
products half a world away from where they will be placed in service – will also
provide a major stimulus to air freight. Rather than rely on ocean transportation, which
can take as much as two or three weeks shippers can transport the goods by air within
a couple of days. For products with a short shelf life – be they magazines or fashion
goods or fresh fish – air freight is the only real choice shippers have, and they are
realizing it more and more.
All in all, the future of air cargo should well exceed its past. Air cargo revenues may
not overtake passenger revenues in the next 5 to 10 years, but the gap between them
will undoubtedly be narrowed. The blend of additional capacity (air cargo people
simply cannot accept unused capacity); the continued explosion of traffic in the
competitive express package market, and the customers’ interest in quick and reliable
delivery will fuel air cargo’s accelerated growth.
The most important advance recently was the formation of the Global Air Cargo 85
Advisory Group (GACAG) as an industry force. Since we signed the agreement
between the four main associations at the World Air Cargo Symposium in March
2011, the GACAG has agreed terms of reference and work programmes in four key
areas, GACAG becoming a real force for bringing the industry together as well as
fighting the corner in debates with regulatory stakeholders in particular.
At a time when airlines are struggling with weakening demand, they are expected to
show a profit of just $ 4 billion for 2011, the importance of cargo to keeping airlines
profitable is something we should all be promoting. We are a $68 billion industry,
occupying 2% of the global cargo market by volume. Imagine what just a single-digit
increase in our market share could do for the profitability of our industry. Focusing
minds on the value of air freight is going to be one of my key objectives over the year
ahead.
At the International Air Transport Association (IATA), we have also seen some fresh
developments, with a new Director General and CEO in the shape of Tony
Tyler, formally of Cathay Pacific. Tony has taken the opportunity since being in
charge to reemphasis the importance IATA attaches to working with the whole
aviation value chain to deliver results. Nowhere is that more vital than in cargo, and
there are two issues where mutual cooperation is essential. First is the security
challenge. The foiled
Yemen bomb plot in October 2010, reminded us that security is an issue which is
shared equally across our industry, and which can only be tackled collectively. It
emphasised again the value of intelligence, and a whole-supply-chain approach. The
second challenge is efficiency. We need to enhance our competitiveness in a very
tough market. With fuel rising to an average of $110 per barrel during 2011, we need
to utilise every possible productivity gain. The expansion of e-freight is giving the
industry a tool to do just that.
With security, IATA is looking to expand the Secure Freight programme. During the
past year, we have been working with Kenya, Chile, Mexico and the UAE, joining
Malaysia, which is already up, and running. GACAG has also been active on cargo
security, lobbying ICAO and governments to strengthen supply chain security through
the adoption of amendments to Annex 17 of the Convention on International Civil
Aviation at the ICAO Assembly in September and October 2010. The Electronic
Cargo Security Declaration was also embraced by ICAO.
The Secure Freight programme raises important questions for States. They must
accept that they have to be responsible for the auditing, and the maintenance of
databases. We have not yet succeeded in getting this point across. For example, the
EU is at present still insisting that airlines in third countries must audit the known and
unregulated shippers. This puts airlines in an uncomfortable position of being
regulator and regulated potential conflict of interest.
The other big question over security is, of course, screening, particularly of high-risk
cargo. We have already made progress on what screening means – in other words, it
does not necessarily mean 100% physical screening – but there is still a crucial debate
on the merits of physical screening versus intelligence. The only answer is to continue
our engagement with the authorities at all levels. IATA has forged good links with the
US Department of Homeland Security, and governments across the world need to be
carefully briefed on the issues.
Ancillary Services
1. The first regularly scheduled all-cargo service was started by United
Airlines in 1940 between New York and Chicago.
2. If the goods physically go out of the country or services are rendered
outside the country, then it is called as deemed export.
3. Where the goods do not go out of the country physically they can be
termed as physically exports.
4. The exporters have to obtain PAN based Business Identification Number
(BIN) from the Directorate General of Foreign Trade prior to filing of
shipping bill for clearance of export goods.
5.7 CARGO HANDLING: PERISHABLE CARGO AND LIVE

ANIMALS
Airports handle not only passengers but also considerable quantities of cargos. The
following categories of cargos are as follows.
5.7.1 Perishable Cargo

Definition
Perishable goods are those whose condition or suitability for original purpose may
deteriorate if exposed to undue changes in temperature or humidity, or delay in
carriage.
Acceptance
Perishable cargo shall only be accepted for carriage when it is reasonably certain that
it will reach its destination in good condition. The shipper shall provide written
instructions as to the maximum acceptable duration of transportation and of any
special handling required. These instructions shall be shown on the air waybill and the
packages. Prior to acceptance the carrier shall ensure that the necessary en-route
arrangements have been made including:
z Ensuring that the shipper is advised of the maximum time before flight departure
that the carrier will accept the cargo;
z Making any necessary onward reservations;
z Ensuring that special handling facilities such as re-icing are available and
arranged if agreed and required.
The IATA "Perishable" label shall be attached to each package and where applicable
the "This Way Up" label.
Stowage
The carrier shall provide information relating to the temperature variations within the
compartments of their aircraft during flight so that temperature sensitive items may be
stowed in an appropriate compartment to ensure their protection.
Perishable items shall be loaded so that they are suitably accessible in case any
handling is required at an en-route and/or destination station.
Wet ice and perishable cargo containing fluid or moisture which could leak onto the
compartment floor shall be treated as wet cargo.
Articles refrigerated with dry ice shall be handled in accordance IATA DGR. 87
Foodstuffs (EAT) shall not be loaded together with poisons (RPB, RHF) or infectious
substances (RIS) in the same compartment, unless they are loaded in separate ULDs
not adjacent to each other. Foodstuffs (EAT) shall not be loaded in close proximity of
live animals (AVI) and non-cremated human remains (HUM).
Perishable cargo that requires special stowage, special care at transit stops, in-flight
attention or special handling in the case of delays or diversions shall be included on
the form "Special Load Notification to Captain".
Care should be taken when stacking perishable items so that the lower layers of the
stack are not damaged by the weight of the upper layers.
Special Procedures
Meat
Meat shall be enclosed in waterproof material and handled as wet cargo. The strictest
hygiene conditions shall be maintained during all stages of handling meat.
The temperature ranges to be maintained are:
z fresh meat - between O°C (32°F) and 5°C (41°F);
z frozen meat - below -12°C (10°F).
(This will require use of refrigerated/temperature controlled container.)
5.7.2 Hatching Eggs

Hatching eggs shall not be stowed in close proximity of dry ice (ICE) and cryogenic
liquids (RCL). Hatching eggs shall be separated from radioactive materials Categories
II and III in accordance with IATA DGR.
The temperature range of the compartment should remain between 10°C (50°F) and
15°C (60°F) during flight and should not exceed 27°C (80°F).
Source: http://www.handleinterfreight.com/Services_PLD.html
Figure 5.2: Temperature Range of the Meal Compartment
5.7.3 Flowers
Flowers shall be stowed so as to avoid direct contact with the compartment floor or
walls.
Flowers should not be stowed in the same hold or ULD as fresh fruit and vegetables
due to ethylene gas produced by vegetables which may deteriorate flowers.
88 5.7.4 Fresh Fruits and Vegetables
Ancillary Services
When fresh fruit and vegetables are loaded in quantities which require stacking in
ULDs, care should be taken to ensure that the airspace is possible between the
packages.
This is particularly important with fresh fruit and vegetables having a high moisture
content. Owing to the minimum packing requirements care should be taken when
loading fresh fruit and vegetables with general cargo.
5.7.5 Sea Food

Fish shall be completely enclosed in watertight containers and handled as wet cargo.
Any wet ice used shall be sealed within its own watertight container.
The temperature ranges to be maintained are:
z fresh fish - not to exceed 5°C (41°F);
z frozen fish - not to exceed -12°C (10°F).
(This will require use of refrigerated/temperature controlled container.)
5.7.6 Vaccines and Medical Supplies

Short life radioactive isotopes shall be handled with extreme urgency and, in
accordance with IATA DGR.
5.8 LIVE ANIMALS – AVI

5.8.1 General
Live animals are to be transported in accordance with the IATA Live Animal
Regulations. When carrying any type of live animal the basic environmental
requirements shall be ascertained from the Shipper or passenger and/or the Live
Animals Regulations, considering in-flight conditions and possible climate effects
during transit stops.
For loading, the orientation of the animal in relation to the longitudinal or lateral axis
of the aircraft should be checked with the Shipper and/or passenger. At the same time
the Shipper and/or passenger should provide feeding, ventilation and temperature
requirements which should appear on the container.
Live animals shall be treated as “Wet Cargo” and must be manifested as AVI.
Where appropriate the floor of the container shall be covered with absorbent material.
Note: Hay or straw should be avoided due to combustibility and quarantine
regulations by some countries.
5.8.2 Stowage on the Aircraft

Live animals shall not be packed inside a closed ULD, except for a few species, e.g.
tropical fish.
The containers shall always be tied down to prevent shifting and they shall be stowed
in such a way that here is enough space between cages and other load to guarantee a
sufficient air circulation. Cages shall not be placed under other load.
Live animals shall not be loaded in close proximity to other loads which may have a
negative effect on their health. Animals which are natural enemies shall not be stowed
in close proximity to each other.
If male and female animals are loaded they should be stowed as far apart as possible. 89
For carriage of birds on long flights (> 4 hours) the cargo compartment lights shall be
switched on to enable the birds to feed during flight.
Shipments of laboratory animals shall be loaded apart from other animals to reduce
any risk of cross infection or contamination.
5.8.3 In-flight Attention

The need for in-flight attention will be determined by Gain Jet and/or the Shipper.
Containers with live animals needing in-flight attention shall be accessible during
flight.
Attendants shall be experienced in the handling and transportation of the animals.
Before departure of the flight, the presence on board of anaesthetic equipment,
including sedatives, must be checked. The use of sedatives during flight to tranquillise
nervous animals is reserved for a trained animal attendant.
Subject to governmental regulations, a humane killer may be on board, under control
of the Commander. The killer can only be administrated by a trained animal attendant
with permission of the Commander.
5.8.4 Health and Hygiene – General

After delivery of the animals all equipment shall be cleaned and washed thoroughly
before returning and disinfected before re-use, in accordance with the regulations of
the exporting, transiting and importing countries.
After off-loading the relevant holds shall be inspected and cleaned in case of leakage
or spillage.
5.8.5 Shipper’s Certification

The shipper or his authorized agent must provide and sign a Shipper’s Certification for
Live Animals in duplicate for each shipment.
5.8.6 Marking and Labelling

The shipper is responsible for legibly and durably marking the consignee’s name and
address as shown on the air waybill on each container or package.
It is mandatory that at least one “Live Animal” label or tag is attached to each
container or package. In addition, “This Way Up” labels shall be placed on four sides.
Consignments of Specific Pathogen Free (SPF), axenic (germ free) or gnotoxenic
(defined flora) animals for laboratory use shall have the special laboratory animals
label attached.
5.8.7 Government Regulations

Before preparing a live animal consignment the shipper must always obtain full
information well in advance concerning import permit, veterinary health certificate,
veterinary examination, quarantine, transshipment requirements of prohibited
restrictions, which may also include the food provided for the animal. Such
regulations are subject to frequent change and depend on the species being shipped.
Therefore the shipper must obtain the current requirements from the local Consulate
or national authority concerned.
To prevent extinction of threatened wild animals, the co-operation of shippers is
solicited to accord special attention to the conservation of species listed in the
90 Appendices of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Ancillary Services
Fauna and Flora (CITES). The list should be consulted before preparing shipments.
It is the responsibility of shippers to ascertain what domestic legislation regarding the
protection of animals during transport is in force in the countries to which the animals
are being shipped.
Other information related to transport requirements can be located in the following
industry publications:
z Travel Information Manual (TIM)
z The Air Cargo Tariff (TACT)
z International Air Traffic Rules
z The ABC Cargo Rules
5.8.8 Wet Cargo

Definition
Shipments containing liquids, or shipments which by their nature may produce liquids
and which are not subject to the IATA DGR. Examples are:
z Shipments of liquids in watertight containers.
z Shipments of wet material not packed in watertight containers, e.g. fish packed in
wet ice, fresh meat, casings, wet hides, skins, etc.
z Goods which may produce liquid, e.g. live animals.
Special Circumstances
There are variations in atmospheric pressure and temperature during air transportation.
Watertight containers shall be able to withstand these conditions without rupture or
leakage.
Additionally, during climb and descent, the aircraft in normal flying conditions can
assume angles up to approximately 30 degrees. Packing design shall allow for such
angle changes without release of the liquid contents.
Loading Precautions
The following precautions shall be taken:
z Plastic sheets or tarpaulins should be spread on the aircraft floor and walls so as to
catch any spillage or leakage.
z Containers shall be stowed and secured upright.
z Special handling labels shall be strictly observed.
z Damaged packages or packages where damage can be assumed to have occurred
shall not be loaded, e.g. packages with holes, indentations, traces of leakage,
defective caps or closure devices.
For wet cargo containers which are not water tight it is essential that secondary
measures are taken to ensure that any spillage can be contained. This can be achieved
by:
z Placing and securing the shipment in a bowl or similar receptacle, the volume of
which is sufficient to contain any spillage.
z Use plastic sheets and/or tarpaulins as described above and additionally turning 91
the edges up against the wall or other cargo so as to create a waterproof basin
around the shipment.
z Cargo such as fresh meat, casings, wet hides and skins, whether packed in leak-
proof containers or not, shall be prevented from having direct contact with the
aircraft floor.
Note: When it is damp or wet, the strength of some packaging can be considerably
reduced. Special attention shall be given to avoid crushing of the packages when
stacking to several levels.
Action in Case of Spillage

If spillage or leakage of liquids takes place onto the aircraft floor or walls, the person
in charge of the loading/unloading must immediately notify the Gain Jet
representative, station engineer or the Commander so that the appropriate follow-up
measures may be taken.
Fill in the blanks:
1. ……………. cargo shall only be accepted for carriage when it is
reasonably certain that it will reach its destination in good condition.
2. Meat shall be enclosed in waterproof material and handled as
……………. cargo.
3. ……………. shall be treated as “Wet Cargo” and must be manifested as
AVI.
4. Live animals shall not be packed inside a closed ULD, except for a
…………….
5.9 CARGO ACCEPTANCE – GENERAL

Generally, shipments are accepted directly from shippers, consignors, freight
forwarders and through IATA cargo agents. It is important that correct acceptance
procedures are followed if the shipment is to reach its destination safely. Particular
attention must be paid to the accurate completion of documents, packaging and
labelling, and to compliance government regulations and the National Civil Aviation
Security Program of the states.
When accepting a shipment a visual assessment regarding contents of the shipment
seems to correspond to the goods described in the documents.
5.9.1 Acceptance from Known Shipper or Forwarder

When accepting cargo and/or mail shipment(s) it must be assured that:
z The Shipper/Consignor is known,
z Surface transportation has been performed by a known party,
z No deviations from agreed security procedures have been made ("secured" noted
on air waybill).
If a shipment does not meet the requirements above must be screened before being
loaded.
92 5.9.2 Acceptance from Unknown Shipper or Forwarder
Ancillary Services
If a shipment is delivered from an unknown shipper/consignor or forwarder, or if the
wording "unsecured" is noted in the air waybill, the shipment must be screened before
loaded. If the shipment shall be transported with on an all-cargo aircraft, a shipment
from an unknown shipper/consignor can be accepted provided that the consignor:
z has an organisation number,
z is a known air cargo service user,
z has an established relation with Gain Jet and/or a Security Approved Freight
Forwarder,
z consents to the shipments being screened,
z in writing assures that the shipment has been protected against unauthorised
access.
Case Study: Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport

Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport is located between the cities of Dallas
and Fort Worth, and is the busiest airport in the U.S. State of Texas. In terms of
aircraft movements, it is the third busiest airport in the world. In terms of
passenger traffic, it is the sixth busiest airport in the world transporting
59,064,360 passengers in 2005. In terms of land area, at 18,076 acres, it is the
largest airport in Texas, the second largest in the United States, and fourth
largest in the world. It is the nation’s tenth busiest international gateway, behind
Honolulu International Airport. The airport was recently named as “The Best
Cargo Airport in the World” according to the second edition of a survey. The
airport serves 129 domestic destinations and 36 international, and is the largest
and main hub for American Airlines (800 daily departures), and also the largest
hub for American Eagle. Eighty four per cent of all flights at Dallas/Fort Worth
are operated by American Airlines. Delta Air Lines closed its Dallas/Fort Worth
hub in February 2005 in an effort to cut costs. The airline shrank operations
from 256 daily non-stop flights to 21.
The airport is often referred to by its IATA airport code, “DFW.” It is
operated in many ways like a small city. It has its own post office and its own
ZIP Code. The members of the airport’s Board of Directors are appointed by
the “owner cities” of Dallas and Fort Worth. However, the airport is inside the
city limits of four other suburban cities, a situation that has led to legal battles
over jurisdiction (see below). To help ensure future harmony with its
neighbours, the DFW Airport Board includes a non-voting member — a
representative chosen from the airport’s neighbours (Irving, Euless,
Grapevine, and Coppell) on a rotating basis. DFW is connected by shuttle bus
to a commuter rail station just south of the airport. The Trinity Railway
Express line serves both downtown Dallas and downtown Fort Worth.
History
As early as 1927, before the area had an airport, Dallas proposed a joint
airport with Fort Worth? Fort Worth declined the offer, and thus the two cities
opened their own airports, Love Field and Meacham Field. Both airports had
scheduled airline service.
In 1940, the Civil Aeronautics Administration earmarked $1.9 million for the
construction of a Dallas-Fort Worth regional airport. American Airlines and
Braniff Airways struck a deal with the city of Arlington to build an airport
there, but the governments of Dallas and Fort Worth disagreed over its
Contd…
construction, and the project was abandoned in 1943. After World War II, 93
Fort Worth annexed the site and developed it into Amon Carter Field with the
help of American Airlines. Fort Worth transferred its commercial flights from
Meacham Field to the new airport in 1953, which was now just 12 miles from
Dallas Love Field. In 1960, Fort Worth purchased Amon Carter Field and
renamed it Greater Southwest International Airport (GSW) in an attempt to
compete with Dallas’ more successful airport.
However, GSW’s traffic continued to decline relative to Love Field. By the
mid-1960s, Fort Worth was getting 1% of Texas air traffic while Dallas was
getting 49%, which led to the virtual abandonment of GSW. The joint airport
proposal was revisited in 1961 after the FAA refused to invest any more money
in separate Dallas and Fort Worth airports. Although the Fort Worth airport was
eventually abandoned, Dallas Love Field became congested and had no more
room to expand. Following an order from the federal government in 1964 that
they would unilaterally choose a site if both cities could not come to an
agreement on a site, officials from the two cities finally agreed on a location for
a new regional airport that was north of the abandoned GSW and almost
perfectly equidistant from the two city centres. The land was purchased by both
cities in 1966, and construction began in 1969. The first landing of a supersonic
BAC/Sud (now BAE Systems and Aerospatiale) Concorde in the United States
occurred at DFW Airport in 1973 to commemorate the airport’s completion.
Concorde later served DFW in a cooperative agreement between Braniff
Airways, British Airways, and Air France, before the demise of Braniff ended
the service. DFW Airport opened for commercial service on January 13, 1974.
The original name was Dallas Fort Worth Regional Airport. The name change
to Dallas Fort Worth International Airport did not occur until 1985. At the time,
it was the largest and costliest airport in the world. Following the Wright
Amendment of 1979, which banned long-distance flights from Love Field,
DFW became the only airport in the metropolitan area to offer long-haul
commercial air passenger service on aircraft with more than 56 passenger seats.
Also in 1979, American Airlines moved its headquarters from New York to
Fort Worth (adjacent to DFW on the former site of GSW). American began its
first hub at DFW in 1981, started flights to London in 1982, and started flights
to Tokyo in 1987. Delta Air Lines built up a domestic hub at DFW during the
same period, but announced its closure in 2004 in a restructuring of the airline
in an attempt to avoid bankruptcy. Today, Delta only flies from DFW to their
three hubs plus Orlando and New York-LaGuardia. After the closing of Delta’s
hub in 2005, DFW Airport offered incentives to Southwest Airlines to relocate
its hub to DFW from Love Field. Southwest, as in the past, declined the offer,
opting to remain at Love Field (DFW, in turn, opposed all efforts to expand
Love Field operations until DFW saw that they could not win the fight, so they
cut the losses and agreed to Love Field service expansion). Additionally, the
airport offered incentives to at least three other airlines to locate at DFW
Airport, all of whom declined as well.
In 1989, the airport authority announced plans to rebuild the existing
terminals and construct two new runways. After an environmental impact
study was released the following year, the cities of Irving, Euless, and
Grapevine sued the airport over its expansion plans, a battle that was finally
decided (in favour of the airport) by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1994. The
seventh runway opened in 1996. The four primary North-South runways
(those closest to the terminals) were all lengthened from 11,388 ft. (3471 m)
to their current length of 13,400 ft. (4084 m). The first of these, 17R/35L, was
extended in 1996 (at the same time the new runway was constructed), and the
Contd…
94 other three (17C/35C, 18L/36R, and 18R/36L) were extended in 2005. DFW
Ancillary Services
is now the only airport in the world with four serviceable paved runways
longer than 4000m. A new international terminal (Terminal D) opened in July
2005. A new people mover system, named Skylink, opened in Spring of 2005
and is the world’s largest high-speed airport train system. Totally automated,
Skylink trains run every few minutes and travel at speeds up to 35-37 mph.
Skylink is double tracked, permitting bi-directional operations. The Skylink
system was acquired from Bombardier Transportation and has been well
received by passengers. Skylink replaced the original Airtrans system (part of
which was later referred to as American Airlines’ TrAAin System), which
was notoriously slow and unidirectional (though it was a state-of-the-art
automated system when the airport opened).
Question
Source: Air Transport Action Group. (1997), The Economic Benefits of Air Transport
5.10 LET US SUM UP

Air cargo is typically defined as the sum of freight, packages, and mail. Air Cargo can
get shipment to its overseas destination within a day and it has become an integral part
of the global logistics network chain. Majority of air cargo being exported out of Asia,
however, consists of electronics, while imports consist mainly of electronic parts and
finished consumer goods. There are many categories of air cargo like transportations
for perishable goods, live animals and wet cargos. For importing or exporting of
cargos, cargo acceptance is essential from IATA.

Prepare a chart of perishable and live animals’ cargo handling services by Indian airlines.
5.12 KEYWORDS
Air Cargo: Air cargo is typically defined as the sum of freight, packages, and mail.
Segmentation: Segmentation is the process of splitting (segmenting) the entire
market.
Air Cargo Process: The air cargo process is a time-definite endeavour that requires
the collaboration and coordination of multiple parties, namely: shippers, freight
forwarders, trucking companies, shipping companies, customs, warehousing agents,
airport terminals, airlines, and consignees.
Perishable Cargo: It can be defined as goods that will deteriorate over a given period
of time or if exposed to adverse temperature, humidity or other environmental
conditions.
Humid (Wet) Cargo: These are special cargo that contains liquids (except one which
is determined as dangerous) are among cargo which is defined as humid there can be
the following: liquids in water resistant containers, food packed by means of dry ice,
fresh or frozen or chilled meat/fish, seafood, vegetables which may evolve liquids and
live animals.

1. What do you understand by wet cargo? Does wet cargo and perishable cargos are
same? Explain.
2. Discuss the role of air cargo in Indian economy. 95
3. Define Air Cargo.
4. Highlight the types of products shipped by air.
5. What are the characteristics of air cargo?
6. Explain the types of flows in the traditional cargo chain with the help of a
diagram.
7. “The world’s air cargo delivery system comprises two networks.” Elucidate.

CYP 1
1. True
2. False
3. False
4. True
CYP 2
1. Perishable
2. Wet
3. Live Animals
4. Few Species

Evans, Amanda et al. (2008). Transport and Logistics. Career FAQs.
Morrell, Peter S. (2012). Moving Boxes by Air: The Economics of International Air
Hertwig, Paul and Rau, Philipp (2010). Risk Management in the Air Cargo Industry:
Revenue Management, Capacity Options and Financial Intermediation. Diplomica
Verlag.
Wensveen, John G. (2012). Air Transportation: A Management Perspective. Ashgate
Publishing.
Skinner, Richard L. (2011). Security of Air Cargo during Ground Transportation
96
6
AIR CARGO FUNDAMENTALS
CONTENTS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Types of Air Cargo
6.2.1 Pallets, Containers and Igloos Unitized Systems
6.2.2 Types of Carriers
6.3 Importance of Air Cargo
6.4 Functions of Cargo Terminal
6.5 Flow through Airport Cargo Terminal
6.6 Air Cargo Tariff/Rates
6.6.1 Special Air Cargo Services
6.7 Market for Air Cargo: Ratios and Charges
6.8 Factors Affecting Air Cargo Rates
6.9 Air Waybill
6.9.1 Air Waybill Standards
6.9.2 Electronic Air Waybill (e-AWB)
6.10 Functions of Air Waybill
6.11 Forms of Air Waybills
6.11.1 Master Air Waybill (MAWB)
6.11.2 House Air Waybill (HAWB)
6.11.3 Air Consignment Note
6.11.4 Other Aspects of Air Waybills
6.12 Purpose of Air Waybill
6.13 Validation
6.14 Let us Sum up
6.16 Keywords
97
6.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES Air Cargo
Fundamentals
z Discuss the types and importance of air cargo
z Describe the functions and flow of air cargo terminal
z Identify the cargo tariff and market for air cargo
z Appreciate the factors affecting air cargo rates
z Understand the air waybill along with its functions, purposes, forms and
validation
6.1 INTRODUCTION
According to the market opportunity analysis, air cargo and air waybill as the mode of
cargo choice increased over the several years. A typical air cargo terminal has three
main users – airlines, air cargo terminal operators and forwarders/cargo-agents who
are the principal contributors to the revenue of air cargo terminals.
The global competition in the air cargo industry has intensified recently. At the same
time, the Asia-Pacific is becoming the largest air cargo market. As air cargo industry
incorporates an industrial supply chain, which includes airlines, customs, ground
services, air cargo forwarders, brokers, domestic transportation, air cargo terminals,
distribution centres and integrated international express services, the air cargo industry
is focusing on cargo standardization beyond organizational boundaries. Thus, there is
a need to know the different air cargo tariff, air waybill and the measures or purposes
for the effective management of air cargo operations for carrier and consignment.
6.2 TYPES OF AIR CARGO

Approximately 16% of air cargo transported to, from or within the United States is
shipped on passenger aircraft, while the remainder is transported on all cargo aircraft.
The cargo ranges in size from 1 pound to several tons and in type from perishable
commodities to machinery.
Air cargo can include such varied items as electronics equipment, automobile parts,
fresh produce and human remains etc. cargo can be shipped in various forms,
including unit load services (ULD) that allow many packages to be consolidated into
one large container or pallet that can be loaded onto an aircraft, wooden skids or
crates, and individually wrapped/boxed pieces, known as loose or break bulk cargo.
Participants in the air cargo shipping process include shipper, such as individual and
manufacturers of various product types, freight forwarders, such as a company that
accept package and ships them on behalf of individuals or manufacturers, air cargo
handling agents, and air career that load and transport cargo. The air cargos of
different size for different purposes are as follows:
ULD pallet and containers- Cargo is the source of revenue for freight operations and
can also be a significant portion of passenger airline revenue. On passenger aircraft,
cargo is carried in the lower hold. On freighters, cargo is also carried on the main
deck. In large aircraft, cargo is loaded and carried in various pallets and containers,
known as Unit Load Device (ULD).
This Unit Load Device (ULD) has been developed from materials supplied by IATA
(International Air Transport Association) and the ATA (Air Transport Association of
America). There are different specifications for different cargo’s purposes.
z Common designation: LD-1
98 z Common designation: LD-2
Ancillary Services
z Common designation: LD-3
z Common designation: LD-3 Reefer and
z Others
IATA ULD Regulations

The new ULD Regulations (ULDR) covers both technical and operational standards
and regulatory requirements as well as the carrier's requirements applicable to overall
ULD operations.
z Minimum standard specifications for designing and manufacturing ULDs that
conform to IATA, ISO, SAE, and other national and international standards
z Essential and detailed guidelines for all aspects of ULD operations
z Training requirements and standards
z Supporting material for airlines creating operations manuals containing ULD
related content for use by their own or outside staff.
Wooden skids - Wood skids are the workhorse of the industry. These skids are
constructed for multiple load bearing and generally used by the manufacturers for
overseas product shipment.
Loose cargo - Loose cargos are available on all aircraft and routes with 45, 100, 250,
500 and 1000kg weight. Dangerous goods, Cargo Aircraft Only (CAO) and oversized
pieces are acceptable by prior arrangement for goods carried on passenger and
freighter aircraft.
6.2.1 Pallets, Containers and Igloos Unitized Systems

Until the early 1960s, air cargo was generally loose loaded into combination and
freight aircraft. As freight traffic increased, paralleling growth in aircraft size,
economic operation could be maintained only by limiting the turn-around time of
freight carrying aircraft on the apron. Rapid loading and unloading can now be
achieved by unitizing loads. Various unit-load devices are currently in use: containers,
pallets, and igloos.
Containers
Rigid-bodied containers are used to protect air cargo and to ease the handling of
numerous small, individual consignments of air cargo. Wide-bodied freight aircraft,
such as the Boeing 747F, are capable of taking modular International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) 8 × 8 ft. containers in 10, 20, and 40 ft. lengths. These
containers are not intermodal, however, since tare weight considerations limit their
structural strength; ISO aircraft containers can be rolled but not lifted. Special low
height containers are built for the lower holds of wide-bodied freight and combination
aircraft. Figure 6.1 shows the container loading arrangements. Typically, lower hold
containers are contoured and have maximum dimensions of 64 × 92 in. and 64 × 186
in.
99
Air Cargo
Fundamentals
Source: http://ebooks.narotama.ac.id/files/Airport%20EngineeringPlanning,%20Design,%20and%20Development
%20of%2021st%20Century%20Airports%20(4th%20Edition)/Chapter%2011%20Air%20Cargo%20Facilities.pdf
Figure 6.1: Container Arrangements in Wide- and Narrow-bodied Aircraft
Pallets
Pallets are devices providing a rigid base, suitable for forklifting, on which cargo can
be loaded. The load is held in place by nets, and the complete load can be
manhandled, forklifted, or moved mechanically as a unit (see Figures 6.2 (a) and (b)).
For narrow-bodied aircraft, standard pallet dimensions are 88 × 125 × 64 in. for all-
freight craft and 88 × 108 × 64 in. where there is necessity to move through the cargo
hold for access to passenger areas. Wide-bodied craft also can accept pallets to 96 ×
125 × 64 in. within the upper hold. In the lower hold, 96 × 125 × 64 in. pallets can be
accommodated as well as the pallets normally taken by narrow-bodied craft.
100
Ancillary Services
(a)
(b)
Source:http://ebooks.narotama.ac.id/files/Airport%20EngineeringPlanning,%20Design,%20and%20Development%20
of%2021st%20Century%20Airports%20(4th%20Edition)/Chapter%2011%20Air%20Cargo%20Facilities.pdf
Figure 6.2: (a) Palletized Unit being Transferred to a Wide-bodied Combi Aircraft and
(b) Palletized Unit being Transferred to a Cargo Train
Igloos
Igloos are rigid-bodied pallets used primarily to prevent damage to cargo or to the
inside of the aircraft, where passenger cabins are converted to freight usage. A
structural igloo is a fully enclosed shell constructed integrally with a pallet to ensure
that cargo conforms to required contours. The shell and the pallet of the igloo form a
single structural unit. A non-structural igloo is a bottomless shell that fits over the
pallet to give a shape to loaded cargo. The shell is used in conjunction with the pallet
but adds no structural strength.
6.2.2 Types of Carriers

The air cargo industry includes three types of carriers: integrated carriers, passenger
airlines, and conventional all-cargo carriers. Integrated carriers, also called express
carriers, operate door-to-door freight transportation networks that include all-cargo
aircraft, delivery vehicles, sorting, hubs, and advanced information systems. These 101
Air Cargo
carriers operate their own aircraft to ensure adequate capacity and service reliability, Fundamentals
although they also use the belly cargo space of passenger aircraft to supplement their
own capacity and to provide international service. The U.S. express carriers include
FedEx, United Parcel Service (UPS), and Airborne Express, DHL Airways, Emery
World-wide, and Burlington Air Express.
A second major type of cargo carrier is the combination carrier that carries passengers
and cargo. These carriers primarily offer point-to-point service on a wholesale basis,
relying on freight forwarders for pickup and delivery sales to shippers, and customer
service. Because the passenger plane belly space that represents much of their cargo
capacity is a co-product of passenger service, combination carrier cargo services have
a low marginal cost and thus usually offer much lower prices than express carriers.
Although virtually all passenger airlines handle some cargo, the importance of the
cargo business varies substantially from airline to airline. Many large Asian and
European carriers, including Korean Air, Cathay Pacific Airways, Lufthansa German
Airlines, and Air France, operate fleets of freighter aircraft to supplement their belly
cargo capacity. Cargo accounts for a large share of total revenue for most major non-
US air carriers, but it plays a much less prominent role for many other airlines
including most major U.S. passenger airlines.
Air cargo traffic continues to grow at a healthy rate, but it has not yet achieved the
status envisioned by the air cargo pioneers of the 1930s and 1940s. They fully
expected that air cargo would in time be the most important revenue source for the
airlines. After all, every known form of transportation had earned more money from
the carriage of freight than of people. Thus, the only real question for the airlines was
how soon air freight would overtake passenger revenues. Most experts felt it would
happen within years or 10 years at the most.
6.3 IMPORTANCE OF AIR CARGO

During the 1970s and the 1980s, the cargo sector of air transport underwent fast
technological change and remarkable growth development in the following 30 years.
Modern airports often require designs that accommodate both cargo and passenger
operations, providing desirable proximity on the airside while separating passenger
landside automobile and bus traffic from cargo-related heavy truck and commercial
vehicle traffic. Air cargo is a strong component of air transport that tends to be
concentrated at cargo hubs, rather than being equally spread across the airport network.
Until the deep recession that started in 2008, air cargo had been generally regarded as a
major contributor of profit to the airlines. During periods of recession, cargo revenues
and cargo traffic are found to contract disproportionately in comparison with passenger
revenues and traffic. However, passenger airlines, which also concentrate on carrying
cargo, claim that cargo operations are competitively profitable even when fully allocated
costs are considered but especially profitable on a marginal-cost basis. Since 1970,
cargo operations and traffic have been influenced by a number of factors:
z The freight industry itself underwent a conversion to the use of unitized loads
(containerization).
z Many firms integrated their production and transport functions using the newly
developing tools of Physical Distribution Management (PDM).
z Highly efficient, low-cost, Just-in-Time (JIT) techniques were adopted into
manufacturing, wholesale, and retail businesses.
z There was a rapid and widespread introduction and adoption of wide-bodied
aircraft capable of accepting large unit loads.
102 Although the overall air cargo industry is generally considered to have settled into a
Ancillary Services
period of more stable growth, it still presents an image of rapid change and flux, and
at individual airports demand variations can be dramatic. Consequently, the design of
air cargo terminals is susceptible to rapid modification of parameters due to demand
and technological changes. Design flexibility, therefore, is generally felt to be
imperative. An industry forecast is shown in Figure 6.3.
Source: http://ebooks.narotama.ac.id/files
Figure 6.3: Industry Forecast of Air Cargo Facilities
6.4 FUNCTIONS OF CARGO TERMINAL

In many ways, the functions performed by the cargo terminal are very similar to those
that take place in the passenger terminal, even though the aspects of the two areas are
strikingly different.
The cargo terminal serves four principal functions:
z Conversion
z Sorting
z Storage, and
z Facilitation and documentation
These are explained below:
Conversion
The size of a load is changed by combining a number of small loads into a larger unit,
such as a pallet or container, which can be more easily handled airside. A conversion
also almost certainly takes place in flow patterns. The landside flow is characterized
by the continual arrivals or departures of small loads, which may form either the entire
load or part of the load of a truck. These loads are batched into individual aircraft
loads.
Sorting
The function occurs as the terminal accepts loads consisting of cargo bound for a
number of different destinations, combines them, and forms aircraft loads for
individual destinations.
Storage
It is necessary to permit load assembly by conversion and sorting, since flow rates and
patterns on the landside and airside are quite dissimilar.
Facilitation and Documentation 103
Air Cargo
Finally, facilitation and documentation are conveniently carried out at the cargo Fundamentals
terminal, where frequently a physical transfer takes place between the surface and air
carriers and such governmental controls as customs are normally performed. The
efficient operation of a large, modern cargo terminal is vitally dependent on modern
documentation procedures.
1. Igloos are rigid-bodied pallets used primarily to prevent damage to cargo.
2. Pallets are devices providing a rigid base, suitable for forklifting, on
which cargo can be loaded.
3. Loose cargos are available on all aircraft and routes with 45, 100, 250,
500 and 1000kg weight.
4. Cargo is the source of revenue for freight operations and can also be a
significant portion of passenger airline revenue.
6.5 FLOW THROUGH AIRPORT CARGO TERMINAL

Figure 6.4 illustrates how import and export flows of cargo move through the airport
terminal. Incoming cargo for export passes through the reception area, is moved
through the documentation area (where it undergoes count checks, weighing,
measuring, and labelling), and either is passed directly into a pre-flight assembly line-
up or is placed in a short-term storage area, from which is eventually transfers into
pre-flight assembly. Next, the cargo is moved into the flight assembly area, the nature
of which depends on whether the freight is to be carried by a passenger, cargo or by
all-cargo aircraft.
Source: http://ebooks.narotama.ac.id/files/Airport%20EngineeringPlanning,%20Design, %20and%20Development

%20of%2021st%20Century%20Airports%20(4th%20Edition)/Chapter%2011%20Air%20Cargo%20Facilities.pdf
Figure 6.4: Flow through Cargo Terminal

104 From the flight assembly area, flight loads of freight move to the final staging area
Ancillary Services
and then across the cargo or passenger apron to their outbound flight. Incoming or
import cargo can similarly arrive on mixed-payload or all-cargo flights. On arrival, it
passes through an initial holding area before sorting and check-in. After sorting, cargo
requiring customs clearance goes to in-bond storage, from there by way of customs
clearance to a cleared bond storage area, and eventually to the receiver via import
delivery. Domestic cargo, on the other hand, requires no customs clearance and
proceeds directly from the check-in area to a pre-delivery hold area, where it remains
pending arrangement of delivery. Figure 6.4 also points up the need for interline
transfers to other carriers and across the apron movements for intra-carrier transfers
between flights. The latter type of movement is extremely important in some cargo
gate airports, where transfer freight can account for a large proportion of the incoming
traffic. At some hub airports, more than half of all incoming freight is transferred to
outgoing flights; the terminal designs reflect these specialized needs.
6.6 AIR CARGO TARIFF/RATES

The types of air freight tariff are explained as follows:
General Commodity Rates

The air freight rate structure is similar to the passenger fare structure in that there is a
normal or basic price applicable to all commodities in all markets.
Note: The greater the weight, the lower the rates (hypothetical example)
Figure 6.5: General Commodity Rates by Weight of the Shipment

This is called the general commodity rate. General commodity shipments are rated by
weight. (Dimensional weight is used if the shipment is of very low density.) As the
weight of a shipment increases, the per-pound rate decreases. There is generally a
minimum charge, depending on the city-pairs between which the shipment takes
place. Dimensional weight is computed by finding the cubic measurement of a
shipment (length × width × height) and charging the rate for one pound for each 194
cubic inches. There are exceptions. For example, cut flowers and nursery stock being
transported to domestic cities take a charge of one pound for each 250 cubic inches.
Specific Commodity Rates

Specific commodity rates are established for unusually high-volume shipping of
certain products between certain cities, such as fish from Anchorage; Alaska, to
certain points in the continental United States; recording tapes, athletic goods, and
musical instruments from Denver to San Francisco; and flowers, decorative greens,
furs, fruits, and vegetables between Seattle/Tacoma and Minneapolis-St. Paul in most
cases, the specific commodity rate is lower than the general commodity rate to reflect
the benefit to the carrier of regular high-volume shipments.
Exception Rates 105
Air Cargo
Exception rates are higher than the usual air freight rates and apply to certain types of Fundamentals
shipments that require special handling. For example, live animals and uncrated
furniture take exception rates.
Joint Rates
For domestic shipments transported on two or more airlines between origin and
destination, a published rate, called a joint rate, often applies. The joint rate is usually
the same as the rate for direct service. Where a joint rate is published, the shipper has
the advantage of availability of a number of different routings at the same rate. This is
especially advantageous if direct service is limited.
Priority Rates
Priority reserved air freight is designed to serve shippers of heavy or bulky freight
who need the advantage of reserved space on a specific flight.
Speed Package Service

Speed package service is a small-package fast-delivery service, airport-to-airport, with
certain carriers on their own systems. Packages are accepted at the airport passenger
terminal, at the passenger baggage check-in position, or at the air freight office. They
are delivered to the baggage claim area at destination.
Container Rates
Container rates are low rates charged by the carriers to shippers using containers to
ship air cargo. There are many types of containers designed for air freight, suitable for
shipping quantities from 400 pounds to 5 tons. Some types are owned by the airline
and made available to the shipper on request. Other types are purchased by shippers
for regular use or rented from various sources.
6.6.1 Special Air Cargo Services

The special air freight services are explained as below:
Assembly Service
Airlines will consolidate packages from a shipper, or group of shippers, and base the
transportation charge on the total weight of all the pieces, which allows a price break
on heavy shipments. When numerous shipments are sent to the same address, the use
of assembly service can result in real savings to the shipper.
Distribution Service
Another service provided by airlines that fly air cargo is accepting one shipment from
a shipper and, at destination, separating it into its parts and distributing them to
different customers. The advantages are the same as those for assembly service in that
a shipper with many customers in the same city can take advantage of the rate break
for heavy shipments. However, carriers generally do not provide assembly and
distribution service on the same shipment. A variation of this service is for the carrier
to deliver a shipment to the main post office at the destination city, where the
shipment is sorted by zip code.
Pickup and Delivery Service

Air freight pickup and delivery service is performed by independent local truckers
under contract to act as the carrier’s local agent. They are governed by Air Cargo,
106 Incorporated (ACI), an organization owned jointly by the major airlines whose major
Ancillary Services
function is to negotiate contracts with local truckers.
Other Specialized Services

Airlines provide a number of other specialized air freight services, including armed
guards for shipments of highly valuable goods, such as furs, precious gems, watches,
jewellery, negotiable securities, bills of exchange, bonds, and currency. Generally,
such items are not accepted by the carrier until three hours before scheduled departure
time of the flight on which they are to be transported, nor can they be held for more
than three hours after arrival at destination.
6.7 MARKET FOR AIR CARGO: RATIOS AND CHARGES

A review of the major commodities shipped by air, according to data supplied on an
annual basis by the Air Transport Association, gives a good idea of the major markets
for air cargo. These commodities include the following:
z Auto parts and accessories
z Machinery and parts
z Printed matter
z Electronic/electric equipment and parts, including appliances
z Fashion apparel
z Footwear
z Tools and hardware
z CDs, tapes, televisions, radios, and recorders
z Computers and software fruits and vegetables
z Sporting goods, toys, and games
z Live animals
z Chemicals, elements, and compounds
z Machines for electronic data storage and processing
z Metal products
z Photographic equipment, parts, and film
z Cut flowers and nursery stock
z Plastic materials and articles
z Medicines, pharmaceuticals, and drugs
z Instruments controlling, measuring, medical, and optical
z Food preparations and miscellaneous bakery products
For commodities that are perishable, subject to quick obsolescence, or required on
short notice, the speed of air transportation becomes advantageous. Timing is
important for products such as recordings, fashion apparel, and novelty items. When
the market is seasonal or demand fluctuates for any reason, air freight allows an
immediate response without the penalty of costly fixed overhead being out of stock or
overstocked. A manufacturer that offers a wide selection of styles, sizes, colours, or
accessories in a product line and whose market covers a wide geographic area is
usually faced with the dilemma of carrying costly inventory and obsolescence or long
delays in filling orders. Air freight can eliminate the cost of carrying inventory.
Customers can select freely from the entire line of products and they can be assured of 107
Air Cargo
delivery from a central warehouse as quickly as from a local warehouse. Fundamentals
The ratios and charges are different for different cargos.
Table 6.1: Taxes and Fees
Source: http://skepticalscalpel.blogspot.in/2011/12/what-if-doctors-could-charge-like.html
6.8 FACTORS AFFECTING AIR CARGO RATES

The factors affecting air cargo rate are as follows:
Costs of the Service

A basic consideration in rate making is that the rates should cover the costs of service
and yield a reasonable profit. In air transportation, where air freight is carried in the
cargo compartments of passenger aircraft as well as in all-cargo aircraft, the costs that
must be covered generally are the same as those of an all-cargo aircraft operation.
Volume of Traffic
Numerous pricing considerations affect rates. One of these is the volume of new
traffic a carrier can achieve at any particular rate.
Directionality
Whereas most passenger travel is round-trip, freight traffic is all one-way.
Consequently, rates have been set at lower levels in the off-direction as a means of
filling up space to equalize the flow of traffic and put aircraft to more efficient use.
6.9 AIR WAYBILL

An Air Waybill (AWB) is the document made out by or on behalf of the shipper that
evidences the contract between the shipper and carrier(s) for carriage of goods over
routes of the carrier(s). An AWB is by far the most essential transport document and
was established at the WARSAW Convention in 1929. An AWB legally stipulates
liabilities of carrier(s) and limits on compensation, rights and obligations of the shipper,
consignee and carrier(s) and is non-negotiable. The AWB can be in the form of an:
z Airline air waybill, with pre-printed issuing carrier identification
z Neutral air waybill, without pre-printed identification of the issuing carrier in any
form
These are the documents issued by a carrier to a shipper, signed by the captain, agent,
or owner of a vessel, furnishing written evidence regarding receipt of the goods, the
108 conditions on which transportation is made, and the engagement to deliver goods at
Ancillary Services
the prescribed port of destination to the lawful holder of the bill of lading. Thus AWB
is both a receipt for merchandise and a contract to deliver it as freight.
This receipt also certifies that the airline has accepted the goods as listed on the air
waybill and agreed to carry the goods to the airport of destination in accordance with
the conditions of the contract. Simply, we can say it is in a form of contract among
three parties to provide transportation of cargo
z Consignor: party delivering goods to the carrier; usually the seller
z Carrier: party accepting legal responsibility to provide transportation; often the
transportation company
z Consignee: party entitle to receive the cargo; buyer, bank, an agent
Source: http://www.pace.edu/general-services/mail-services/user-manual/international-airway-bill
Figure 6.6: Sample of AWB
6.9.1 Air Waybill Standards

The Cargo Services Conference (CSC) is responsible for the development and
maintenance of airline and neutral air waybill specifications and standards:
CSC Resolution 600a provides the governing rules on the use of air waybill,
technical specifications, completion instructions, distribution of copies, and also the
applicable conditions when transmitting air waybill information electronically.
CSC Resolution 600b provides the text of the Conditions of Contract to be printed on
the reverse of airline and neutral air waybills, and also the text of the Notices
appearing on the face of airline and neutral air waybills.
6.9.2 Electronic Air Waybill (e-AWB)

The paper Air Waybill is a critical air cargo document that constitutes the contract of
carriage between the Shipper and the Carrier. The term “e-AWB” is adopted by
International Air Transport Association (IATA) to describe the interchange of
electronic data (EDI) message, in lieu of a paper air waybill, to conclude the contract 109
Air Cargo
of carriage. Fundamentals
e-AWB includes the following:
z Master air waybills (FWB) and
z House air waybills (FHL)
Benefits from e-AWB are as follows:
z Reducing paper usage and handling costs
z Submitting the e-AWB to freight forwarders at any time before the cut off time
and
z Reduce administration time and enhance flexible operation.
6.10 FUNCTIONS OF AIR WAYBILL

The Air Waybill, also referred to as Air Consignment Note, AWB or Air Waybill of
Lading, is an adaptation of the sea freight Bill of Lading. Air Waybills can be required
and handled by various players in the logistics chain including, importers, exporters,
airlines, freight forwarders, customs officials, customs brokers, banks and cargo
terminals.
There are several purposes that an air waybill serves, but its main functions are:
z Contract of carriage
z Receipt of goods for shipment
z Freight Bill
z Certificate of Insurance
z Customs declaration Delivery receipt
z Insurance certificate if insurance coverage has been obtained through the
mediation of the carrier
z It covers the carriage between airport of departure and airport of destination.
z It is not negotiable as opposed to the Sea freight bill of lading which can be
negotiable.
Contract of Carriage
Behind every original of the Air Waybill are conditions of contract for carriage.
Receipt of goods for shipment

When the shipper delivers goods to be forwarded, he will get a receipt. The receipt is
proof that the shipment was handed over in good order and condition and also that the
shipping instructions, as contained in the Shipper's Letter of Instructions, are
acceptable. After completion, an original copy of the air waybill is given to the
shipper as evidence of the acceptance of goods and as proof of contract of carriage
Freight Bill
The air waybill may be used as a bill or invoice together with supporting documents
since it may indicate charges to be paid by the consignee, charges due to the agent or
the carrier. An original copy of the air waybill is used for the carrier's accounting.
110 Certificate of Insurance
Ancillary Services
The air waybill may also serve as an evidence if the carrier is in a position to insure
the shipment and is requested to do so by the shipper.
Customs Declaration Delivery receipt

Although customs authorities require various documents like a commercial invoice,
packing list, etc. the air waybill too is proof of the freight amount billed for the goods
carried and may be needed to be presented for customs clearance The format of the air
waybill has been designed by IATA and these can be used for both domestic as well
as international transportation.
It is also possible to get an air waybill through a digital system. Agents all over the
world are now using digital system and issuing airlines' and freight forwarders' air
waybills. IATA cargo agents usually hold air waybills of several carriers.
Fill in the blanks:
1. An Air Waybill is the document made out by or on behalf of the shipper
that …………….. the contract between the shipper and carrier.
2. …………….. rates are higher than the usual air freight rates and apply to
certain types of shipments that require special handling.
3. General commodity shipments are rated by ……………..
4. The air cargo industry includes three types of carriers: integrated carriers,
passenger airlines, and …………….. carriers.
6.11 FORMS OF AIR WAYBILLS

6.11.1 Master Air Waybill (MAWB)
An air waybill issued by an airline, not a freight forwarder. MAWB refers to the air
waybill governing all House Air Waybills (HAWBS) on a consolidated air shipment.
The Master Air Waybill is issued by the carrier and typically will show the shipper in
two possible ways:-
z Freight Forwarder: In this case, the exporting forwarder is shown as the shipper
and the forwarder's destination counterpart is shown as the consignee. This is the
shipping or transport agreement between the forwarder and the air carrier.
A master air waybill may have more than one house air waybill consolidated
under it.
z Seller or Exporter: A Master Air waybill can also be consigned from a Seller or
Exporter shipper to a consignee (importer or buyer) on an airline Master Air
Waybill.
Traders, Exporters and Importers can arrange transportation directly with carriers and
are not required to use a freight forwarder.
6.11.2 House Air Waybill (HAWB)

An air waybill issued by a freight forwarder to an exporter as a receipt for goods that
the forwarder will consolidate or combine with cargo from other shippers for
transport.
This type of Air waybill is issued by the freight forwarder and will typically show the
supplier (ex: ABC Export Co.) as the shipper and the import customer (ex: XYZ
Import Co.) as the consignee. In this case the shipping agreement is generally between 111
Air Cargo
the supplier and the freight forwarder. Fundamentals
An exception to this would be where the sales terms (Incoterms 2000) was either ex
works (EXW) or free carrier (FCA). In this case the contract would be between the
buyer/importer and freight forwarder.
The House Air waybill covers only the shipping agreement between the freight
forwarder and the shipper and the freight forwarder will still require an air carrier's
Master Air waybill to move the freight with the airline.
6.11.3 Air Consignment Note

This can be an alternate name for the air waybill or can otherwise be a shorter format
with less fields of information required.
Air Consignment Notes are typically used by express couriers or integrators. These
organisations provide transportation of goods on the basis that they pick up from the
consignor and deliver to the premises of the consignee a full “door to door” service.
We also categorized Air Waybill into
Airline Air Waybill- AWB with pre-printed issuing carrier identification; Neutral Air
Waybill- AWB without pre-printed identification of the carrier; Dummy Air Waybill-
For exercise or duplicate copy purposes.
6.11.4 Other Aspects of Air Waybills

As the airline industry is highly regulated by individual governments and international
organisations such as International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), an agency of
the United Nations, and the International Air Transport Association (IATA), the
airline member body, the result is that a lot of air freight documentation and processes
have been standardised.
Standard Documentation
The air waybill is a standard document with a standard layout for the information
required to be input. This means that all Master Air Waybills as well as freight
forwarder House Air Waybills have the same format.
This makes it much easier to complete and to read by all those who deal with air
waybills.
Electronic Lodgement of Air Waybill Details

With advances in technology the ability to lodge and transmit electronic air waybills
and consignment notes is becoming more common.
Air Waybill (AWB) and Bill of Lading (B/L) – The differences between AWB and
B/L are mentioned in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2: Differences between AWB and BL
Source: http://cargo.koreanair.com/eng/InterNet/campus/campus_fee04.jsp
112
Ancillary Services 6.12 PURPOSE OF AIR WAYBILL
The Air Waybill (AWB) is the most important document issued by a carrier either
directly or through its authorised agent. It is a non-negotiable transport document. It
covers transport of cargo from airport to airport. Air Waybills have eleven digit
numbers which can be used to make bookings, check the status of delivery, and
current position of the shipment. The table given below clarifies the purpose.
Table 6.3: Distribution of AWB Copies
Source: http://cargo.koreanair.com/eng/InterNet/campus/campus_fee04.jsp
6.13 VALIDATION
The air waybill is a contract or an agreement which is enforceable by law. For a valid
contract it is essential that has to be signed by the shipper or his agent and by the
carrier or its authorised agent. Although the same person or organisation may act on
behalf of both the carrier and the shipper, the air waybill should be signed twice. Both
signatures may be of the same person. This also implies that the air waybill should be
issued immediately upon receipt of the goods and letter in instructions from the
shipper.
As long as the air waybill is neither dated nor signed twice, the goods do not fall
within the terms of the conditions of contract and therefore the carrier will not accept
any responsibility for the goods. The validity of the air waybill and thus the contract
of carriage expires upon delivery of the shipment to the consignee.
6.14 LET US SUM UP

Air cargo is a strong component of air transport that tends to be concentrated at cargo
hubs, rather than being equally spread across the airport network. Although the overall
air cargo industry is generally considered to have settled into a period of more stable
growth, it still presents an image of rapid change and flux, and at individual airports
demand variations can be dramatic. There are different types of air cargo like
containers, pallets and skids, etc. to pool the commodities for different purposes. The
functions performed by the cargo terminal are very similar to those that take place in
the passenger terminal, even though the aspects of the two areas are strikingly
different. Until the early 1960s, air cargo was generally loose loaded into combination
and freight aircraft. Although most airports are capable of handling air freight in some
capacity, the size and form of the cargo terminal facilities vary substantially.
There are separate elements of air cargo services and tariffs for customers and 113
Air Cargo
consignments. An Air Waybill (AWB) is the document made out by or on behalf of Fundamentals
the shipper that evidences the contract between the shipper and carrier(s) for carriage
of goods over routes of the carrier(s). The Air Waybill (AWB) is the most important
document issued by a carrier either directly or through its authorized agent. It is a non-
negotiable transport document. It covers transport of cargo from airport to airport. Air
Waybills have eleven digit numbers which can be used to make bookings, check the
status of delivery, and current position of the shipment.

Prepare a chart on the air cargo and the rates of the various types of air freight.
6.16 KEYWORDS
General Commodity Rate: The air freight rate structure is similar to the passenger fare
structure in that there is a normal or basic price applicable to all commodities in all
markets. This is called general commodity rates.
Specific Commodity Rates: These are established for unusually high-volume shipping
of certain products between certain cities.
Exception Rates: These are higher than the usual air freight rates and apply to certain
types of shipments that require special handling.
Joints Rates: For domestic shipments transported on two or more airlines between
origin and destination, a published rate, called a joint rate, often applies.
Priority Rates: Priority reserved air freight is designed to serve shippers of heavy or
bulky freight who need the advantage of reserved space on a specific flight.
Speed Package Service: It is a small-package fast-delivery service, airport-to-airport,
with certain carriers on their own systems.
Container Rates: These are low rates charged by the carriers to shippers using
containers to ship air cargo.
Air Express: Shipments for which the airline provides a guaranteed level of expedited
service, such as overnight, at a premium charge. It may be restricted as to package
weight and size.
Air Freight: Property other than mail. Express or passenger baggage tendered to an
airline for transportation.
Pallets: Pallets are devices providing a rigid base, suitable for forklifting, on which
cargo can be loaded.
Igloos: Igloos are rigid-bodied pallets used primarily to prevent damage to cargo or to
the inside of the aircraft, where passenger cabins are converted to freight usage.
Structural Igloos: A structural igloo is a fully enclosed shell constructed integrally
with a pallet to ensure that cargo conforms to required contours.
Non-structural Igloos: A non-structural igloo is a bottomless shell that fits over the
pallet to give a shape to loaded cargo.

1. What do you understand by air cargo? Explain the types of air cargo.
2. Define air waybill. What are the functions and purposes of AWB?
114 3. Signify the importance of air cargo in Indian economy.
Ancillary Services
4. Discuss container arrangements in wide- and narrow-bodied aircraft.
5. Distinguish between structural and non-structural igloo.
6. What are the different types of freight terminals?

CYP 1
1. True
2. True
3. True
4. True
CYP 2
1. Evidences
2. Exception
3. Weight
4. Conventional all-cargo

Evans, Amanda, et al. (2008). Transport and Logistics. Career FAQs.
Morrell, Peter S. (2012). Moving Boxes by Air: The Economics of International Air
Hertwig, Paul and Rau, Philipp (2010). Risk Management in the Air Cargo Industry:
Revenue Management, Capacity Options and Financial Intermediation. Diplomica
Verlag.
Wensveen, John G. (2012). Air Transportation: A Management Perspective. Ashgate
Publishing.
Skinner, Richard L. (2011). Security of Air Cargo During Ground Transportation
115
Airport: Other Services
and Responsibilities
UNIT IV
116
Ancillary Services
LESSON 117
7
AIRPORT: OTHER SERVICES AND
RESPONSIBILITIES
CONTENTS
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Air Catering
7.2.1 In-flight Catering
7.2.2 Special In-flight Meals
7.2.3 Corporate Hospitality Food Catering – Airport Catering
7.2.4 Why Airline Catering?
7.3 Preparation: Air Catering
7.3.1 Air Catering in India
7.3.2 Facts Based on Airline and Air Catering Industry
7.3.3 The Innovation Process
7.4 Air Escorting
7.4.1 Permitted Purposes for Escorting
7.4.2 Who can Escort
7.4.3 Methods of Escorts
7.4.4 Procedures to Escort
7.4.5 Rules for Escorting
7.5 Airport Security
7.5.1 Indian Airport Security Check and Regulations
7.5.2 Security Rules and Regulations
7.6 Inter Terminus Transfer
7.7 Medical Services
7.8 Air Accommodation
7.8.1 Classification of Accommodations
7.8.2 Resort Hotels
7.9 Hospitality Services
7.9.1 Hospitality Accommodation Services
7.10 Information Dissemination
7.10.1 Importance of Information Dissemination
7.10.2 Problem-centred Nature of Adult Learning
7.10.3 Special Nature of Information Dissemination for Adult Community
Contd…
118 7.11 Let us Sum up
Ancillary Services
7.12 Lesson End Activities
7.13 Keywords

z Discuss the air catering and its preparation
z Describe the escorting and security of airports
z Understand the inter terminus transfers and medical services at airports
z Identify the air accommodation and hospitality services
z Know about information dissemination
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Air catering caters to the onboard needs of passengers with the utmost safety norms
kept in consideration. Air catering is a systematic approach to serve passengers on
board. There are various kinds of services like catering, escorting, security, inter-
terminus services, medical services, accommodation and hospitality and information
dissemination. Various air catering firms and companies are found in the air transport
system and contribute to the national and international public interest and government
revenues earnings.
7.2 AIR CATERING

Air catering is considered as one of the most important aspect of airline industry. Air
catering has become an industry with the boom in air travel in all developed and
developing countries. Air catering caters to the onboard needs of passengers with the
utmost safety norms kept in consideration. Air catering is a systematic approach to
serve passengers on board. There are various kinds of specialty menus supplied
through air catering. The menu and style of food differs from class to class. Hygiene
and safety are the two important aspects of air catering.
7.2.1 In-flight Catering

In-flight catering is a global industry with an annual turnover in excess of US $14
billion. Of this figure approximately 30% is generated in Europe, 35% in Asia/Pacific
region and 26% in North America, with the balance in the rest of the world. There are
approximately 600 flight kitchens worldwide. The average kitchen prepares between
6000–7000 meals every day, and on average of 150 people per unit is employed.
However there are a number of large kitchens, employing over 1000 people and
producing in excess of 9 million meals per year. Currently airline catering divisions
and in-flight caterers between them employ well in excess of 100000 people
worldwide, and supplier companies have at least the same number again responsible
for provisioning the industry.
In-flight meal catering refers to the provisioning of a meal services for each passenger
during a flight. This service is typical of long duration flights. The complexity of the
meal service varies by class of passenger service and flight destination. Several key 119
decision points are to be considered prior to departure: Final passenger load and Responsibilities
Information concerning tickets sold Passenger checked-in Number of stand-by
passengers.
7.2.2 Special In-flight Meals

The in-flight dinner typically includes meat (most commonly chicken or beef), a salad
or vegetable, a small roll and a dessert. Caterers usually produce alternative meals e.g.
kosher, Halal and vegetarian. These must usually be ordered in advance, sometimes
when buying the ticket, some airlines do not offer a specific meal for vegetarians;
instead they are given a vegan meal.
Some of other special meals include: Baby Meal/Infant Food, Bland Meal/Ulcer Diet/
Low Fiber Meal, Nutritionally Balanced Diabetic Meal, Fruit Platter Gluten Free
Meal, High Fiber Meal, Muslim Meal. The catering categories are as follow:
Premium Catering
The sophisticated traveller expects a sophisticated menu and presentation, from how
the meal is plated, to selection of greens in the salad, to the types of cheeses offered to
accompany the dessert course. Airport Catering chefs work with all passengers to
every critical detail, so that the menus are outstanding in every way from recipe
selection and refinements, through food safety and hygiene, to the final in flight
presentation – all while adhering to your budget parameters and specifications.
Business Class Catering

Airport Catering offers a premium solution for in-flight dining for Business Class
travellers.
Economy Catering
Airport chefs will help the passenger to add distinctive touches to each and every
convenience meal, working within the specifics of passenger menu. The purpose is to
provide a wealth of creative yet practical ideas, to turn ordinary in flight dining into an
extraordinary experience for the passengers.
Crew Meals
Crew meal is a stuff of the best solution, which would provide the optimal
combination of best quality ingredients, while keeping a great taste and
uncompromising food serving.
Special Meals
This meal is provided by special requests of passengers. Weather your requirement is
related to health, lifestyle or religious requests, airports will be able to provide
adequate meal and service for special passengers.
7.2.3 Corporate Hospitality Food Catering – Airport Catering

In general, airport catering services are as follow:
z Creation and supply of food and beverages
z Provision of crockery, cutlery, glasses and napkins
z Flowers
z Newspapers
120 z Laundry and dry cleaning service
Ancillary Services
z VIP management
z Limousine shuttle service
7.2.4 Why Airline Catering?

It has a range of excellent quality food products that have good potential for Airline
applications.
Airline catering products cover a range of different class styles and product types:
z First Class – Fine dining experience
z Business class – Quality restaurant standard
z Economy class – Bistro/Café style foods
z Low cost carriers – Snack foods for onboard sale
Meal types are varied:
Main meals – am/pm refreshments, 2nd service, breakfasts, snacks, ethnic choice,
special meals
Source: http://hawaiianbarbecue.com/live/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/airport-catering-menu.pdf
121
Source: http://hawaiianbarbecue.com/live/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/airport-catering-menu.pdf
7.3 PREPARATION: AIR CATERING

7.3.1 Air Catering in India
The boom in air travel in India is adding a new fizz to in-flight catering business. Last
year, around 17 million people flew domestic airlines and around 8.8 million
passengers took to the international skies – an indication of the size of the on-board
meal market. Conservatively estimated, the meal uplift business is worth is worth
` 160–170 crore. Market sources say if traffic grows by 20% this year the in-flight
meal business should grow correspondingly. Besides, the entry of domestic airlines
into intercontinental routes may force caterer to become more innovative.
Guidelines for Air Catering in India

It should be located with the proximity of the airport, preferably in an area ear-marked
by airport authority of India, in a good locality taking into account accessibility,
immediate environs, approach etc. It should have valid licenses/certificates. The
facility should be of a reasonable size and dimensions. It should have sufficient
segregated cold storage and deep freezers. It should have treated water supply,
122 drainage system, sewage treatment plant and also have proper arrangement for waste
Ancillary Services
disposal. The work processes should meet the Food Safety criteria, preferably the
HACCP guidelines issued by International Flight Catering Association (IFCA), as
applicable in the local conditions, practices and/or Records should support at least
following:
z Temperature
z Medical Policy
z Personal Hygiene Equipment.
Source: http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/ela/elint/vk/hatakka/ch2.html
Figure 7.1: Flow Chart of Preparation of In-flight Meal in the Flight Catering Kitchen
7.3.2 Facts Based on Airline and Air Catering Industry

American Airlines: Spent about $425 million on food for domestic passengers in
2009.
Singapore Airlines: Spends about $700 million on food every year and $16 million on
wine alone. First class passengers consume 20,000 bottles of alcohol every month and
Singapore Airlines is the second largest buyer of Dom Perignon champagne in the
world.
American Airlines: Saved $40,000 in 1987 by removing 1 olive from each salad 123
served in first class. In-flight catering is an $18 billion worldwide industry employing and Responsibilities
up to 200,000 people.
In one year, British Airways passengers consume:
z 40.5 tonnes of chicken
z 6 tonnes of caviar
z 22 tonnes of smoked salmon
z 557,507 boxes of chocolate
z 90 thousand cases (9 litre cases) of sparkling wine.
7.3.3 The Innovation Process

Typically, innovation is divided into three types of process: New Product
Development (NPD), New Service Development (NSD) and Process Development
(PD). The type of innovation initiated by each stakeholder So far the data has shown
that in-flight caterers are not markedly innovative in comparison with airlines and
suppliers.
7.4 AIR ESCORTING

Escorting is defined as accompanying an individual (or individuals) that does not have
unrestricted access to the SIDA or sterile area into those areas. Escorting is only
authorized for official business. Escorting is not allow for the purposes of taking
family members, friends or associates into the restricted areas of the airport for tours
or un-official company business.
SIDA is defined as the areas within the airport’s perimeter boundary that requires an
individual to continuously display an ID badge. Sterile area is defined as the areas
inside of the central passenger terminal complex that are behind the screening
checkpoints and includes all concourses where aircraft park to enplaned and deplane
passengers. Individuals that do not have an ATL ID badge that authorizes access to the
SIDA or sterile area and have a need to conduct official business for a short duration
may be escorted by a person with escort authority.
7.4.1 Permitted Purposes for Escorting

Escorting is only authorized when an operational need exist for a governmental
agency, airline tenant, airline management tenant, concessions tenant, construction
management tenant or contractor as authorized by the Security Division. The
following list can be used as guideline for justification to escort but is not all
inclusive:
1. Escorting company officials, visitors and dignitaries.
2. Escorting potential job applicants or potential employees into tenant leased space
located in the sterile area or SIDA.
3. Escorting inspectors, consultants, prospective clients or contractors.
4. Escorting to conduct approved facility tours.
5. Escorting to perform passenger assistance as specified by the employer.
6. Escorting for emergency response to emergencies at the airport.
124 7. Escorting flight Crew and airline maintenance persons as required in the line of
Ancillary Services
their job responsibilities.
8. Escorting for the delivery of materials or merchandise.
9. Escorting for specialty jobs of short duration.
10. Escorting for charter operations.
7.4.2 Who can Escort

Individuals authorized by their company and validated by the Security Division can
escort if the purpose for escorting falls within the guidelines as listed in the Permitted
purposes for escorting section of this document. The Security Division will validate
authority to escort by issuing a seal to each individual authorized to escort.
7.4.3 Methods of Escorts

Walking Escort – Escorting can be done by walking a person from an unrestricted
area into a restricted area, such as through the checkpoints, or accompanying an
individual into authorized areas in the SIDA. Individuals performing walking escort
must maintain control of the individuals at all times while in the restricted area.
Control can be defined as keeping the individual(s) being escorted within a distance
where they can hear commands being given by the person escorting and having visual
contact with the individual(s). Control must be exercised at all times while escorting
in the SIDA and sterile areas.
Work Group Escort – Escorting for a specialty job in the SIDA or sterile areas can be
authorized for contractors. This would include escorting an individual or group of
workers that will perform a specific task for a tenant of the airport. The duration of the
task or job cannot exceed 3 days. A maximum escort ratio of 1 to 5 shall be
maintained at all times in the SIDA or sterile area. Control must be exercised at all
times while escorting in the SIDA and sterile areas.
Vehicle Escorts – Vehicles may be escorted into the SIDA in conjunction with an
approved reason to escort. Vehicles being escorted into the SIDA must possess a valid
state registration. The escorted vehicle will be inspected before being allowed to enter
the SIDA. Access gate 59 is the approved access points for escorts. The escort must
remain with the escorted driver at all times while on the SIDA and the vehicle must
exit through the point of entry. The escort is responsible for accompanying the vehicle
to the gate and signing the vehicle out of the SIDA.
All escorted vehicles and personnel must remain under the direction of authorized
escorting personnel at all times. Escorting is limited to badged prime contractors.
Subcontractors will not be allowed to escort unless specifically approved by the
Security Division. Contractor employees approved to escort must escort prime
Contractor employees and subcontractors’ employees to their work sites.
The ratio of badged to unbadged employees will not exceed five employees per one
SIDA badged employee. Maximum vehicular escort—one prime contractor vehicle or
approved badged escorting subcontractor is permitted to escort two subcontractor
vehicles. All vehicles requiring escort must access and egress through Pre-approved
gates.
Construction Contracts within Sterile Area: (inside Terminal, Concourses)

All employees of prime Contractor and subcontractor must be badged to work in the
sterile area. For any work requiring access to the sterile area (beyond the Passenger
Screening Checkpoint area and on Concourses), a tool inventory must be conducted
daily by the prime Contractor or designated representative. A copy of this inventory 125
should be provided to the construction manager or project manager for verification. In and Responsibilities
general, tools will not be allowed to pass through the checkpoint area.
7.4.4 Procedures to Escort

Government employees (blue badges), airline employees, and airline management
company employees (green badge) are authorized to escort at any time through access
gates 59 or the security screening checkpoint. The individual conducting the escort
must however possess the validation seal issued by Security division prior to
performing the escort. No other authorization documentation shall be required as
authorization to escort. Employees of companies other than government, airline, or
airline facility management must receive pre-authorization from the Security office
prior to escorting. The following procedures will be used for escorting:
z An Escort Request Form must be completed and submitted to the Security Office
a minimum of 24 hours prior to the requested time of escort for approval
consideration. The form must be submitted by the tenant or prime construction
contractor.
z After review, the form will sent back to the company of request via fax or email.
z If approved, the form must be presented at the access point authorization to escort.
Escorting also done through;
a. Escorts through the security screening checkpoint
b. Escorts through access gates
7.4.5 Rules for Escorting

1. An individual that has begun the badging process by completing the badge
application cannot be escorted. That person must wait until the Criminal History
Records Check (CHRC) process is complete.
2. An individual that has a disqualifying crime as revealed in the CHRC cannot be
escorted for any reason into the SIDA or sterile areas.
3. An individual cannot be escorted for more than three consecutive days while
performing work at the airport. Individuals that will require access for more than
three days must complete the badging process prior to entering the SIDA or sterile
areas.
4. Individuals that are required to perform work at the airport frequently for short
durations must also complete the badging process and will not be approved for
escorting.
5. Individuals approved to be escorted must present an approved and valid Escort
Authorization Request Form when requested by compliance officials.
6. A person may be escorted into the SIDA or Sterile Area for the purpose of
conducting official business only. Violators will be subject to fines.
7. Persons who have unescorted access authority are required to continuously
accompany or supervise persons in a manner sufficient to take action if the person
engages in activities other than what access has been granted for.
8. Individuals escorted into a Sterile Area must remain under escort until they either
exit the sterile area.
9. Escorts must inform all escorted individuals that they must remain with the
escorted party at a distance that continuously enables direct verbal communication
until they have exited the SIDA.
126
Ancillary Services 7.5 AIRPORT SECURITY
Airport security refers to the techniques and methods used in protecting passengers,
staff and aircraft which use the airports from accidental/malicious harm, crime and
other threats. Large numbers of people pass through airports every day, this presents
potential targets for terrorism and other forms of crime because of the number of
people located in a particular location. Similarly, the high concentration of people on
large airlines, the potential high death rate with attacks on aircraft, and the ability to
use a hijacked airplane as a lethal weapon may provide an alluring target for terrorism,
whether or not they succeed due their high profile nature following the various attacks
and attempts around the globe in recent years.
Airport security attempts to prevent any threats or potentially dangerous situations
from arising or entering the country. If airport security does succeed in this, then the
chances of any dangerous situations, illegal items or threats entering into aircraft,
country or airport are greatly reduced. As such, airport security serves several
purposes: To protect the airport and country from any threatening events, to reassure
the travelling public that they are safe and to protect the country and their people.
7.5.1 Indian Airport Security Check and Regulations

Airport security checks are essential for the safety of both the passengers and the
country. Documents like the passengers' passport, ticket, visa, etc. are checked at the
boarding counter prior to the passenger boarding the aircraft. If these are found
genuine a boarding card is issued to the passenger.
The next step is the immigration check where the biographical data and the passport is
screened and details fed into the computer which automatically matches the details
with the criminal databank to see if there is any illegal doings connected with the
passenger. These completed the passenger is allowed to enter the aircraft.
7.5.2 Security Rules and Regulations

Passengers should not agree to carry packets or baggage of unknown people. If
carrying explosive substances or arms one should declare these at the check in
counters as concealing them is an offence.
The hand luggage should be small and not contain dry cells or battery cells which
would be removed while checking and the airport will not be able to return them to the
passenger.
Explosives like compressed gases, fireworks, hand guns, blank cartridges, pistol caps,
acids and alkalis or any apparatus containing mercury should not be carried in your
baggage.
Liquids that is highly flammable such as fire or cigarette lighters, paints and thinners,
matches, oxidizing material, radioactive material, peroxides or bleaching powders
should be avoided.
Insecticides and poisonous weed killers or live viruses are strictly prohibited.
Valuable articles like jewels, money, precious metals should not be carried in the
baggage.
Sprays and perfumes should be packed according to the cargo regulations and carried
in the baggage.
Use of cell phone on board the Indian aircraft is prohibited.
For medical use small oxygen cylinders can be carried and for passengers who require
small carbon dioxide gas cylinders to operate mechanical limbs are allowed with prior
permission.
Check Your Progress 1 127
State whether the following statements are true or false: and Responsibilities
1. Air catering caters to the onboard needs of passengers with the utmost
safety norms kept in consideration.
2. In-flight meal catering refers to the provisioning of a meal services for
each passenger during a flight.
3. Airport Catering offers a premium solution for in-flight dining for
Business Class travellers.
4. Innovation is divided into three types of process: New Product
Development (NPD), New Service Development (NSD) and Process
Development (PD).
7.6 INTER TERMINUS TRANSFER

Transfer passengers of all domestic flights and a large number of international flights
can undergo all related formalities under the same roof. Inter terminus transfer are
from International to Domestic and Between the Domestic terminals.
Source: http://www.narita-airport.jp/en/access/terminal/
128 Airport Infrastructure planning is a very important aspect of the civil aviation industry.
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It helps the airport administration to oversee the airport capacity and to provide
adequate capacity (Airside and Landside), Runways, Taxiways and Terminals of the
new airports or modernizing airports. The plan also amalgamates the various agencies,
like Aircraft operators, National and Local Government Planners, Government
Control Authorities (Customs, Immigration and Health), national and local authorities,
aircraft and equipment manufacturers and international aviation agencies for
consultation and joint planning.
For example, the Cancun International Airport has a FREE shuttle service between
terminals (terminal to terminal), very easy to use. It works for those passengers that
must go from one terminal to another, if that's required by their travel itinerary. The
airport shuttle bus between terminals is secure, comfortable and runs punctually every
10 minutes.
7.7 MEDICAL SERVICES

In the aftermath of an aircraft accident, many lives may be lost and many injuries
aggravated if immediate medical attention is not provided by trained rescue personnel.
Survivors should be triaged, given available emergency medical aid as required, and
then promptly evacuated to appropriate medical facilities.
Medical services should be classified into four categories:
z Priority I: Immediate care
z Priority II: Delayed care
z Priority III: Minor care
z Priority IV: Deceased
Care of Priority I Casualties: Air staff provides immediate care to required
passengers.
Care of Priority II Casualties: Care of casualties sustaining injuries which do not
need immediate emergency medical treatment to sustain life can be delayed until
Priority I casualties have been stabilized.
Care of Priority III (Minor care) Casualties: Minor injuries only. Certain
accidents/incidents will occur where passengers have either minor or no injuries, or
appear not to be injured. Because these casualties can interfere with other priorities
and operations, it is important that they be transported from the accident/incident site
to the designated holding area where they should be re- examined.
Medical services mean you need to talk in advance before your flight so the air staff
can make sure you are fit to fly.
Conditions that may require medical clearance are:
z Recent illness, hospitalization, injury or surgery
z Existing unstable medical condition
z Need for additional oxygen or use of medical equipment on board
z Travelling for medical reasons or treatment
The Medical and Sanitary Unit comprises:

1. A medical clinic
2. The Flight Operations Medical Expert Board
3. A hospital 129
4. A laboratory and Responsibilities
5. A dental clinic
6. Medical aid stations in passenger terminals
7. Pre-flight medical checkup centre
7.8 AIR ACCOMMODATION

The Accommodation Service can help you make the right choices and assist you in
finding the accommodation you want.
7.8.1 Classification of Accommodations

Accommodations can be classified into various categories because of the wide range
of room types and amenities. Various attempts have been made to establish a globally
uniform hotel classification system but the effort has faced many difficulties. Some of
the obstacles to developing a uniform classification system include variations in
definitions, facilities, service standards, management, and cultural influences on
service which differ in every country.
Many countries have official, government classification systems based on physical
and qualitative criteria. Other countries have classification systems based on private
sector standards. In the United States, there is no official classification system and
most hotels rely on private, commercial services for classification and ratings. Most
destinations use a star rating system, the highest number of stars (five) is usually for a
deluxe hotel with fine restaurants, high level of service, and top quality facilities.
Other classification systems include those based on the price of the rooms with
categories such as budget/economy, mid-scale, and upscale/luxury.
Hotels are classified in a number of ways with many different categories. In the
United States and Hawaii, the property type is based on its amenities and also by the
location and the target markets that the hotel wishes to attract. Some subgroups of
hotels include:
z Airport hotel: Located near an airport with amenities for the air traveller including
facilities for business meetings.
z Convention hotel: Located in major cities, often near a municipal convention
centre with major space for meetings and exhibition areas.
z Commercial hotel: Located in urban areas with business travellers as the primary
target market with upscale or midscale facilities.
z Suite hotel: Apartment-style hotels which offer more space and upscale amenities.
z Condominium hotel: Located in resort destinations with individually owned hotel
units often with kitchen facilities where owners use the units as personal vacation
homes and also rent out the units at other times.
z Timeshare hotel: Located in resort destinations, where the unit ownership is
shared and each owner has a fractional ownership and is entitled to use the unit for
a fixed time period in the year.
z Motor hotel: Located close to a highway for automobile travellers with provisions
for parking and amenities which may include swimming pool, coffee shop, and
family-oriented facilities.
130 z Breakfast hotel: Located in private homes or small inns, usually modest
Ancillary Services
establishments which offer breakfast and sometimes light meals. These
accommodations are usually family-run operations and include hostels and
pensions.
7.8.2 Resort Hotels

For vacation destinations, resort hotels have become the most important segment of
the accommodations sector. Resorts are found worldwide, wherever people gather for
recreational and relaxation activities that include golf, tennis, skiing, health spas, or a
combination of these activities with more extensive amenities than in urban hotels.
The typical guest at a resort is a longer staying customer and seeks either a vacation or
pleasure or a combination of business with pleasure. The average length of stay is
longer and the standard of service, facilities, food and beverages, entertainment, and
other amenities are much higher than found in most other types of accommodations.
7.9 HOSPITALITY SERVICES

The word ‘hospitality’ derives from the Latin hospes, which is formed from hostis,
which originally meant a 'stranger' and came to take on the meaning of the enemy or
'hostile stranger' (hostilis), pets (polis, poles, potentia) to have power. Furthermore, the
word hostire means equilize/compensate. In simple terms, it is the act or service of
welcoming, receiving, hosting, or entertaining guests.
It is important to understand what service means in the hospitality industry as it varies
from industry to industry. To have a better understanding of the service one needs to
find out what kind of service a customer would expect. It could mean a variety of
services put together like the way the phone is answered or the way the Receptionists
greets the customer or the way a complaint is handled and what remedial action is
taken etc. etc. Customer's expectations are always high and before you advertise for a
particular service in the hospitality service it is necessary to find out whether all the
other components will back up the service on offer.
The components will consist of staff and tangible and intangible services. Eventually
whatever the product or the service may be, what matters is how the product and
service is being delivered. The staff members play a very important part of the
delivery of this service and their behaviour and attitude is sometimes able to cover up
other shortcomings. To provide the quality service then we need to break the product
into small components.
We need to first understand what the product itself is. For example, if the product is
the Front Office, then what are the expectations of a guest from the Front Office?
Front Office is the place which is the first focal point of a customer when a customer
walks in. How is that handled? Is it courteously with a smile or in a haphazard way?
This is where the service quality is going to make the difference as this will be the
product that will back the main product. If it is a telephonic reservation the courtesy
and warmth should be felt as the guest cannot see your smile. If the reservation is
made by a fax or letter the duration for the response will then become the service that
backs the product. Will the response be within 24 hours or will it take days to reply as
there is sufficient time for the arrival? What would impress a guest? If the first contact
is not prepared to serve beyond the standard accepted you would find the guests
assuming that everything else on offer may be on line with the same quality of service.
Service on offer should be offered with all the trimmings as present day customers
have much to choose from. Service offered should be provided with the staff being
prepared to go that extra mile. Making customers happy is the motto of the Hospitality
service. It is a service that requires to be done with a smile. People of all walks of life, 131
will at some stage or the other be able to enjoy being served by someone or the other. and Responsibilities
Whether greeting a customer at the Reception or serving a drink at the bar, the service
has to be provided in a way that the customer is felt special as the slightest
dissatisfaction from any quarter may warrant a complaint and may have consequences
for the hotel and the staff concerned. This may lead to the customer not wanting to
visit again. Service personnel should be those who are willing to serve without
expecting reward. Reward may come in different ways but if the expectations of the
staff are appreciation, then they are bound to be disappointed. It is better to be
prepared for this. If the customer is happy, then he or she becomes the best
advertisement to the organization.
Hospitality service is to serve others to make them feel special.
7.9.1 Hospitality Accommodation Services

Employees look after the needs of guests on arrival and during their stay in a hotel or
motel. Services may include:
z Receive reservations for accommodation from clients
z Take guests' details as they arrive and allocate them a room
z Liaise with transport carriers to make travel arrangements for guests
z Promote products and services to customers
z Deal with conflict situations
z Coach others in job skills
z Communicate on the telephone
z Provide room service
z Provide valet service
z Provide tourist information to guests
and
Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Catering_%26_Hospitality_Services.jpg
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Fill in the blanks:
1. Transfer passengers of all ………… and a large number of international
flights can undergo all related formalities under the same roof.
2. ………… can be classified into various categories because of the wide
range of room types and amenities.
3. The word ………… derives from the Latin hospes.
4. Hospitality service is to serve others to make them …………
7.10 INFORMATION DISSEMINATION

Information dissemination is a proactive information service designed to educate and
inform focused groups of users on social, economic and educational issues, problems,
and opportunities of interest to them. It requires systematic planning, collection,
organization, and storage of information for its delivery to the target audience using
different media and communication means.
7.10.1 Importance of Information Dissemination

It is a fact that survival and self-development are the major issues central to several
adults in many communities. The need to raise their socio-economic status is thus
necessary and urgent. This requires empowering adults, the under-privileged and
economically weaker sections of society with technical skills and education.
However, organizing programs meant mainly for raising awareness, education, and
training are information and communication dependent. Information dissemination as
such constitutes an important and critical factor for the success of adult education and
learning programs.
Box 7.1: Aim of Information Dissemination Oriented Programs
Source: http://www.unesco.org/education/aladin/paldin/pdf/course02/unit_05.pdf
More often than not, organizers perceive information dissemination to be a one-way

form of communication, circulating information and advice mainly through mass
media in a cost-effective and timely manner. In some cases, the media are posters and
pamphlets, while in some others reliance is exclusively on text-based print medium.
However, two-way form of communication is relatively more relevant and effective
for organizing awareness programs and activities in adult education.
7.10.2 Problem-centred Nature of Adult Learning 133
Essentially, adult learning is more of a problem-centred rather than content centred and Responsibilities
activity. In content-centred learning, the emphasis is on refining knowledge that

already exists, upgrading existing level of skills, and nurturing and shaping innate
potential and talent of individuals and groups in a society. In problem-centred
learning, the emphasis is on applying information/knowledge as well as skills for
finding solutions to the problems and issues confronting the adult community.
7.10.3 Special Nature of Information Dissemination for Adult Community

In the context of this lesson we have used the phrase ‘adult community’ to refer to the
groups of adult people, who have something in common such as low level of literacy
with a higher level of knowledge and skills, yet poor living standards and poor
economic conditions.
Special features of disseminating information to adult community are as follows:
z Information dissemination programs, organized mainly for adult community, need
not be always one way such as through mass media alone.
z For vitality and impact, adult educators need to organize information
dissemination activities in classroom mode and structure them around face-to-face
interactions. One of their aims could be to offer services such as counselling,
referral, practical help, advice, advocacy, community education, etc.
z Counselling may be on livelihood issues such as employment, occupation,
marketing, and new sources of revenue.
z Practical help may mean aids such as facilitating and liaison with different
government agencies to address day-to-day problems.
z The scope of information dissemination could as well expand to training and
educational programs to improve employment potential of adult-learners.
z The two-way form of communication needs to dominate information
dissemination activity, with focus on contents relevant to problems of the adult
community.
z It is essential that communication with adult community takes place in the
language that they understand.
7.11 LET US SUM UP

After completing this lesson, the learner would come to understand the airport services
like catering, escorting, security, inter-terminus services, medical services,
accommodation and hospitality. The importance of information dissemination and the
role that such a proactive service can play in addressing the social, economic and
educational issues and problems of interest to adult community.
The Accommodation Service can help you make the right choices and assist you in
finding the accommodation you want. On the other hand, hospitality services are
important to understand what service means in the hospitality industry as it varies
from industry to industry. To have a better understanding of the service one needs to
find out what kind of service a customer would expect.
7.12 LESSON END ACTIVITIES

1. What do you think is the biggest challenge faced by your local airport?
134 2. Identify the issues and problems of unemployed, literate adults in farmer
Ancillary Services
community and the types of information content, media, and language you would
plan for their socio-economic development.
7.13 KEYWORDS
Air Rage: Air rage is term used to depict a situation where passengers become violent
towards crew members or passengers.
Aircraft: A flying machine holding in the air using the interaction with air, if it does
not involve the interaction of air with land or water surfaces.
Airline Meal: An airline meal or in-flight meal is a meal served to passengers on
board a commercial airliner.
Airplane: An airplane is a powered fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by
thrust from a jet engine or propeller.
Airport Operations: Airport operations refer to the ground facilities required for air
travel, including runways and navigation aids.
Alliance: Alliance is a connection based on kinship, marriage, or common interest; a
bond or tie.
Aviation: Aviation is the design, development, production, operation, and use of
aircraft, especially heavier-than-air aircraft.
Awareness: Awareness is the state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of
events, objects, or sensory patterns.
Brand: Brand is the name, term, design, symbol, or any other feature that identifies
one seller's good or service as distinct from those of other sellers.
Business Travel: Business travel is the practice of people travelling for purposes
related to their work.
Customer: A customer (sometimes known as a client, buyer, or purchaser) is the
recipient of a good, service, product, or idea, obtained from a seller, vendor, or
supplier for a monetary or other valuable consideration.
Customer Charter: This is ‘any formal writing in evidence of a grant, contract, or
other transactions, conferring or confirming titles, rights, or privileges, or the like.’ It
outlines what the company promise to deliver to the customer.
Customer Expectations: These have been defined as “….. Attitudes held by
customers towards a company. They relate to the product, to the service given, and the
professionalism of the customer contact.”
Security escort: An escort where an assessment of risk determines what specific
precautions and control mechanisms are required to ensure continued safe custody of
the inmate.

1. What are the major classifications of accommodations available in India?
2. What are the some major national or international hotel chains operating in India
and Japan? Do any hotel chains operate in both India and Japan?
3. What do you understand by escorting? What is the difference between escorting
and security?
4. Discuss the medical services of Indian airports.
CYP 1
1. True
2. True
3. True
4. True
CYP 2
1. domestic flights
2. Accommodations
3. hospitality
4. feel special

Jaroslav J. Hajek, Jim W.H., Hein D.K., (2011), Common Airport Pavement
Maintenance Practices. Transportation Research Board.
Manuel A. (2007), Safety Management Systems for Airports: Guidebook.
Transportation Research Board.
Antonín. K. and Robert, E.C., (2007), Airport Design and Operation. Emerald Group
Publishing.
Knippenberger, Ute, (2010), Airports in Cities and Regions: Research and Practise;
1st International Colloquium on Airports and Spatial Development, Karlsruhe. KIT
Scientific Publishing.
136
8
AIR CARGO OPERATIONS AND MANAGEMENT
CONTENTS
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Airport – An Overview
8.2.1 Airside Areas
8.2.2 Terminal Building
8.2.3 Hangar
8.2.4 Visual Approach Slope Indicator System (VASIS) and Precision Approach
Path Indicator (PAPI)
8.2.5 Aeronautical Ground Lighting (AGL)
8.3 Airport Ownership and Operation
8.3.1 Ownership and Management
8.4 Airport Management
8.5 Airlines Management
8.6 Let us Sum up
8.8 Keywords

z Understand the concept of airport
z Describe the airside areas
z Discuss the airport ownership and operation
z Explore the airport management
z Appreciate the term ‘airlines management’
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Whether privately owned or part of a public system, there are fundamental
characteristics of the administrative and organizational structure of an airport. The
number of people employed at a given airport can range from as few as one, at the
smallest of general aviation facilities, to as many as 50,000 at the world’s largest 137
Air Cargo Operations
airport authorities. Those airports that employ fewer numbers of people expect these and Management
people to accept a wider range of responsibilities. For example, an airport
management employee at a small airport might be responsible for maintaining the
airfield, managing finances, and maintaining good relations with the local public. At
the larger airports, employees are typically given very specific responsibilities for a
particular segment of airport management.
8.2 AIRPORT – AN OVERVIEW

Airport is a wide term, used in a broad manner. Normally, what a passenger feels that
the airport consists of only the terminal building where he purchases his air ticket,
boards and disembarks the plane. In fact the terminal building is just one part of the
airport, and in totality it includes a lot many other features, some of them extremely
important, such as runways, taxiways, apron, air traffic control, apron (With Parking
Stands), Hangar, Radio Navigational aids, Communication facilities, etc.
Normally the airport is divided into two basic parts, 'city side' and 'air side'. 'City side'
is what a travelling passenger is well familiar with and includes airport terminal
building, ticket counters, airline and other offices, waiting halls, security lounges,
customs, immigration, outside car park, cargo building, outside roads, etc. The 'air
side' consists of the areas of the airport used mainly for aircraft operation purposes
like runways, taxiways, apron, radio navigational aids, landing aids etc.
Figure 8.1: Airport Layout

In addition, Airport support elements include air traffic control tower, Aircraft Rescue
and Fire Fighting (ARFF) facilities, airport administration facilities, fuel storage, city
maintenance facilities, medical centre, catering and utility systems, etc.
8.2.1 Airside Areas

To start with we can discuss these items one by one in brief.
Runways
Runway (RWY) is a defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome used for landing
and take-off of aircraft. Runways on an established aerodrome may be a man-made
138 surface (often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both), and for small aerodromes it
Ancillary Services
could also be a natural surface (grass, dirt, or gravel).
Orientation and Dimensions of Runways
The runways are named according to their Magnetic Bearings (the direction it is
"pointing towards") with reference to North rounded to nearest 100. The runway
number is the whole number nearest one-tenth the magnetic azimuth of the centre line
of the runway, measured clockwise from the magnetic north. As two 'ends of the
runway' point out in two different directions (Each separated by 1800), thus each
runway has two names separated by 1800. For example, the Runways at Delhi (IGI
Airport) are 11/29, 10/28 & 09/27 and Runways at Mumbai are 09/27 & 14/32.
Figure 8.2: View of a Runway

Each digit of runway name is pronounced separately for clarity in radio
communications. Thus, Runway Three Six would be aligned in roughly a 360 degrees
direction (i.e. magnetic north), Runway Nine would be used for a runway with a 94
degree-alignment (i.e. close to magnetic east), and Runway One Seven for 168
degrees. Thus, Runway One Zero (100°) becomes Runway Two Eight (280°) when
used in the opposite direction and Runway One Eight (180°) becomes Runway Three
Six (360°). For runways less than 100° include the leading "zero", e.g. Runway Zero
Two or Runway Zero One Left.
If there is more than one runway pointing in the same direction (parallel runways),
each runway is identified by appending Left, Centre and Right to the Runway number.
For example, at Kolkata Airport, the Runways One Nine Left (19L), Zero One Right
(01R), and One Nine Right (19R). Runway Zero One Left (01L). From left to right –
A pair of parallel runways 35L/17R & 35R/17L.
For aircraft it is advantageous to perform take-offs and landings into the wind to
reduce take off roll and reduce the ground speed needed to attain flying speed. Larger
airports usually may have more than one runway in different directions, so that one
can be selected that is most nearly aligned with the wind. Airports with one runway 139
are often constructed to be aligned with the prevailing wind. and Management
Runway dimensions vary from as small as 800 ft. (244 m) long and 25 ft. (8 m) wide
in smaller general aviation airports, to 18,000 ft. (5,486 m) long and 250 ft. (76 m)
wide at large international airports built to accommodate large passenger jets. In India
major passenger airports are having runways with length 4500 ft. to less than 13000 ft.
Runway dimensions can be measured in feet or in meters depending on your location
in the world.
Types of Runways
Runways can be further categorized into the following types:
1. Non-instrument Runway: A runway intended for the operation of aircraft using
visual approach procedures.
2. Instrument Runway: One of the following types of runways intended for the
operation of aircraft using instrument approach procedures:
(a) Non-precision approach runway: An instrument runway served by visual aids
and a non-visual aid providing at least directional guidance adequate for a
straight-in approach.
(b) Precision approach runway, category I: An instrument runway served by ILS
and/or MLS and visual aids intended for operations with a decision height not
lower than 60 m (200 ft.) and either a visibility not less than 800 m or a
runway visual range not less than 550 m.
(c) Precision approach runway, category II: An instrument runway served by
ILS and/or MLS and visual aids intended for operations with a decision height
lower than 60 m (200 ft.) but not lower than 30 m (100 ft.) and a runway
visual range not less than 350 m.
(d) Precision approach runway, category III: An instrument runway served by
ILS and/or MLS to and along the surface of the runway and:
(i) intended for operations with a decision height lower than 30 m (100 ft.),
or no decision height and a runway visual range not less than 200 m.
(ii) intended for operations with a decision height lower than 15 m (50 ft.), or
no decision height and a runway visual range less than 200 m but not less
than 50 m.
(iii) intended for operations with no decision height and no runway visual
range limitations.
Declared Distances of Runways
Let us discuss the declared distances of runways:
Take-off Run Available (TORA): The length of runway declared available and
suitable for the ground run of an airplane taking off.
Take-off Distance Available (TODA): The length of the take-off run available plus
the length of the clearway, where provided (the clearway length allowed must lie
within the aerodrome or airport boundary).
Accelerate Stop Distance Available (ASDA): The length of the take-off run available
plus the length of the stopway, where provided.
Landing Distance Available (LDA): The length of runway which is declared available
and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane landing.
140 Threshold of a Runway
Ancillary Services
Threshold of a runway can be discussed in the following manner:
(a) The Runway Strip is the cleared, grassy area around the paved runway. It is kept
free from any obstacles that might impede flight or ground roll of aircraft,
although the grass is not always necessarily in good condition. The grass is often
marked with white cones or gables.
(b) The Runway is the entire paved surface, which typically features threshold
markings, numbers, centre lines, and overrun areas at both ends.
(c) Stopways (depicted in Figure 8.3) also known as overrun areas are also
constructed at the end of runways as emergency space to slowly stop planes that
overrun the runway on a landing gone wrong, or to slowly stop a plane on an
aborted take-off or a take-off gone wrong. Stopways are often not as strong as the
main paved surface of the runway and are marked with yellow chevrons. Planes
are not allowed to taxi, take-off or land on stopways, except in an emergency.
Figure 8.3: Stopway

(d) Threshold: The beginning of that portion of the runway usable for landing.
(e) Displaced threshold means that a threshold not located at the extremity of a
runway. Displaced threshold is the point at the end of the runway. In major
airports, it is usually marked with white paint arrows that lead up to the displaced
threshold (see Figure 8.4). Smaller runways may not have markings to indicate the
displaced threshold.
Figure 8.4: Threshold and Displaced Threshold

A displaced threshold may be used for taxiing and take off but not for landing,
because obstacles just before the runway, runway strength, or noise restrictions may
make the area unsuitable for landings.
Runway Markings and Lightings
The centre line is shown with white broken lines. The runway markings are shown in
Figure 8.5.
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Figure 8.5: Runway Markings
Taxiway
A taxiway is a path on an airport connecting runways with ramps, hangars, terminals
and other facilities. They mostly have hard surface such as asphalt or concrete,
although smaller airports sometimes use gravel or grass. At most airports, taxiways
are designated by letters such as Taxiway 'A', Taxiway 'C', Taxiway ' B-4', etc. Busy
airports typically construct high-speed or rapid-exit taxiways in order to allow aircraft
to leave the runway at higher speeds. This allows the aircraft to vacate the runway
quicker, permitting another to land in a shorter space of time.
Taxiway markings are shown by yellow continuous lines.
1. Double yellow lines mark the boundary between areas under jurisdiction of ATC
and the parking areas.
2. A single solid yellow line marks the taxiway centre line.
3. Two parallel dashed yellow lines followed by two parallel solid yellow lines
indicate a hold line. A hold line marks the intersection of a taxiway and a runway.
Taxi-holding position lines are marked across the width of a taxiway. These
markings should not be crossed to enter into the runway until a clearance is
received from the tower.
Rotating Beacons
Pilots identify airports at night by looking for rotating beacons. Civil airport beacons
flash alternating white and green lights. Military airports flash two white lights
followed by a green light. Seaplane landing areas and lighted heliports use different
sequences. If the rotating beacon is turned on during the day, it usually indicates that
IFR conditions prevail, but this isn't always the case.
Apron
The airport apron is a defined area, on a land aerodrome, intended to accommodate
aircraft for purposes of loading or unloading and boarding of passengers, mail or
cargo, fuelling, parking or maintenance. The use of the apron may be controlled by the
apron control service.
142 The apron is designated by the ICAO as not being part of the manoeuvring area, but a
Ancillary Services
part of the movement area. All vehicles, aircraft and people using the apron are
referred to as apron traffic. In fact, the pre-flight activities are done in Ramps; and
areas for parking and maintenance are called aprons. However, normally the words
"Apron" and "Ramp" are used interchangeably. Passenger gates are the main feature
of a terminal ramp. 'Aircraft stand' is a designated area on an apron intended to be
used for parking an aircraft. It is also known as "Parking Bay" or "Gate". Aircraft
stands are named as "Stand Nos" 1, 2, 3, ...,31,..,45, etc.
Apron Floodlighting
Apron floodlighting is provided on an apron, on a de-icing/anti-icing facility and on a
designated isolated aircraft parking position intended to be used at night. Apron
floodlights should be located so as to provide adequate illumination on all apron
service areas, with a minimum of glare to pilots of aircraft in flight and on the ground,
aerodrome and apron controllers, and personnel on the apron. The arrangement and
aiming of floodlights should be such that an aircraft stand receives light from two or
more directions to minimize shadows.
8.2.2 Terminal Building

An airport terminal is a building at an airport where passengers transfer between
ground transportation and the facilities that allow them to board and disembark from
aircraft.
Within the terminal building, passengers purchase tickets, transfer their luggage, and
go through security. Smaller airports have one terminal while larger airports may have
several terminals. Some larger airports have one terminal that is connected to multiple
concourses via walkways, aerobridges (Also called skybridges), or underground
tunnels, etc.
Most airport terminals are built in a plain style. However, some, such as Baghdad
International Airport, are monumental in stature, while others are considered
architectural masterpieces, such as Terminal 1 at Charles de Gaulle airport near Paris
or Terminal 5 at New York's JFK Airport. A few are designed to reflect the culture of
a particular area. For example, in India, Jodhpur Airport terminal looks like a
Rajashthani Fort, while the terminal at Dimapur (Nagaland Airport) looks like a Naga
House.
Airport Terminal Designs

Mostly airport terminals open directly onto the tarmac and passengers are able to
proceed to the aircraft either by walking or by taking a bus to their aircraft. However,
on some large airports, aircraft may be parked to remote aprons or on remotely located
bays, where Passengers can be taken by a surface transport. Now modern airports have
many "Aerobridges" to join directly into the aircraft.
Control Tower
A control tower, or more specifically an Air Traffic Control tower (ATC Tower), is
the name of the air traffic control unit responsible for movements around an airport,
and is also the name of the building from which the unit operates.
Airport Control tower is generally a high rise structure above other buildings at an
airport to give air traffic controllers a view of aircraft moving on the ground and in the
air around the airport. Control tower structures usually have glass (Or transparent)
windows to give an all-round view.
143
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Figure 8.6: Control Tower

Control Towers typically contain the following:
z Radios for communication with aircraft, linked to controllers' headsets or to
microphones and speakers;
z A telephone system that connects dedicated voice lines and public telephone lines
via quick-dial systems to controllers' headsets, allowing them to talk to other
controllers and outside parties;
z A strip board allowing Flight Progress Strips to be used (however in some towers
these have been replaced by a computerised system);
z A 'very pistol' for exhibiting light signals to the aircraft in the event of a radio
communication failure;
z Wind and pressure gauges;
z Various other optional equipment.
In addition modern control towers may also include the following:
z An Aerodrome Traffic Monitor with a small radar display.
z A Surface Movement Radar displaying aircraft and vehicles on the airport to assist
controllers at night and in poor visibility.
z Computerised meteorological information or a met observer, flight data and
briefing systems.
8.2.3 Hangar
A hangar is an enclosed tall and massive structure designed to hold aircraft in
protective storage, for the purpose of maintenance, repair, overhaul, inspection,
storage and other purposes.
Figure 8.7: Maintenance of DC-10 Aircraft inside Hanger

144 8.2.8 Visual Approach Slope Indicator System (VASIS) and Precision
Ancillary Services
Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)
VASIS and PAPI have been discussed below:
Visual Approach Slope Indicator System (VASIS)

This is an airport lighting facility which provides visual gliding guidance to aircraft
during approach and landing, by radiating a pattern of high intensity red and white
focused light beams which indicate to the pilot that he/she is above, on, or below the
glide path.
These lights may be visible from up to eight kilometres during the day and up to
32 kilometres or more at night. Figure 8.8 depicts an airport layout that shows various
aerodrome facilities.
Figure 8.8: Airport Layout Showing Various Aerodrome Facilities
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)

PAPI uses the same basic principle as a VASI, but the white and red lights are
arranged in a single row. It is a light system positioned beside the runway that consists
of two, three, or four boxes of lights that provide a visual indication to the pilot on the
glide path for the associated runway. These lights radiate a high intensity red or white
beam to indicate whether the pilot is above or below the required approach path to the
runway.
The PAPI is usually located on the left side of the runway and has an effective visual
range of 5 NM (8 km) during the day and 20 NM (32 km) at night similar to VASIS.
Each light box of lights of PAPI is equipped with an optical apparatus that splits light
output into two segments, red and white. Depending on the angle of approach, the
lights will appear either red or white to the pilot. Ideally the total of lights will change
from white to half red, moving in succession from right to left side. The pilot will
have reached the normal glide path (usually around 3 degrees) when there is an even
split in red and white lights. If an aircraft is beneath the glide path, red lights will
outnumber white; if an aircraft is above the glide path, more white lights are visible.
Nowadays mostly PAPIs are used in place of VASIS.
8.2.5 Aeronautical Ground Lighting (AGL)

‘Aeronautical Ground Lighting (AGL)’ is the generic term used to describe the
various lighting systems that are provided on an aerodrome for the guidance of pilots
operating aircraft both at night and in low visibility conditions.
Runway Markings 145
Runways centre line markings are white stripes with broken lines. and Management
They come in three basic types:

1. A visual runway, which is used only for VFR flights, usually has a threshold
marking, a runway number, and stripes designating the centre line and the runway
edges. It may also have fixed – distance markers – two large, white rectangles on
either side of the centre line about 1,000 ft. (305 m) from the threshold.
2. An Instrument Runway (non-precision approach) supports both VFR and IFR
traffic. As indicated by its name, this type of runway is served by a non-precision
instrument approach, usually a VOR or NDB approach. In addition to the
markings used on a visual runway, a non-precision runway also has threshold
markings.
3. An Instrument Runway (precision approach) supports a precision approach,
usually an ILS. Precision runways have all the marks found on a non-precision
runway, plus touchdown zone markings. These marks appear at 500-ft (150 m)
increments, beginning 500 ft. from the threshold. These additional marks help
pilots make the transition from instrument to visual flight and define the proper
touchdown point for an aircraft flying an ILS.
Runway and Taxiway Lights

Runway thresholds are marked by green lights at the landing end and red lights at the
departure end. White lights define runway edges. At a runway served by a precision
instrument approach such as an Instrument Landing System (ILS), the white edge
lights alternate with red lights starting 1,000 ft. from the end of the runway and then
change to all red for the last 500 ft. Figure 8.9 depicts the runway and taxiway lights.
Figure 8.9: Runway and Taxiway Lights

146 All runways used for night use have Edge, Threshold and End Lighting. Centre line
Ancillary Services
and Touchdown Zone Lighting is provided as additional guidance in support of low
visibility operations.
Runway Edge Lighting

Runway Edge Lighting is located along the edges of the area declared for use as the
runway delineated by edge markings, and may be provided either by elevated or by
flush fitting lamp fixtures. At some aerodromes where elevated runway edge lights are
employed, the light fixtures may be located on the grass shoulder just beyond the
declared runway width.
Runway Edge Lighting is white except in the following instances:
(a) Caution Zone Lighting: On ILS equipped runways without centre line lighting;
Yellow edge lighting is installed on the upwind 600 m or one third of the lighted
runway length available, whichever is the less. The Yellow 'caution zone' so
formed gives a visual warning of the approaching runway end.
(b) Pre-threshold Lighting: Where a landing threshold is displaced, but the pre-
threshold area is available for the take-off run, the lights between the beginning of
the runway pavement and the displaced threshold show red from the approach.
Pilots taking off in such a situation would see red edge lights up to the green
threshold then edge lights beyond. Where a starter extension, narrower than its
associated runway is provided, blue edge lighting is normally used to mark the
edges.
(c) Runway Exit Lighting: One or two omnidirectional blue lights may replace or
supplement the edge lights in order to indicate an exit taxiway.
(d) Stopway Lighting: Where stopway is provided at the end of a runway, the
declared stopway is delineated by red edge and end lighting showing only in the
direction of landing. A stopway is provided for emergency use only and is not
normally suitable for routine use.
Taxiway Lights
Taxiway lights are depicted in Figure 8.10. Taxiway edge lights are blue in colour.
However, centre line taxiway way lights are green in colour.
Figure 8.10: Taxiway Lights – Blue (Edge Lights) and Green (Centre Line)
Approach Lighting Systems 147
Runways served by instrument approach procedures usually have approach lights to and Management
help pilots identify the runway environment during low-visibility conditions.
Approach lights greatly increase a pilot's chances of seeing the runway and making a
safe landing. Varieties of approach lighting systems based on the centre line and cross
bar concept, are in use at aerodromes. These systems range from the simple low
intensity centre line and cross bar intended to serve visual runways at night only, to
the precision approach lights consisting of centre line and 5 cross bars for day and
night use on ILS equipped runways.
Simple approach lighting systems (depicted in Figure 8.11) normally commence 500
m prior to the runway threshold whilst the precision approach commences 900 m prior
to runway threshold. Where, because of the geography of the approach, it is not
possible to install a full system, a shortened system is employed and the Runway
Visual Range (RVR) minima associated with the instrument approach procedure
adjusted accordingly. Except where supplemented by red side barrettes as described
below, approach lighting is white in colour.
Figure 8.11: Approach Lighting Systems
Types of Approach Lights

Following Approach Lighting Systems (ALSs) are used.
1. Green threshold lights mark the beginning of the runway.
2. A long line of lead-in lights aligned with the runway centreline. The lead-in lights
extend from the end of the runway into the approach area.
3. Alignment bars perpendicular to the lead-in lights that help the pilot quickly
determine if the airplane is properly aligned with the runway.
Ancillary Services
1. All runways used for day use have Edge, Threshold and End Lighting.
2. An Instrument Runway (non-precision approach) supports both VFR and
IFR traffic.
3. PAPI uses the same basic principle as a VASI, but the white and red lights
are arranged in a single row.
4. Military airports flash one white light followed by a green light.
5. Civil airport beacons flash alternating white and green lights.
8.3 AIRPORT OWNERSHIP AND OPERATION

Most of the world’s airports are owned by local, regional, or national government
bodies who then lease the airport to private corporations who oversee the airport’s
operation. For example, BAA Limited (BAA) operates seven of the commercial
airports in the United Kingdom, as well as several other airports outside of the UK.
Germany’s Frankfurt Airport is managed by the quasi-private firm Fraport. While in
India GMR Group operates, through joint ventures, Indira Gandhi International
Airport and Rajiv Gandhi International Airport. Bengaluru International Airport and
Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport are controlled by GVK Group. The rest of
India’s airports are managed by the Airports Authority of India.
8.3.1 Ownership and Management

The Constitution of India refers to civil aviation as a subject in the Central List and is
therefore within the legislative competence of Parliament. The Aircraft Rules, 1937
permit airports other than Government airports to be owned by citizens of India or
companies or corporations registered and having their principal place of business in
India. Thus the legislative framework for privatization of airports already exists. In
fact, some airports are already owned by State Governments, private companies and
even individuals.
What is needed now, in view of the worldwide thrust towards corporatization and
privatization of airports, is a strategy that permits utmost latitude in the patterns of
ownership and management of airports in the country. Thus, airports may be owned
by the Central Government, PSUs, State Governments, Urban local bodies, private
companies and individuals, as also by joint ventures involving one or more of the
above. Similarly, it would be best to keep all the options open in respect of the
management of airports or parts of airports. These could be on Build-Own-Transfer
(BOT), Build-Own-Lease-Transfer (BOLT), Build-Own-Operate (BOO), Lease-
Develop-Operate (LDO), Joint Venture, Management Contract or Wraparound
Addition basis. In each individual case, the exact pattern could be negotiated,
depending on the circumstances.
In the case of high-cost projects involving international hubs, Government may seek
international or bilateral cooperation with countries having the requisite expertise and
financial strength. The actual implementation of the projects would be entrusted to
consortia interested in turnkey execution on a joint venture basis.
Foreign equity participation in such ventures may be permitted up to 74% with
automatic approvals, and up to 100% with special permission. Such participation
could also be by foreign airport authorities. It may be clarified that the normal
procedures of licensing of airports by the DGCA would continue to apply in
accordance with the laid down regulations.
149
8.4 AIRPORT MANAGEMENT Air Cargo Operations
and Management
An airport is an inter-modal transfer facility between ground and air transportation.
One of the most vital functions of an airport is to provide the processing facilities for
passengers, baggage and freight, servicing facility for aircraft and entry and exit for
the clearance of international aircraft, passenger, baggage and freight. The basic
airport infrastructure consists of runways, taxiways, apron, gates, passenger and
freight terminals and ground transport interchanges. An airport combines a wide range
of facilities and services in order to satisfy all the reasonable requirements of air
transport operations.
Definition
Airport is a terminal facility that functions as an interface between air and surface
vehicles. It is a processing centre providing the necessary facilities for ticketing,
documentation and control of passengers and cargo (Ashford N. Martin – Stanton, H.P
and Moore CA, 1984).
United Nations (UN) body for civil aviation, (International Civil Aviation
Organization, ICAO) defines an a airport as an area on land or water (including any
building, installations and equipment) intended to be used either wholly or in part for
the arrival, departure of air and surface aircraft' (Airport Economic Manual, 1991).
Airport means a landing and taking off area for aircrafts, usually with runways and
aircraft maintenance and passenger facilities and includes 'aerodrome' as defined in
clause (2) of the Aircraft Act, 1934.
Airport and its Economic Features

The main economic feature of an airport is a multi-product nature of activity. It is a
system which serves a wide range of needs related to the movement of people and
goods worldwide. It depends on four elements, viz., passengers and goods, its
physical, social and economic environment, acts as a productive and business
generator unit and the agents which operate in it – mainly airlines and franchise of
commercial services (Prof Ofelia Betancor & Prof Robert Rendeiro, 2001). Airport
industry is undergoing a transformation globally from being a poorly managed public
utility to a highly commercialized centre. The goal of airport administration from the
prospective of the city is generally economic development or at the least aggregate
passenger utility maximization.
Airport Functions
Airport functional activities can be classified into three different groups, viz.
1. Essential operational services and facilities,
2. Ground Handling Services, and
3. Commercial Services
In other words, these functions can be classified as Aeronautical and
Non-aeronautical services.
Table 8.1: Classification of Airport Functional Activities
Aeronautical Services Non-aeronautical Services
Operational Activities Ground Handling Services Commercial Services
Air Traffic Control Aircraft Cleaning Duty Free Shops
Metrological Services Provision of Power & Fuel Other Retailing Shops
Contd…
150 Telecommunications Luggage & Freight Loading Restaurants & Bars
Ancillary Services & Unloading
Police & Security Processing of Freight Leisure Services/Hotel Accommodations
Passengers/Baggage &
Fire, Ambulance & First Banks
Aid Services
Runways, Aprons & Car Rental and Parking/Conference &
Taxiways Communications Facilities
The above airport functional activities are managed by various managements to cater
to the needs of airport users (Passenger, Airlines, Exporters, Importers, Visitors,
Concessionaires and other agencies operating in the airport). The major airport
functions are as follows:
Airport Management Function
Airside Management
Terminal Management
Cargo Management
Communication Technical Management Navigational
Safety & Security

Management
Airport Information
Technology Management
Figure 8.12: Major Functions of an Airport

Air Side Management: Air Side Management overviews the functions of Runway,
Apron and Taxiway, Gate Management, Vehicular discipline and Allocation of Bays
for aircraft in the terminal.
Terminal Management: Terminal Management overviews the functions of terminal
facilities (Flight Information System, Closed Circuit TV, Airport House Keeping, City
Side Management, Trolley Retrieval, Signage Posting, Lost and Found, Protocol with
airlines, concessionaires and other regulatory non-regulatory agencies for smooth
functioning of the terminal).
Cargo Management: Cargo Management looks after the processing of Export and
Import and Transshipment goods at the cargo terminal. Further, it also overviews the
fast clearance of goods.
Technical Management: Technical Management overviews the Air Traffic Services
(Communication and Air Navigational Facilities) to track aircraft for safety landing at
airport.
Safety and Security Management: Safety Management function under the country's 151
Civil Aviation Authority. It oversees the stringent regulations in aircraft operations, and Management
Licensing of Personnel, Airworthiness of Aircraft, Licensing of Aerodromes,
Certification of Indigenous Aircraft, Inquiry of Accidents and Drafting of Aviation
regulations time to time. Security Management is under the Bureau of Civil Aviation
Security (Issuing of PIC), State Police and other agencies such as anti-terrorist
commando squads in order to provide safety and security to the airport users.
Airport Information Technology Management: Airport IT management co-ordinates
for the development of automated system in facilitation of traffic, passenger
processing and security.
The importance of automation can contribute to the optimal use of airport capacity and
enhanced levels of airport and airline service to passengers.

Fill in the blanks:
1. Technical Management overviews the ……………… to track aircraft for
safety landing at airport.
2. Safety Management function under the country's ……………. Authority.
3. Airport is a terminal facility that functions as an interface ……………….
air and surface vehicles.
4. An ………………. is an inter-modal transfer facility between ground and
air transportation.
8.5 AIRLINES MANAGEMENT

The scale and scope of Airline Companies array from a single airplane carrying mail
or cargo, through full-service international airlines operating many hundreds of
airplanes of various types. Airline services can be classified into intercontinental,
regional or domestic and may be operated as scheduled services or charters. These
variations in the types of airline companies, their operating scope, and the routes they
serve, makes analysis of the airline industry somewhat complex. Nevertheless, some
patterns have emerged in the last 50 years of experience.
The general model of ownership has gone from government owned or supported to
independent, for-profit public companies. This occurs as regulators permit greater
freedom, in steps, which are usually decades apart. This pattern has not been
completed for all airlines in all regions.
The demand for air travel services is derived demand. That is, it depends on other
things: business needs for cargo shipments, business passenger demand, and leisure
passenger demand, all are influenced by macroeconomic activity. These patterns are
highly seasonal, and even directionally variable.
The industry is cyclical. Four or five years of poor performance are followed by five
or six years of gradually improving good performance. But profitability in the good
years is generally low, in the range of 2-3% net profit after interest and tax. It is in this
time that airlines begin paying for new generations of airplanes and other service
upgrades they are ordered to respond to the increased demand.
Since 1980, the industry as a whole has not even earned back the cost of capital during
the best of times. Conversely, in bad times losses can be dramatically worse.
Notwithstanding these demand patterns, the overall trend of demand has been
consistently increasing.
152 In the 1950's and 1960's, annual growth rates of 15% or more were common. Annual
Ancillary Services
growth of 5-6% persisted through the 1980's and 1990's. Growth rates are not
consistent in all regions, but certainly areas where deregulation provided more
competition and greater pricing freedom resulted in lower fares and sometimes-
dramatic spurts in traffic growth. The U.S., Australia, Japan, Brazil, Mexico, and other
markets exhibited this trend.
As in many mature industries, consolidation is a trend, as airlines form new business
combinations, ranging from loose, limited bilateral partnerships to long-term, multi-
faceted alliances of groups of companies, to equity arrangements between companies,
to actual mergers or takeovers. Since governments often restrict ownership and merger
between companies in different countries, we see most consolidation taking place
within a country. In the U.S., over 200 airlines have been merged, been taken over, or
simply gone out of business since deregulation began in 1978. Many international
airline managers are actively lobbying their governments to permit greater
consolidation, in order to achieve higher economies of scale and greater efficiencies.
Aircraft provides the only transportation network across the globe and it is important
for the global business development and tourism enhancement. Air transportation is
one of the important services which offer both significant social and economic
benefits. By serving the tourism and trade, it contributes to economic growth. It also
provides jobs and increases tax revenues. Air transportation is necessary for the fast
movement of people and cargo shipments around the world. Last but not least, Air
transportation improves the living quality of people by expanding their leisure time
and cultural experiences. It gives a wide choice of holiday destination around the
world and is also an affordable means to visit remote friends and relatives (ATAG
2005).
The use of commercial aviation has grown extensively over the last few decades,
expected to be more than seventy-fold since the first jet airliner flew in 1949 (ATAG
2005). This rapid growth is accredited to a number of factors, these are as follows:
1. Rising disposable revenue and quality of life in various parts of the world have
encouraged no. of people in these areas to travel and search opportunities
overseas.
2. The deregulation of aviation rules and bilateral and open-sky agreements among
governments have opened new markets for airlines, which make travel easier and
cheaper.
3. The demand is rising due to growing confidence in aviation as a safe mode of
travel.
4. The increased efficiency and competition have reduced the world airfares and the
cost of travel.
5. The globalization has increased the average distance travelled, as people do
business in those countries which have improved their political and social
environments.
The impact of these above factors is likely to continue at different levels in different
part of the world. The number of air-travellers and air-cargo is expected to grow
continuously, increasing the pressure on all the contributors to the air transportation
service to take the benefit from the opportunities and efficiently manage their service.
A major competitor in the air transportation industry is the “airline”. The current
records show that there are more than 900 commercial airlines around the world, with
a total fleet of almost 22,000 aircraft (ICAO 2006). Commercial airlines serve almost
1,670 airports throughout a route network of several million kilometres. These airlines
transport about to 2 billion passengers yearly and 40 per cent of Inter-regional exports 153
of goods (i.e., by value). Also, an estimated of 2.1 million people are employed by and Management
airline or handling agents: like, as flight crew, check-in staff and maintenance crew
(ICAO 2006).
The airline services are categorized as intercontinental, continental, regional, or
domestic, and may be operate as scheduled services or charters. In terms of the size,
airlines differ from those with a single airplane carrying mail or cargo, through full-
service international airlines operating many hundreds of airplanes. In various parts of
the world, the airlines are government-owned or government-supported. In recent
decades, the trend has been to move toward independent, commercial public
companies by giving more freedom to non-government ownership of airlines.
The ever-increasing number of commercial airline companies has put more demands
on their management to constantly seek profits, reduce cost, and increase revenues.
Increasing demand for air transportation service has constrained airline management
to take benefit of the opportunities in different markets. At the similar time, the
increased competition among airlines necessitates that airline management seek
effectiveness in all the decisions to promote their profit. It is no shock that many
airlines throughout aviation history have been incapable to remain in business, and in
number of cases, it is agreed that the downfall of these airlines has been attributable to
poor management.
The practice of airline management has evolved extensively over the past three
decades. The expansion of this practice has contributed to recent advances in the
communication technologies and, more notably, the need to decrease costs and
increase revenues. Now-a-days, airlines seek to perform efficiently in a competitive
environment that only provides the marginal profits. The airline business is
characterized as one of the most complex business, involving multiple conflicting
decisions that all need to be optimized at the same time. Several strategies have been
developed and used for improved plan and manage airlines. These strategies rely on
scientific approaches which are available in operations research and mathematics
literature to optimize airlines’ decision-making processes, and are generally modelled
within computerized systems that can automate decision making. Therefore, these
scientifically-based plans promise an easier decision-making practice for the airlines.
The requirement for these tactics becomes more vital as the size of the airline
increases, and making the decisions based on individuals’ opinion or experience
becomes more difficult.
Case Study: Commercialization, Privatization and Economic

Oversight of Airports and Air Navigation Services Providers
The Government of India passed the International Airport Authority Act in
1971, which created the International Airports Authority of India, in charge of
planning, managing, and developing India’s four international airports.
Another authority, the National Airport Authority was created in 1986 to take
over the management of India’s domestic airports, and develop and operate
them on corporate principles.
The aviation sector has rapidly grown over the past years in India, putting new
development constrains on the country’s old and congested airports. In
addition, there was a need for better coordination between the actions and
policies of the two airport authorities. The National Airports Authority and the
International Airports Authority of India were merged in 1995 under the
single Airports Authority of India (AAI), in charge of building, managing and
developing Indian civil aviation infrastructure, managing Indian airspace, and
providing en route navigation facilities to aircraft flying in Indian airspace.
Contd…
154 A Domestic Wing was constituted to manage domestic airports, while an
Ancillary Services
International Wing has assumed the responsibility of the five international
airports (Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai, Kolkata, and Thiruvananthapuram). The
Government of India also allowed the private sector to set up air cargo
complexes in 1996 and invited domestic and foreign investors to participate in
the development of airport infrastructure at some selected airport sites.
The air navigation services are also provided by the Airports Authority of
India, which operates five flight information regions (Delhi, Mumbai,
Chennai, Kolkata, and Guwahati).
Commercialization/Privatization: Airports
The international airport of Kochi was the first to be built in a public-private
partnership (PPP) and owned by a public limited company created by the
State Government of Kerala in 1994. The Government of Kerala currently
owns about one third of the share of the company, while several local,
national (such as Air India) and international business groups own a
significant share of the airport operator. Following this initiative, the
Government of India passed a legislative amendment in 2003 allowing the
private sector to enter the field of airport development: 100 per cent foreign
direct investment was permitted for greenfield airports.
In 2006, the ownership and the management of Mumbai and Delhi airports
were transferred to Mumbai International Airport Limited (MIAL) and New
Delhi International Airport Private Limited (DIAL). Subsequently, two
consortia led by India’s infrastructure holding company GMR were granted
30-year concessions to operate each airport under a PPP. In both cases, the
GMR-led consortium holds 74 per cent of the airport operators share while
AAI retains the remaining 24 per cent. In addition, MIAL and DIAL are
requested to pay AAI, in consideration for the grant of concession, an annual
fee of respectively 38.7 per cent and 45 per cent of their revenues. With
respect to greenfield airports, Hyderabad International Airport Limited
(GHIAL) was established with the participation of the Government of Andhra
Pradesh (13 per cent), AAI (13 per cent), GMR (63 per cent) and Malaysia
Airports Holdings Berhad (MAHB, 11 per cent). It was granted a 30-year
concession and it is requested to pay to the Government of India an annual fee
amounting to 4 per cent in consideration for the grant of concession
Bengaluru Airport Limited (BIAL) was established with the participation of
Karnataka State Industrial Investment and Development Corporation Limited
(13 per cent), AAI (13 per cent), Siemens Project Ventures GmbH (40 per
cent), Flughafen Zurich AG (17 per cent) and Larsen & Toubro Limited (17
per cent). It was granted a 30-year concession and it is requested to pay to the
Government of India an annual fee amounting to 4 per cent in consideration
for the grant of concession. While six other airports were granted approval to
be constructed and financed in PPP, all other airports are fully owned and
operated by AAI.
Commercialization/Privatization: ANSP
The provision of air navigation services was not corporatized, privatized or
commercialized. The AAI and other government agencies continue to hold
under their responsibility the control functions on security issues, air
navigation services, aeronautical regulation and services of communications,
meteorology, search and rescue and, in general, the technical aspects of air
navigation services. At the airport level, airport operators employ and
supervise airport personnel and subcontractors, but they are not responsible
Contd…
for the maintenance and operation of air traffic operations or landing systems, 155
which are handled by the AAI and government agencies. and Management
Nevertheless, the issue of separating the provision of air navigation services
from the provision of airport services has been pending for a long-time. It was
first proposed in 1976, and the Naresh Chandra Committee, which was
appointed in 2002 to examine various corporate issues, recommended to the
Ministry of Finance and Company Affairs to set up a separate entity in charge
of air navigation services. AAI and the Government of India are currently
giving full consideration to a new report released in May 2012, which
suggests hiving off air navigation services from airport operation.
Economic Oversight: Airports
The Naresh Chandra Committee also examined the economic oversight of
airports. In its report to the Ministry of Finance and Company Affairs, the
Committee pointed airports specifically, suggesting to separate completely the
economic oversight functions, for example through the creation of a new state
agency. It also suggested revising airport charges in order to bring them in
line with international practices and standards.
A few years later, the Parliament of India passed the Airports Economic
Regulatory Authority of India Act, which created the Airports Economic
Regulatory Authority (AERA) in 2008. The main function of the AERA is to
regulate airports handling (or designed to handle) more the 1.5 million
passengers per year (concerned airports are: Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai,
Bangaluru, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Kochi, Ahmedabad, Goa,
Thiruvananthapuram, Pune and Calicut), and to monitor their performance
standards.
The AERA is thus in charge of establishing user charges with application of
the single-till principle, for a five-year period, by taking into account the
following elements: the capital expenditure incurred and timely investment in
improvement of airport facilities; the service provided and its quality and
other relevant factors; the cost for improving efficiency; economic and viable
operation of major airports; revenue received from services other than
aeronautical services; the concession offered by the Central Government in
any agreement or memorandum of understanding or otherwise; and any other
relevant factors. On 24 April 2012, AERA approved a 345 per cent increase in
charges at Delhi Airport (DIAL requested a 774 per cent hike). On 16 January
2013, it approved a 154 per cent increase in charges at Mumbai Airport
(MIAL requested an 872 per cent hike).
It should nevertheless be noted that the single-till principle has been
challenged in the Appellate Tribunal by airport operators and a decision is still
pending. Furthermore, the AERA order approving the increase in charges at
Delhi and Mumbai airports have also been challenged by their users. It will be
up to the Airport Economic Regulatory Authority Appellate Tribunal
(AERAAT) to settle the dispute.
Other AAI airports are regulated by the Ministry of Civil Aviation, and
operate under the single-till. AAI has the obligation to keep operating non-
economically viable airports that are necessary for socio-economic purposes:
to a certain extent, non-profitable airports are cross subsidized by the
profitable ones. At present, AAI is levying airport charges which are different
for international, domestic and civil enclaves; however, charges are uniform
for all airports within the same group. After an 8-year gap, the Ministry of
Contd…
156 Civil Aviation allowed an upward revision of 10 per cent in aeronautical
Ancillary Services
charges in the year 2009.
Economic Oversight: ANSP
AAI continue to regulate and set air navigation services charges under a cost-
plus fair rate of return based regulation.
Question
Source: http://www.icao.int/sustainability/CaseStudies/India.pdf
8.6 LET US SUM UP

Each airport in the India is unique in its organizational and administrative structure. In
addition, each airport is uniquely subject to rules, regulations, and policies applicable
to the airport’s operational characteristics and the ownership structure. Conversely,
each airport is subject to fundamental operations mandated by the AAI
Administration, the Transportation Security Administration, and state Departments of
Transportation, and functions under basic organizational structures that allow for the
safe and efficient movement of aircraft, passengers, and cargo in and around the
airport. An airport consists of a terminal building, runway, taxiways, apron, air traffic
control, hangar, radio navigational aids, etc. An airport is an inter-modal transfer
facility between ground and air transportation. One of the most vital functions of an
airport is to provide the processing facilities for passengers, baggage and freight,
servicing facility for aircraft and entry and exit for the clearance of international
aircraft, passenger, baggage and freight.

Prepare a research paper on airport operations of Indian Aviation industry.
8.8 KEYWORDS
Airport: A tract of levelled land where aircraft can take off and land, usually equipped
with hard-surfaced landing strips, a control tower, hangars, aircraft maintenance and
refuelling facilities, and accommodations for passengers and cargo.
Runway: A strip of hard ground along which aircraft take off and land.
Taxiway: A route along which an aircraft can taxi when moving to or from a runway.
Apron: It is usually the area where aircraft are parked, unloaded or loaded, refuelled
or boarded.

1. What is the difference between a port authority and an airport authority form of
airport ownership and operation?
2. What do understand by the term runway and taxiway? What is the difference
between these two?
3. Who typically owns airports in the India?
4. Who typically owns airports in countries other than the India?
5. Define airport management. Differentiate between airport management and
airlines management.
6. What is meant by airport unit terminal?
and Management
CYP 1
1. False
2. True
3. True
4. False
5. True
CYP 2
1. Air Traffic Service
2. Civil Aviation
3. Between
4. airport

Jaroslav, J. Hajek, Jim W. H., Hein, D.K., (2011), Common Airport Pavement
Manuel, A. (2007), Safety Management Systems for Airports: Guidebook.
Antonín, K. and Robert. E.C., (2007), Airport Design and Operation. Emerald Group
Publishing.
Knippenberger, Ute (2010), Airports in Cities and Regions: Research and Practise;
159
Airport Security
and Control
UNIT V
160
Ancillary Services
LESSON 161
Airport Security
and Control
9
AIRPORT SECURITY AND CONTROL
CONTENTS
9.1 Introduction
9.2 History of Airport Security
9.3 Planning and Design Considerations
9.3.1 General
9.3.2 Facility Protection
9.3.3 Planning Facility Protection
9.4 Annex 17: SARP (Standard and Recommended Practices)
9.5 Access Points
9.6 Access Control
9.6.1 Physical Access Control
9.6.2 Physical Access Control System Components
9.6.3 Alarm Monitoring Mechanism
9.7 Other Security Measures
9.8 Let us Sum up
9.10 Keywords

z Discuss the airport security
z Describe the planning and design considerations of airport
z Explore the annex 17 of SARPs
z Identify the access point and alarm monitoring mechanisms
9.1 INTRODUCTION
One of the most significant issues facing airports in the early twenty-first century is
that of airport security. Most users of commercial service airports are subjected to
security infrastructure, policies, and procedures within the airport terminal area.
Airport security is not limited to the terminal area, however. Airport security concerns
162 all areas and all users of the airport. Airport security procedures are designed to deter,
Ancillary Services
prevent, and respond to criminal acts that may affect the safety and security of the
travelling public.
Airport security planning and design can sometimes seem a bit confusing; there are
many fundamentally different elements to be considered, all of which must be
integrated to work smoothly together as the threat continues to change and the
airport’s physical, electronic and regulatory security environment must constantly
adjust. There are currently very few new airports and relatively few new terminals
being built. The majority of changing security requirements will be accomplished in
existing facilities that are often 15-20-25 years old and not designed to accommodate
today’s security measures and technologies. This lesson is intended to bring an airport
wide focus to the various planning and design considerations, access control and alarm
monitoring mechanism. Proper planning and designing can also result in reduced
manpower requirements and consequential reductions in airport and aircraft operator
overhead expenses.
9.2 HISTORY OF AIRPORT SECURITY

In the earliest days of civil aviation, when the greatest concerns were simply the safety
of flight, there was little concern over airport security or aviation security in general.
Aviation security first became an issue in 1930, when Peruvian revolutionaries seized
a Pan American mail plane with the aim of dropping propaganda leaflets over Lima.
Between 1930 and 1958, a total of 23 hijackings were reported, mostly committed by
eastern Europeans seeking political asylum. The world's first fatal aircraft hijacking
took place in July 1947 when three Romanians killed an aircrew member. The first
major act of criminal violence against a U.S. air carrier occurred on November 1,
1955, when a civilian by the name of Jack Graham placed a bomb in luggage
belonging to his mother. The bomb exploded in flight, killing all 33 people on board.
Graham had hoped to cash in on his mother's life insurance policy, but instead was
found guilty of sabotaging an aircraft and sentenced to death. A second such act
occurred in January 1960, when a heavily insured suicide bomber killed all aboard a
National Airlines aircraft. As a result of these two incidents, demands for luggage
inspection at airports serving air carrier aircraft surfaced.
With the rise of Fidel Castro in Cuba in 1959 came a significant increase in the
number of aircraft hijackings, at first by those wishing to escape from Cuba, then by
those hijacking U.S. aircraft to Cuba. In May 1961 the federal government began
using armed guards on select air carrier aircraft to prevent hijackings. In August 1969,
Arab terrorists carried out the first hijacking of a U.S. aircraft flying outside the
Western Hemisphere when they diverted an Israel-bound TWA aircraft to Syria.
Another incident that October involved a U.S. Marine who sent a TWA plane on a
17-hour circuitous journey to Rome. This was the first time that FBI agents attempted
to thwart a hijacking in progress and that shots were fired by the hijacker of a U.S.
plane. In March 1970, a copilot was killed and the pilot and hijacker seriously hurt
during a hijacking. The first passenger death in a U.S. hijacking occurred in June
1971. Following the hijacking of eight airliners to Cuba in January 1969, the Federal
Aviation Administration created the Task Force on the Deterrence of Air Piracy. The
task force developed a hijacker "profile" that could be used along with metal detectors
(magnetometers) in screening passengers. In October, Eastern Air Lines began using
the system, and four more airlines followed in 1970. Although the system seemed
effective, a hijacking by Arab terrorists in September 1970, during which four
airliners were blown up, convinced the White House that stronger steps were needed.
On September 11, 1970, President Richard Nixon announced a comprehensive
anti-hijacking program that included a federal air marshal program.
Between 1968 and 1972, hijacking of U.S. and international aircraft was at its peak. 163
Airport Security
During the 5-year period, the U.S. Department of Transportation recorded 364 and Control
hijackings worldwide.
As a result, security issues had become a significant concern for the travelling public,
and created the need for congressional action. On March 18, 1972, the first airport
security regulations were made effective, later formalized within the FAA as Federal
Aviation Regulations Part 107-Airport Security, in 1978. Under this regulation, airport
operators were required to prepare and submit to the FAA a security program, in
writing, containing the following elements:
z A listing of each Air Operations Area (AOA), that is, those areas used or intended
to be used for landing, takeoff, or surface manoeuvring of aircraft.
z Identification of those areas with little or no protection against unauthorized
access because of a lack of adequate fencing, gates, doors with locking means, or
vehicular pedestrian controls.
z A plan to upgrade the security of air operations with a time schedule for each
improvement project.
9.3 PLANNING AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

9.3.1 General
General planning, design, construction, and operational requirements of a commercial
airport are established and overseen by the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration)
under airport certification requirements identified in Code of Federal Regulations.
Ensuring the inclusion of security systems, methods, and procedures within this
construction and operational process is the responsibility of TSA (Transportation
Security Administration).
The Federal Security Director (FSD) is the designated TSA official that approves the
required Airport Security Program (ASP) document, which identifies how the airport
will meet security requirements mentioned in regulations. The FSD and local FAA
Airports Division officials are directly involved with the airport operator and should
be consulted during all phases of any project.
FAA regulations also require airport operators to integrate a Safety Management
System process into their overall oversight of safety. This requires airports to establish
hazard reporting systems, a risk assessment process, and a risk mitigation and
assurance process with the participation of airport management. Significant changes in
airport facilities or procedures and overall security concerns could be impacted.
Planning for security should be an integral part of any design project undertaken at an
airport. The most efficient and cost-effective method of instituting security measures
in any facility or operation is through advance planning and continuous monitoring
throughout the project. Selecting, constructing, or modifying a facility without
considering the security implications for the protection of the general public, the
facility, passengers, and airport and air carrier personnel can result in costly
modifications and delays.
Approaches to physical security should be based on applicable Federal, State, and
local laws, regulations, and policies to ensure the protection of all persons and assets
(including information systems and data). At a minimum, a physical security approach
should include:
1. A vulnerability assessment, including a check of regulatory compliance to
evaluate the existing security at an operational airport or a comprehensive security
plan evaluating the potential vulnerabilities at a new facility or site;
164 2. A Concept of Operations (CoO) that considers the physical and operational needs
Ancillary Services
of all users and outlines the proposed approaches to planning, design, and
integration to meet those requirements. The CoO, properly developed, is the pre-
cursor to all that follows, setting the stage for the coordination and integration of
all new or upgraded safety and security systems and functionalities.
3. Periodic inspections to ascertain whether a security program and its
implementation meet pertinent Federal, State, and local standards or regulations;
4. A comprehensive and continuing security and threat awareness and education
effort to gain the interest, support and participation of employees, contractors,
consultants, and visitors; and
5. Implementation of procedures for taking immediate, positive, and orderly action
to safeguard life and assets during an emergency.
Once a project has been identified, the airport’s planning and design team may
consider consulting experts in the field of civil aviation security. Such expertise is
available from several sources, including TSA, professional associations, and private
consultants. The team should coordinate with the appropriate Federal, State, and local
security personnel. Coordination should continue through the contracting process,
actual construction, installation, and training. Appropriate personnel should be
provided with all pertinent information, including timelines, status reports, and points
of contact.
To ensure a systematic approach to acquiring and analyzing the information necessary
to support decision-makers in the protection of assets and the allocation of security
resources, all security specialists should refer to the applicable Federal, State, and
local requirements and standards referenced in this guide.
Finally, aviation security risk assessment is composed of the results of threat analysis,
vulnerability assessments, the assets to be protected, and the resulting consequences.
Airport security should reflect the risk status and financial resources of each specific
airport. More than 90 percent of the air carrier airports in the United States are small
or medium hub airports which may have limited funding and have to plan their
security projects with an eye toward simplicity and manageable cost as they strive for
effectiveness.
9.3.2 Facility Protection

The airport operator has a responsibility to provide a safe and secure operating
environment and infrastructure. The extent of facility protection should be examined
by the local Airport Security Committee, considering the results of a comprehensive
security prospectus of the new facility or vulnerability assessment of the existing
facility. High priority should be placed on protection of the aircraft from the unlawful
introduction of weapons, explosives, or dangerous substances.
Perimeter protection (fences, gates, patrol) is the first line of defense in providing
physical security for personnel, property, and information at a facility. Some more
advanced technologies can reach outside the fence to identify approaching threats, or
may be used in an environment where there is no fence or physical barrier, such as a
water boundary or swamp.
The second line of defense, and perhaps the most important, is interior controls (e.g.,
access control, checkpoints). The monetary value and criticality of the items and areas
to be protected, the perceived threat, the vulnerability of the facility, and the cost of
the controls necessary to reduce that vulnerability will determine the extent of interior
controls.
9.3.3 Planning Facility Protection 165
Airport Security
The objective of facility protection planning is to ensure both the integrity and and Control
continuity of operations, and the security of assets.

1. General Security Areas and Boundaries: Several elements or components of
airport operations should be considered when planning for the protection of an
airport facility. Figure 9.1 is a general depiction of the different areas at a typical
commercial airport, such as a terminal, aircraft apron, runways or taxiways, and
many other components that are more comprehensively shown on an FAA-
approved Airport Layout Plan (ALP). The ALP is one of the first documents
suggested for review that will show the airport property and the facilities at a
particular airport.
(a) To establish security areas and boundaries, any area designated as requiring
control for security and/or safety purposes must have identifiable boundaries
for that area to be recognized and managed. In some cases, boundaries must
meet a regulatory requirement to prevent or deter access to an area. In many
instances, however, boundaries may not be hard physical barriers, such as
fences or walls; they might instead be painted lines, lines marked and
monitored by electronic signals, grass or pavement edges, natural boundaries
such as water or tree lines, or simply geographic coordinates.
(b) Security Areas Basic Requirements (Table 9.1) provides general comparative
descriptions and regulatory requirements (including training, criminal history
records checks (CHRC), and ID display) for the three basic airport security
areas: Secured Area, Security Identification Display Area (SIDA), and Air
Operations Area (AOA).
Source: http://www.tsa.gov/sites/default/files/assets/pdf/airport_security_design_guidelines.pdf
Figure 9.1: Security Areas General Depiction
2. Vulnerability Assessment: A vulnerability assessment can be an excellent tool to
assist in determining the extent to which a facility may require security
enhancements, and serves to bring security considerations into the mix early in the
design process rather than as a more expensive retrofit. Many tools and
methodologies are available; all are subjective to varying degrees, largely because
in every case, one must first have a firm grasp of both short and long term threat
166 in order to ask the necessary first three questions: what is the threat?; what is an
Ancillary Services
airport’s level of vulnerability relative to that threat?; and to what extent will the
threat/vulnerability change? The planning and design team’s response to these
questions will be a recommendation of a combination of security measures, both
physical and procedural, seeking strong security and ease of movement for both
passengers and employees.
3. Protection Criteria: The Airport Security Committee may offer recommendations
on the level of normal protective service, and may consider the following:
(a) Known threat(s) specific to the airport and/or to the airlines serving it
(b) History of criminal or disruptive incidents in the area surrounding the facility,
but not primarily directed toward airport operations
(c) Domestic and international threats and the general integrity of the
transportation system
(d) Facility location, size, and configuration
(e) Extent of exterior lighting
(f) Presence of physical barriers;
(g) Presence of Access Control and Alarm Monitoring Systems (ACAMS),
Closed-Circuit Television (CCTV) systems, and other electronic monitoring
systems
(h) Presence and capabilities of on-site staff and/or security patrols
(i) Other locally determined pertinent factors, such as General Aviation (GA),
commercial operations, and intermodal transportation facilities.
Table 9.1: Security Areas—Basic Requirements and Descriptions
4. Physical Protection: Airport and aircraft operators provide protection through a 167
Airport Security
combination of mobile patrol or fixed posts staffed by police, other security and Control
officers, or contract uniformed personnel; security systems and devices; lockable
building entrances and gates; and cooperation of local law enforcement agencies.
The degree of normal and special protection is determined by completion of a
vulnerability assessment and crime prevention assessment.
5. Crime Prevention: The local police department may collect and compile
information about criminal activity on or against property under the control of the
airport, provide crime prevention information programs to occupant and Federal
agencies upon request, and conduct crime prevention assessments in cooperation
with appropriate law enforcement agencies.

1. A vulnerability assessment can be an excellent tool to assist in
determining the extent to which a facility may require security
enhancements.
2. The objective of facility protection planning is to ensure both the integrity
and continuity of operations, and the security of assets.
3. Planning for security should be an integral part of any design project
undertaken at an airport.
4. Perimeter protection is the first line of defense in providing physical
security for personnel, property, and information at a facility.
9.4 ANNEX 17: SARP (STANDARD AND RECOMMENDED

PRACTICES)
We are enclosing Annexure 17: Standard and Recommended Practices after lesson 10.
For more information please go through the link.
9.5 ACCESS POINTS

Typically there are numerous intended access points through fencing or other barriers
for both vehicles and pedestrians. Access points through buildings or walls are usually
doors; guard stations or electronic means or controls may be also used. In all cases, the
access point type and design may determine the effectiveness of the security boundary
and control in that area. Hence, in all cases, the number of access points should be
minimized and their use and conditions closely monitored.
1. Gates: While the number of access points should be kept to a minimum, adequate
pedestrian and vehicle access points must be allocated to support routine
operations, maintenance operations, and emergency access.
Routine Operations: Routine operational gates at an airport are typically those
used by operations personnel; police patrols and response teams; catering; fuel
and belly cargo vehicles and tugs; scheduled delivery vehicles; and ground
service equipment and maintenance vehicles.
Most airport gates used for routine operations are generally high-throughput
and should be designed for high-activity and long-life. These gates will take
the most wear and tear and should be designed to minimize delays to users,
particularly where piggybacking may be a concern. SIDA, secured area, AOA,
168 and other security boundary gates that are high-throughput are the most likely
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candidates for automation and electronic access control.
Maintenance Operations: Maintenance gates at an airport are those used by
the airport, tenants, and FAA personnel to perform regular and periodic
maintenance to remote grounds or equipment. Typical maintenance tasks
include mowing, utility service, and navigational and communications
equipment maintenance.
These gates, unless high-throughput or jointly used for routine operations, are
usually non-automated, and non-electronic.
Emergency Operations: Emergency operations gates are used by on-airport
and mutual aid emergency response vehicles responding to emergency
situations, especially those involving an aircraft, but may also be used for
regular operations.
Airport emergency operations gate controls may be controlled from an emergency
operations center, or from the ARFF response vehicles themselves.
The capability for emergency response vehicles to crash through frangible mounts
at emergency operations gates should be considered during the gate design, as
should alarms on those gates. Consider special paint markings to identify the
frangible fence or gate sections to approaching response vehicles. However, the
decision to provide such frangible mounts and associated paint markings should
be carefully evaluated against the findings of the risk assessment or vulnerability
assessment prepared for the airport. While such crash gates and markings would
help first responders during emergency situations, there is always the possibility
that perpetrators could also utilize these gates to gain unauthorized access to the
facility.
Gates should be constructed and installed to the same or greater standard of
security as any adjacent fencing to maintain the integrity of the area.
All gates should be equipped to be securely closed and locked, where enhanced
security conditions require it. Swing gate hinges should be of the non-liftoff type
or provided with additional welding to prevent the gates from being removed.
Motor operator/controllers on gates should be located on the secure side of the
gate. Battery/UPS backup power for the gate operator motor and for gate security
devices (card readers, CCTV, buried induction loops, intercom, area security
illumination/lighting) to allow 2-hour gate open-close operation is essential to
continuing vehicle traffic circulation during a power failure. In a sally-port gate,
both the sally-port and vehicle gate would be similarly equipped with UPS.
Security provided by gates can be improved, where cantilever (slide) and/or
rolling gates are used, consideration should be made during planning and design
to accommodate curb heights, wheel paths, potential obstructions, local
weather/wind phenomena, and drainage issues throughout the full path of the gate
and adjacent areas. Proper drainage grading, planned gaps in curbs, installation of
concrete channels or mow strips below the gate path, and use of bollards to
prevent obstructions within the gate path and protect gate equipment are all design
considerations that may prolong the efficient operation of a slide gate.
If “tailgating” entry is a concern at un-staffed vehicle access points, the first
response is usually procedural rather than design, since it is the responsibility of
the person authorized to use the gate to be certain tailgating does not occur.
However, if a fence design solution is desired, an automated two-gate system (also
known as a “sally port” or “vehicle entrapment gate”) is one method that could
help prevent tailgate entry. Such gates are separated slightly more than one
vehicle length apart and are sequenced so that the second gate does not open until 169
Airport Security
the first has fully closed. Time-delayed closures are a viable alternative; sensor and Control
arrays can be used to monitor vehicle movement and assist in detection of tailgate
entries.
“Tailgating” and “reverse tailgating” (where a vehicle enters a gate opened by an
existing vehicle) at automated gates may also be reduced by use of a security
equipment layout that provides space for waiting vehicles to stop, which obstructs,
or at least deters other vehicles from passing through. CCTV may deter breaches
at those facilities and may provide an improved response when breaches occur.
Additionally, CCTV may provide a visual record that can be used to document
breaches that become the subject of investigations.
Source: http://www.zmne.hu/tanszekek/ehc/konferencia/april2001/balogh.html
2. Doors: To prevent unauthorized access to the airside, doors leading from the
unsecured public areas of the terminal to the airside, and which are under visual
control of authorized personnel, should be limited to the operational minimum.
Nevertheless, where they are necessary, electronic devices or closely controlled
lock and key procedures may best control these doors. It may, however, be
preferable to include the use of electronic control devices, such as CCTV or card
reader/pin pads, and recent advances in biometrics, to minimize labor costs and to
be able to track personnel using specific doors to the AOA.
Unsupervised emergency exit doors providing egress from the terminal to the
airside should be avoided if possible. If such doors are necessary, they should be
equipped with audio and visual alarms. Consider mounting a police-blue lens
(to differentiate security from fire alarms), preferably located on both sides of the
door, which can be monitored from a supervised location such as an airport
security control center. Consider the possibility of CCTV cameras on both sides of
certain high risk or high traffic doors. The use of frangible devices or covers over
emergency exit activation bars deters misuse. Some codes allow for special
locking arrangements for emergency exits that provide delays of up to 45 seconds,
depending on local fire and life safety codes, as long as reasonable life safety is
assured. Building codes establish specific performance requirements for doors
with delay egress hardware. Each airport operator should work with local fire and
building code officials to determine the best systems allowable to accommodate
both emergency and security needs.
170 Passenger gates, aircraft loading bridges and other devices used for aircraft
Ancillary Services
loading must be capable of being locked or otherwise secured to prevent
unauthorized access to the airside and to parked aircraft.
3. Guard Stations: Staffed guard stations to control access into a security area are
appropriate at some locations. They provide a point of entry at which personal
identification can be established and persons and vehicles can be permitted to
enter according to local vehicle search program requirements.
(a) Devices such as turnstiles, roll gates, pop-up barriers, or a remotely operated
drop barrier gate may be used at guard stations to impede passage through the
guard station until access authority is verified. In the case of vehicle access
points, gates and barriers should provide the same or greater standard of
security as any adjacent fencing to maintain the integrity of the area.
(b) Tire shredders have also been used at vehicular access points in the past,
although they are not a preferred option to providing protection against
vehicular intrusion. While the tires on a vehicle can be shredded, there is no
guarantee that the vehicle will be brought to a stop; it is possible to continue
moving on shredded tires.
(c) Use of a sheltered checkpoint station is recommended for gates staffed by
security personnel. The shelter can be designed to permit maximum visibility
over the immediate area of the gate and to provide access for the guard to
carry out inspection of vehicles and their contents.
(d) Sufficient space should be provided to direct a person or vehicle to one side
for further inspection without blocking access for those following. Space
should also be provided to allow vehicles refused entry to turn on the non-
secure side and exit. Vehicle lanes and inspection stations should be provided
in sufficient quantity to meet the expected traffic volumes, average inspection
and processing times, and size of the largest vehicle entering the checkpoint.
Stations may employ vehicle manifest pre-clearance checkpoints and special
expedited clearance lanes for recognized deliveries. Dependable and instant
communications from these stations to a central location must be installed,
maintained, and frequently tested.
(e) It is essential to provide communications between any sheltered security
checkpoint station and the airport security services office, as well as to
provide a duress alarm by which emergency assistance may be summoned.
(f) In some applications, a vehicle access point may be remotely controlled by
use of a card reader or similar credential verification device, in conjunction
with CCTV monitoring taking place in the Security/Communications Center.
4. Electronic Access Points
(a) Automatic Gates: In cases where gates are automated and induction loops are
used on the airside of gates for free vehicle exit, ensure the loop is located so
as to minimize the possibility of objects being thrown or pushed from the
public side to activate the loop. Additional access control measures, such as
microwave, infrared or other vehicle sensors or CCTV monitoring may be
desirable in addition to loops where space is limited or additional security is
desired.
Consider means of protecting access control devices (such as card readers or
other monitors) serving exterior vehicle gates to reduce possible physical
damage from passing vehicles. Properly placed curbing, bollards, and
highway railings are useful. Consider protection of equipment from weather,
including extreme heat or cold inside equipment enclosures, which can affect 171
Airport Security
the operation of electronic and mechanical components. Heaters and/or fans and Control
are available as standard options for most access control devices, housings
and operators.
(b) Doors with Access Controls: There are numerous technologies available for
controlling access through doors, and there are numerous ways of
implementing their use at any kind of doorway – wooden doors, glass, metal,
single or double doors, roll-up doors, or indeed at electronic barriers where
there is no physical door at all. The designer should take into account any
existing “legacy” systems the airport might wish to retain and integrate with
new systems, and whether newer advances in technology might suggest a
complete or partial replacement of the old systems to provide better security
and security management.
(c) Sensor Line Gates: Sensor line gates and/or electronic gates function as
typical access controlled gates, except that a sensor line (microwave, infrared,
etc.) is used instead of a mechanical barrier.
The use of sensor line gates is typically feasible as a second, interior boundary
where delays due to the mechanical operation of a physical gate are not
practical, where space is limited, or where additional vehicle monitoring is
desired. Sensor line gates are most often used to control vehicle access into a
secured area or in cargo or maintenance areas where time is critical.
(d) Automated Portals: Automated access portals are designed for high-
throughput, performing access control in a high-speed, multi-user fashion,
with a positive means of access denial of unauthorized persons and with the
capability of preventing access if multiple or unauthorized persons attempt to
enter. Where these are employed, the delay induced by door opening/closing
is eliminated. These portals are designed to replace high-throughput doors
where piggybacking is a concern or to add additional sensing technology to
prevent explosives, drugs, or weapons from entering high-throughput areas.
Video analytics technology can monitor the direction of the intruder’s
movement, and automatically provide photographs of security violators,
and/or detain unauthorized individuals. As technology advances, the
capability and affordability of automatic portals will increase and should be
evaluated for high-throughput and/or special-use locations.
5. Vehicle Inspection Stations, Blast Protection and Road Barriers: Staffed vehicle
inspection stations and vehicle crash barriers in roadways may be necessary in
high-threat areas to control access in and around the airport terminal and other
airport facilities. Nonpermanent measures may also be necessary during elevated
threat levels or in high-risk areas. This aspect of airport design should begin with
the results of the vulnerability assessment undertaken during the planning phase.
The purpose of vehicle inspection stations is to provide a location outside of the
“blast envelope” in which to inspect vehicles that are approaching the airport
terminal on the public roadway. Vehicle inspection stations may also be necessary
at vehicle parking locations that are located within the blast envelope. Consider
the following features at vehicle inspection stations.
(a) Turnstiles, roll gates, or vehicular crash barriers should be provided that will
stop or impede gate crashing.
(b) A sheltered checkpoint station is recommended. The shelter should be
designed to permit maximum visibility over the immediate area of the station
172 and to provide easy access for the guard to carry out the duties of inspecting
Ancillary Services
vehicles and their contents.
(c) Sufficient space should be considered to direct a person or vehicle to one side
for further inspection without blocking access for those following. Dependable
and instant communications from these stations to the Security Operations
Center (SOC) or other appropriate central location should be installed,
maintained, and frequently tested. Sufficient space should be provided for
emergency vehicles and other pre-authorized vehicles to bypass the vehicle
inspection stations when necessary.
(d) A duress alarm system should be provided.
(e) Provide ample vehicle queuing distance and vehicle inspection portals to
avoid long traffic backups and delays.
9.6 ACCESS CONTROL

9.6.1 Physical Access Control
This is the part of the system which allows or denies entry to secure and/or sterile
areas of the airport on the basis of a credential issued by the credentialing process.
Such systems usually involve a computerized system of credential readers, (normally
but not always badge readers), automatic door locks, and perimeter portals located
throughout an airport by which only individuals with an airport issued or airport
approved credential embedded with appropriate permissions can pass through access
portals, and enter secure and sterile areas. However, at smaller airports, physical
access control could also be based on simple lock and key methods and/or physical
guards.
Note that this represents an entirely separate function from identification, although
access information is often carried on the same media. In the past, these two processes
were typically implemented in a single system with a standalone fingerprint unit for
collecting the ten fingerprints required for the background screening process.
However, increases in regulatory requirements have led in many cases to there being
two separate systems.
The cost and installation effort and duration for these systems and their supporting
infrastructure is significant, and much of the currently installed local control
equipment is proprietary. This effectively means that once a specific manufacturer’s
system is established at an airport, any new entry portals will need systems compatible
with that manufacturer’s equipment.
Access credentials can be of several types. Previously most airport access credentials
were simple magnetic stripe cards. Most modern systems now use various forms of
contactless card technologies, the credential being either a conventional proximity
card or a high frequency transmission smart card. Typically such access control
systems do not just accept a credential for access; they can use another “factor” to
establish authority before permitting access at a portal. Normally this is a PIN, a
concept familiar through its common use with banking ATM cards. In some limited
circumstances, compatible credentials might also be issued by an airport-approved
third party such as an airline or tenant, but typically they would be valid for use only
in very limited parts of the airport such as a carrier’s exclusive use areas.
Most airport installations do not yet use “biometrics” (e.g., fingerprints, face, hand,
iris, vein, etc.) at access control portals as an additional factor to verify the identity of
the person requesting access. However, this higher degree of security may be
warranted for some strategically significant facilities, or high risk entry portals, even if 173
Airport Security
biometrics is not currently a Federal requirement. and Control
9.6.2 Physical Access Control System Components

1. General: A physical access control system typically consists of three main
components:
(a) portal hardware;
(b) field controllers; and
(c) central servers.
Portal hardware includes card/badge readers and portal locking/unlocking
hardware mechanisms and switches. These are conventional components common
with almost any physical access control system used in many applications. Many
portal hardware devices are system manufacturer independent.
The field controllers (or field panels) are typically microprocessors and panels that
control and can manage several portals and field devices. Typically, these devices
contain a partial database of local cardholder and privilege information, and
provide a degree of stand-alone operation should any communication links to the
central server(s) be lost. These units are normally supplier specific and cannot
easily be mixed with another supplier.
The central server(s) provide the access control system primary database and is
used to perform administrative and transaction recording (logging) functions and
other central functions.
These server(s) are typically based on conventional operating system platforms
and hardware technology with supplier-specific application software.
The data bases and functionality can be duplicated or distributed if required for
redundancy purposes. The central server can also perform monitoring functions,
or can be connected to separate systems used for this purpose or integrated with
other systems such as CCTV.
Operator monitoring functions are typically performed on PCs with large display
screens, but can also be integrated within a full scale security control center.
These operator(s) monitor the status of the system, and receive and process events
and alarms.
2. Biometric Readers: Some airports have decided to utilize biometrics as an
additional method of user authentication in their physical access control systems.
This means that within the selected portal reader(s), in addition to having a
conventional badge or credential reader, a biometric sensor device and associated
software algorithms are also available to collect and compare the biometric
characteristics of the person who is using the credential with the biometrics
previously enrolled at badge or credential issuance.
The biometric technology used for physical access need not be the same
technology as that utilized for background screening purposes and may be airport
specific.
The majority of airports using biometrics have chosen to implement fingerprint
technology since fingerprint is the most mature and tested biometric with the
widest choice of vendors, competitive prices and an array of published standards.
Note that it is not necessary that all access portal readers have a biometric
capability. Biometrics could be incorporated in readers for only in those entry
portals determined to be high risk on a threat-based analysis, or might be activated
174 only during elevated risk conditions. As a result, some airports may deploy only a
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small number of biometric-enabled readers while others may deploy such readers
more widely.
The biometric matching function typically takes place in the portal reader device.
This method is known as “match-on-reader” where the previously enrolled
biometric data is read from the credential and the matching function takes place
within the reader. This approach eliminates the need to maintain a local database
of biometric templates and the time delay and cost associated with sending the
presented biometric template to a central server for matching. However, there
should be protections against unauthorized tampering with the reader device at the
entry portal such that the reader cannot be altered to always return a result
indicating a positive biometric match. Cryptographic mechanisms should be
employed to ensure the validity of the biometric that is read from the credential.
It is also possible to perform the biometric match comparison inside the logic of
the smart card integrated circuit chip itself. This approach is commonly referred to
as “match-on-card.” If the match is successful, the user-unique ID number is read
from the card and sent to the field controller panel. Cryptographic mechanisms
should also be employed to transfer trust in the biometric match result between the
credential and the reader. The field controller panel will make the decision to
grant/deny access based on authorization privileges granted to that user.
3. Personal Identity Verification (PIV) Readers: Portal reader (and hand held
portable) devices that are now commercially available are designed to function
with interoperable smart cards based on the Federal Information Processing
Standard (FIPS) 201 for Personal Identity Verification (PIV) of Federal workers
and contractors. If the decision is to utilize a PIV-type credential, with or without
a biometric, additional system and operational requirements may ensue.
4. Mobile Credential Readers: An increasing number of airports are deploying
mobile credential readers. These allow on-the-spot verification of an individual’s
airport credential, independent of the network of fixed badge and credential
readers around the airport.
This has proved to be an effective security system supplement. These readers can
electronically verify the credential and can also hold a biometric of the person to
whom each credential was issued to add a further level of verification.
Several options are possible: it could be as simple as display of a facial image stored
on a smart card for visual comparison with the person, or it could include performing
verification of a biometric taken during enrollment, which could be read off the card,
even if the fixed credential readers do not support this functionality.
9.6.3 Alarm Monitoring Mechanism

z Electronic Detection and Monitoring: In the case of boundaries, which are
monitored by electronic sensors, motion detectors, infrared sensors, cameras and
other devices, it is clear that these are intended to serve essentially the same
security functions as other detectors, but are simply employing different
technologies, usually with somewhat higher maintenance costs. They will often be
used in conjunction with other technologies such as alarms, CCTV, or other
reporting and assessment methods. Nonetheless, there are appropriate places for
such applications, especially where normal conduit and cabling might be
impractical, or where excessive trenching might be required.
z CCTV: Landside areas accessible to the public are the most difficult to control or
monitor from a security standpoint because they must remain accessible to the
traveling public and service personnel. Public areas of airports are not normally 175
Airport Security
subject to Federal airport security regulations, but during implementation of crisis and Control
contingency plans, they can be expected to be affected by special security
measures. Prudent use of surveillance technologies such as CCTV and video
analytics should be considered in monitoring areas of concern, in consultation
with airport law enforcement, the airport security coordinator, operations
personnel, and other local crime control interests. CCTV should be considered for
coverage of terminal curbside areas, parking lots/garages, public transportation
areas, loading docks, and service tunnels.
From an access control system point of view, there are three main requirements:
(i) The CCTV cameras should be located to provide as good a view as possible of
the portal, so that the full portal area can be monitored effectively. Selection of
each location and camera type depends on operational mode and local
topology (i.e., viewing on both sides or one side of a portal).
(ii) The CCTV system should be linked with the access control system such that
when an alarm or other identified event occurs, the video from the CCTV
camera(s) is automatically switched on and the video presented at the
appropriate monitoring location
(iii) The video system should not only annunciate this alarm but also record the
video clip(s) associated with each alarm and store and name these clips using
the same name as the access control event so as to facilitate later recovery of
the clip. This name should be meaningful and related to the event. The video
system should automatically switch to its highest frame rate and resolution for
this clip. The duration of this clip should be configurable per portal.
z Perimeter Intrusion Detection Systems (PIDS): Perimeter intrusion detection
systems are designed to monitor and detect vehicles and personnel crossing the
airport perimeter. These can be monitored by a separate system but most airports
have chosen to link these into a single system for convenience. Numerous
perimeter intrusion technologies are available, particularly for other facilities such
a fuel farms and cargo areas which use similar technologies.
z Duress Alarms: Duress alarms can be installed at various locations throughout an
airport. This includes checkpoints, but could also include dispatch offices,
Customs and Border Protection (CBP), and even the check-in and ticket counters.
Location and installation of these devices is airport and operational model
dependent. These devices are usually linked back into an access control system to
provide a common annunciation point for operational effectiveness and
convenience, but could also be linked back to a CCTV system.
z Checkpoint Issues: Passenger screening checkpoints present some unique
challenges for access control. These are in four areas.
(i) First is the need to secure the checkpoint and the access route via the
checkpoint when it is not in use. This requires locking doors or rollup mesh
screens. The checkpoint may be locked from one side or both depending on
the airport configuration. Such doors should be controlled and monitored by
the airport access control system.
(ii) Second, there is the growing requirement to validate credentials of Federal Air
Marshals (FAMs), Law Enforcement Officers (LEOs) and pilots who bypass
the screening position because they are carrying weapons. There is also a
growing interest in implementing a secure process for alternate access for
certain flight deck and cabin crew members in lieu of the conventional
passenger screening process. At present, there is no centralized system for
176 such credentials, but this is likely to change during the life cycle of this
Ancillary Services
document.
(iii) Third is the issue of the exit lane. At some airports this is co-located with the
checkpoint; at others it is separate. In either case, this exit lane should have
access control or some alternative form of counter flow control. At some
airports, there have been attempts to automate the detection of any counter
flows in this exit route so that staffed operations are not required. At least two
such studies are underway as this document was in preparation. Note that
where the exit lane is collocated, the current standard practice is for the TSA
to staff the location.
(iv) Finally, there is potential for an application at a passenger screening
checkpoint that in the event of a breakthrough or other breach, that the
associated concourse and other portals can be promptly secured to reduce the
impact on operations and assist in returning the concourse to normal
operations. The ability to effectively achieve this depends on the concourse’s
topology and local fire codes.
z Integration Risk Reduction: Integration among systems has proven to be one of
the most problem-prone areas of airport security from a technical point of view.
Some of these problems have been caused by an over-enthusiasm with vendor
claims for new technology and an underestimation of related implementation and
installation issues. Where possible, pre-procurement testing in the proposed
airport environment can be quite helpful in evaluating and verifying vendor
claims.

Fill in the blanks:
1. Staffed guard stations to …………….. into a security area are appropriate
at some locations.
2. The airport operator has a …………….. to provide a safe and secure
operating environment and infrastructure.
3. Planning for …………….. should be an integral part of any design project
undertaken at an airport.
4. Previously most airport access …….. were simple magnetic stripe cards.
9.7 OTHER SECURITY MEASURES

z Fence Clear Zones
(a) Security effectiveness of perimeter fencing is materially improved by the
provision of clear zones on both sides of the fence, particularly in the vicinity
of the terminal and any other critical facilities. Such clearance areas facilitate
surveillance and maintenance of fencing and deny cover to vandals,
trespassers and contraband.
(b) Within clear zones there should be no climbable objects, trees, or utility poles
abutting the fence line nor areas for stackable crates, pallets, storage
containers, or other materials. Likewise, the vehicles should be prevented from
parking along the fence. In addition, landscaping within the clear zone should
be minimized or eliminated to reduce potential hidden masking locations for
persons, objects, fence damage, and vandalism.
(c) There have been cases in which individuals have gained access to passenger
aircraft by scaling or crashing through perimeter fencing. To deter or delay
attacks, sufficient distance should be maintained between the perimeter 177
Airport Security
fencing and aircraft parking areas. and Control
Table 9.2: Vehicle Bomb Explosion Hazard and Evacuation Distance Tables
Note: Department of the Treasury, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF)
z Security Lighting: Lighting of the area on both sides of gates and selected areas
of fencing is highly recommended. Lighting can assure that fence/gate signage is
readable, and that card readers, keypads, phones, intercoms, and/or other devices
at the gate are visible and usable. Similarly, sufficient lighting is required for any
area in which a CCTV camera is intended to monitor activity. Reduced lighting or
sensor activated lighting may be considered for areas that have minimal traffic
throughput in the off-peak hours. There is extensive discussion of lighting and
camera issues in Section G of this book.
z Locks: Advanced electronic lock and key technologies should be considered as
well as the time-honored deadbolt lock, built-in door handle lock, or padlock and
metallic key to secure a portal, particularly those portals that are low-risk, low
throughput, or significantly distant from the main areas of concern or from
communications nodes to the central control station. Note that securing perimeter
access portals through the use of locks necessarily involves procedural elements
such as a key management system, and the inherent difficulties of recording usage
at numerous locations and reissuing all keys when some are lost or stolen. An
important consideration in choosing lock systems is total life-cycle cost.
z CCTV Coverage: Gates, like all other access points, should be kept to a minimum
and where physically and economically feasible, should be considered for
treatment with access control systems and CCTV monitoring. It is recognized that
certain low-traffic gates, maintenance access points and gates well removed from
the principal areas of security concern may be candidates for greater reliance.
z Signage
(a) TSA requires signage on certain security boundaries and access points. Signs
should be located such that when standing at one sign, the observer should be
able to see the next sign in both directions.
(b) The use of signage, even in some non-required locations, provides a deterrent
by calling attention to the boundary and stating the consequences of violation.
178 (c) Many locations with access control or surveillance equipment may warrant
Ancillary Services
signage for either directional or legal purposes (e.g., “Alarm will sound if
opened,” “Authorized personnel only,” “Notice: All activities in this area are
being recorded via CCTV,” etc.).
(d) While signage for security purposes should be designed to draw attention, it
should be coordinated with the airport operator for policy, content, style and
consistency. Based on local conditions, the use of multi-lingual security
signage should also be considered.
9.8 LET US SUM UP

Prioritizing airport security has resulted in rapid developments in security technology
and significantly increased security funding, and has led to addressing issues long
considered a concern by many members of the travelling public. Protecting against
unknown future threats is an imperfect science, and as such, the future of airport
security will always be an unknown entity. Concerns for the safe, secure, and efficient
travel of passengers and cargo domestically and internationally will always be a top
priority for the civil aviation system.
Planning for security should be an integral part of any design project undertaken at an
airport. The most efficient and cost-effective method of instituting security measures
in any facility or operation is through advance planning and continuous monitoring
throughout the project. Typically there are numerous intended access points through
fencing or other barriers for both vehicles and pedestrians. Access points through
buildings or walls are usually doors; guard stations or electronic means or controls
may be also used to control security. It ensures that efforts to make the system as
secure as possible will continue to be held in top priority, by all levels of government,
as well as airport management, for the foreseeable future.

Make a chart of security system and control of Indian Airport.
9.10 KEYWORDS
Air Operations Area (AOA): A portion of an airport, specified in the airport security
program, in which security measures specified in 49 CFR 1542 are carried out.
This area includes aircraft movement areas, aircraft parking areas, loading ramps,
and safety areas, for use by aircraft regulated under 49 CFR 1544 or 49 CFR 1546,
and any adjacent areas (such as general aviation areas) that are not separated by
adequate security systems, measures, or procedures. This area does not include the
secured area.
Airside: Those sections of an airport beyond the security screening stations and
restricting perimeters (fencing, walls or other boundaries) that includes runways,
taxiways, aprons, aircraft parking and staging areas and most facilities which service
and maintain aircraft.
Alarm Resolution: To resolve an alarm during any part of the checked baggage
screening process and determine whether an individual’s property possesses
prohibited items
Security Areas: Areas defined by and subject to security requirements and regulation;
e.g., AOA, ATSP Area, Exclusive Use Area, Secured Area, SIDA, Sterile Area
Security Identification Display Area [SIDA]: A portion of an airport, specified in the 179
Airport Security
airport security program, in which security measures specified in 49 CFR 1542 are and Control
carried out. This area includes the secured area and may include other areas of the
airport.
Security Directive: A document issued by TSA to notify aircraft operators and/or
airport operators of specific credible threats, and measures required for response.
Shield Alarm: An EDS alarm caused by substances too dense for X-rays to penetrate
and which EDS is unable to analyze
Sterile Area: A portion of an airport defined in the airport security program that
provides passengers access to boarding aircraft and to which the access generally is
controlled by TSA, or by an aircraft operator or a foreign air carrier, through the
screening of persons and property. Generally, that area between passenger screening
checkpoint and the aircraft boarding areas.

1. How has airport security traditionally adapted to civil aviation threats?
2. What are some of the technologies that are used to control access to sensitive
security areas at airports?
3. What do you understand by planning and design considerations security at
airports?
4. What is access control? Explain.
5. Define the standards and recommendations given by SARPs.

CYP 1
1. True
2. True
3. True
4. True
CYP 2
1. Control access
2. Responsibility
3. Security
4. Credentials

Jaroslav, J. Hajek, Jim W. Hall, David K. Hein, (2011), Common Airport Pavement
Maintenance Practices, Transportation Research Board.
Manuel, Ayres (Jr.), (2007), Safety Management Systems for Airports: Guidebook,
180 Antonín Kazda, Robert E. Caves, (2007), Airport Design and Operation, Emerald
Ancillary Services
Group Publishing.
1st International Colloquium on Airports and Spatial Development, Karlsruhe, KIT
181
LESSON Airport Safety
and Security
10
AIRPORT SAFETY AND SECURITY
CONTENTS
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Meaning of Airport Security
10.2.1 Objectives of Airport Security
10.3 Security Screening: Infrastructure and Procedure
10.3.1 Security Infrastructure
10.4 Security at Commercial Service Airports
10.5 In-flight Safety and Security – Concept
10.6 Safety Management System (SMS)
10.6.1 Safety Procedures
10.6.2 Airport Operational Safety and Security Concern
10.6.3 Regulations for Luggage and Safety Measures
10.6.4 Safety Regulation of Flight Operations
10.6.5 Implementation of Safety Oversight Programme of Flight Operations
10.7 Role of DGCA in Aviation Safety and Security
10.8 Role of BCAS in Aviation Safety and Security
10.9 Let us Sum up
10.11 Keywords

z Discuss the meaning and objectives of airport security
z Describe the security screening infrastructure and procedure
z Discuss the security at Commercial Service Airports
z Identify the in-flight safety and security
z Understand the regulations for luggage and safety measures
182 z Explain the role of DGCA/BCAS in aviation safety and security
Ancillary Services
z Know the safety regulation of flight operations
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The growth in volume of commercial scheduled flights seen in 2010 continued in
2011 at the rate of 3.5%. This increase coincides with an increase of 3.7% in the
global real Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The number of accidents grew by 4.1%
and the global accident rate for 2011 remains unchanged at approximately four
accidents per million departures.
Aviation security is another component of ensuring the safety of passengers. It rests
on a careful mix of intelligence information, procedures, technology, and security
personnel. The Commission strongly presented aviation security as a national security
priority and recommended that the federal government commit greater resources to
improving it.
10.2 MEANING OF AIRPORT SECURITY

people located in a particular location. Similarly, the high concentration of people on
large airlines, the potential high death rate with attacks on aircraft, and the ability to
use a hijacked airplane as a lethal weapon may provide an alluring target for terrorism,
whether or not they succeed due their high profile nature following the various attacks
and attempts around the globe in recent years.
Airport security attempts to prevent any threats or potentially dangerous situations
from arising or entering the country. If airport security does succeed in this, then the
chances of any dangerous situations, illegal items or threats entering into aircraft,
country or airport are greatly reduced. As such, airport security serves several
purposes: To protect the airport and country from any threatening events, to reassure
the travelling public that they are safe and to protect the country and their people.
10.2.1 Objectives of Airport Security

The objective of airport security will be to safeguard the passengers, crew, ground
personnel, the general public and the airport infrastructure against unlawful acts as per
ICAO Standards and Recommended Practices laid down in Annexure-17. The level of
security will be calibrated by the BCAS according to the threat perception at any point
of time. Security will have to be cost effective when compared to internationally
accepted norms.
New staffing patterns, different from the normal police stations, will have to be
innovated for airports. There will be greater accent on modern technology and
mechanization, so as to reduce the need for manpower and increase the effectiveness
of the force deployed.
Airport security will be looked after by specialized police agencies, state police and
airport security organizations, depending on the internal security conditions prevalent
in a particular area. BCAS will continue to coordinate the working of the various
agencies to ensure that all security norms are followed by them.
Govt. recognizes the urgent need to develop an airport security organization, in order
to have a quietly efficient, specialized, commercially conscious, passenger-friendly
force, at the international airports to begin with. Private security agencies will also be 183
Airport Safety
allowed at certain airports, if the threat assessment so permits. and Security
There will be constant training of security personnel posted at airports in order to
improve their effectiveness and passenger friendliness. The present training centre at
BCAS Headquarters will be upgraded and strengthened for this purpose.
10.3 SECURITY SCREENING: INFRASTRUCTURE AND

PROCEDURE
Airport security checks are essential for the safety of both the passengers and the
country. Documents like the passengers’ passport, ticket, visa, etc. are checked at the
boarding counter prior to the passenger boarding the aircraft. If these are found
genuine a boarding card is issued to the passenger.
The next step is the immigration check where the biographical data and the passport is
screened and details fed into the computer which automatically matches the details
with the criminal databank to see if there is any illegal doings connected with the
passenger. These completed the passenger is allowed to enter the aircraft. Thus, the
screening procedure of passengers include:
z All passengers are to keep track of their belongings as they pass through the
screening process. It is suggested that valuables such as wallets, passports,
jewellery and cameras are placed in your hand luggage before reaching the
screening point. Laptop computers must be removed from bags at the security
point and screened separately. Electronic equipment will not be damaged by X-ray
screening, however if you have concerns, please speak to a screening officer.
z At times, passengers will alarm screening equipment and further screening will be
required before being cleared for travel. If this does occur, the passenger may be
asked to undergo a physical search. If this is the case, a passenger may request this
further screening to take place in a private room.
z Passengers with special needs such as medical implants or artificial
limbs/prosthesis should advise the screening officers of the condition before
passing through the metal detectors so alternate screening can occur.
z Passengers with pace makers are not to walk through the metal detectors. Rather,
they should immediately advise screening staff of their condition and alternative
arrangements for screening will be made. Wheelchairs and walking aids will also
be subject to screening; therefore, it is advisable to notify your airline in advance
so that the appropriate services are made available for you. The screening points
are adequately established with chairs and wheelchairs to assist your passage
through the screening point.
10.3.1 Security Infrastructure

The Airport Infrastructure and Aviation Security markets continue to grow due to a
number of factors. Rebounding air traffic growth across all regions, post-9/11 security
concerns, and an expected doubling or tripling of air traffic over the next 20 years are
major contributors to this upward trend. Worldwide airport capital expenditures are
expected to have grown from $34.6 billion in 2009 to $38.5 billion in 2010 (for
upgrades and expansions, not entirely new airports). Although constrained by
regulations at multiple levels, airport authorities will need to expand capacity to keep
up with current and future demand. Moreover, evolving security needs both within the
U.S. and throughout the world will ensure long-term viability of the market for
aviation security technologies.
184
Ancillary Services 10.4 SECURITY AT COMMERCIAL SERVICE AIRPORTS
Passenger screening facilities include an automated screening process, conducted by a
magnetometer that attempts to screen for weapons potentially carried on by a
passenger that are metallic in content. As a passenger walks through a magnetometer,
the presence of metal on the passenger is detected. If a sufficient amount of metal is
detected, based on the sensitivity setting on the magnetometer, an alarm is triggered.
Passengers who trigger the magnetometer are then subject to a manual search by a
TSA screener. Manual searches range from a further check of metal on the passenger's
person with the use of a hand-held wand, to a manual pat down, to the inspection of
the passenger's shoes.
Carry-on baggage screening facilities are located at security screening stations to
examine the contents of passengers' carry-on baggage for prohibited items such as
firearms, sharp objects that may be used as weapons, or plastic or chemical-based
trace explosives. All carry-on baggage is first inspected through the use of an x-ray
machine. Bags selected because of suspicions as a result of the x-ray examination, or
selected on a random basis, are further inspected through the use of Explosive Trace
Detection (ETD) equipment and/or by manual search. In addition, personal electronic
items such as laptop computers or cellular phones are frequently inspected by being
turned on and briefly operated to check for authenticity.
Prior to September 11, 2001, passenger and carry-on baggage screening fell under the
responsibility of the commercial air carriers whose aircraft provided passenger service
at any given airport, as dictated by FAR Part 108-Aircraft Operator Security, Air
Carriers and Commercial Operators. Under this regulation, air carriers typically
subcontracted security responsibilities to private firms. Studies of these firms
conducted through 2001 revealed a work environment characterized by low, almost
minimum, wages, high turnover rates of 100 to 400 per cent annually, low levels of
training, and low performance quality, illustrated by independent audits which
illustrated the ability to bring prohibited items, such as firearms and other weapons,
through checkpoints.
Since November 2002, passenger screening at all commercial service airports has
been performed by the TSA-employed screener workforce (with the exception of five
airports, located in San Francisco, CA; Kansas City, MO; Rochester, NY; Jackson
Hole, WY; and Tupelo, MS; operating under a pilot program to evaluate new private
contracted screener workforces) under 49 CFR Part 1544. The TSA workforce is
provided higher wages than their pre-September 11 private force counterparts,
receives higher levels of training, including 44 hours of classroom and 60 hours of
on-the-job training, and by some measures, exhibits higher performance quality.
TSA passenger screening procedures have called for more scrutiny, including a wider
range of prohibited items, more thorough hand searches, removal of passenger shoes
for inspection, and identification checks.
10.5 IN-FLIGHT SAFETY AND SECURITY – CONCEPT

In order to understand safety management, it is necessary to consider what is meant by
"safety". Depending on one's perspective, the concept of aviation safety may have
different connotations, such as:
(a) Zero accidents (or serious incidents), a view widely held by the travelling public;
(b) The freedom from danger or risks, i.e. those factors which cause or are likely to
cause harm;
(c) The attitude towards unsafe acts and conditions by employees (reflecting a "safe" 185
Airport Safety
corporate culture); and Security
(d) The degree to which the inherent risks in aviation are "acceptable";
(e) The process of hazard identification and risk management; and
(f) The control of accidental loss (of persons and property, and damage to the
environment).
While the elimination of accidents (and serious incidents) would be desirable, a one
hundred per cent safety rate is an unachievable goal. Failures and errors will occur, in
spite of the best efforts to avoid them. No human activity or human-made system can
be guaranteed to be absolutely safe, i.e. free from risk. Safety is a relative notion
whereby inherent risks are acceptable in a "safe" system.
Safety can be defined as below:
“Safety is the state in which the risk of harm to persons or of property damage is
reduced to, and maintained at or below, an acceptable level through a continuing
process of hazard identification and risk management.”
1. Safety is a relative notion whereby inherent risks are acceptable in a
"safe" system.
2. All passengers are to keep track of their belongings as they pass through
the screening process.
3. Passengers will alarm screening equipment and further screening will be
required before being cleared for travel.
4. The objective of airport security will be to safeguard the passengers, crew,
ground personnel, the general public and the airport infrastructure.
10.6 SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (SMS)

No other transportation industry has a better safety record than aviation. And yet there
is still always a need to improve it further. Technology helped a lot in the recent
decades to maintain a more or less constant accident rate while passengers' numbers
went up tremendously, but now a need is felt to sharpen the management skills so as
to remain ultra-safe in the future. SMS, or Safety Management Systems, is exactly the
right tool to achieve safety in aviation. It basically is a process where operators
identify the hazards and associated safety-risks that are inherent in their individual
operation and then develop appropriate mitigation strategies. SMS has two main
purposes. The first is to reduce the safety-risks for passengers, aircraft, personnel or
property to a level as low as reasonably practical. The second is to assist managers
with their constant dilemma between production and protection: "is it a good idea to
make an offer to that customer who wants us to fly around unfamiliar mountainous
terrain in marginal weather or should we simply skip this business opportunity?" SMS
is not just about investing in the improvement of an already quite impressive safety
record. It's also about saving a lot more by managing the daily operations more safely
and more effectively using Quality Management principles. Of course there is no "off-
the-shelf" or "one-size-fits-all" system, and some fine-tuning is needed in every
organization implementing SMS.
186 10.6.1 Safety Procedures
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1. Airport and airplane security require that the Aviation Training Building be
locked during periods when the Flight Dispatch Office is closed. Although
personnel other than Department of Aviation personnel can access the Aviation
Training Building, aviation staff and aviation students must not ask other airport
personnel to open the building so as to gain access. Only department of aviation
personnel (flight instructors, faculty, and staff) are permitted to gain access to the
building after flight dispatch office hours.
2. Instructors may allow students to enter the building after hours, but only under
their supervision. no student shall remain in the building during after hours unless
under the direct supervision of an instructor, staff member, or faculty. It is the
responsibility of the last employee in the building to ensure that all doors leading
to the outside of the building are locked and secured before leaving the airport.
3. After returning from a flight lesson, it is the responsibility of the student, and the
instructor in the case of a dual lesson, to ensure that the aircraft is properly
chocked, tied down, and secured, including closing all aircraft windows.
10.6.2 Airport Operational Safety and Security Concern

Safety and security is an imperative role in all airport planning. Civil aviation
authorities must take appropriate initiative and must be vigilant to make safety a
priority. Among the most urgent safety issues are:
Preventing Runway Incursions: Improve airport geometry to reduce the risk of
incursion caused by airport design.
Design Standards: Ensuring that the airports must meet current design standards,
which continue to play a major role in enhancing safety. Civil aviation authority of a
state should take care in overseeing the Runway Safety Areas (RSAs) at all
certificated airports in the country to reduce the risk of damage causing to airplanes in
the event of an under shoot, overshoot, or excursion from the runway.
Improving Wildlife Hazard Management: The aviation losses worldwide because
bird strikes are staggering in the last 40 years. Civil aviation authority should act as a
proactive role at the national and international level in addressing bird-strikes and
other wildlife hazards, as well as assisting individual airports in developing wildlife
hazard mitigation.
10.6.3 Regulations for Luggage and Safety Measures

During the first leg of the journey passengers are advised not to buy duty free liquor
since these will get confiscated at the Brussels airport. Hence it is better to purchase
duty free items after the Brussels check in.
The security rules and regulations maintain that:
z Passengers should not agree to carry packets or baggage of unknown people.
z If carrying explosive substances or arms one should declare these at the check in
counters as concealing them is an offence.
z The hand luggage should be small and not contain dry cells or battery cells which
would be removed while checking and the airport will not be able to return them
to the passenger.
z Explosives like compressed gases, fireworks, hand guns, blank cartridges, pistol
caps, acids and alkalis or any apparatus containing mercury should not be carried
in your baggage.
z Liquids that is highly flammable such as fire or cigarette lighters, paints and 187
Airport Safety
thinners, matches, oxidizing material, radioactive material, peroxides or bleaching and Security
powders should be avoided.
z Insecticides and poisonous weed killers or live viruses are strictly prohibited.
z Valuable articles like jewels, money, precious metals should not be carried in the
baggage.
z Sprays and perfumes should be packed according to the cargo regulations and
carried in the baggage.
z Use of cell phone on board the Indian aircraft is prohibited.
z For medical use small oxygen cylinders can be carried and for passengers who
require small carbon dioxide gas cylinders to operate mechanical limbs are
allowed with prior permission.
10.6.4 Safety Regulation of Flight Operations

Various statutory/regulator documents, namely, the Aircraft ACT 1934, the Aircraft
Rules 1937, Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) India, Aeronautical
Information Circulars (AIC), Civil Aviation Requirements (CAR) etc. stipulate the
safety and operational requirements applicable to different types of operations, which
shall be complied with by the operators. In addition, implementation of the following
important safety and operational requirements shall be closely monitored by the
operators and DGCA Officers to enhance safety of operations. In accordance with
Rule 134 of the Aircraft Rules, 1937, no person shall operate any air transport service
in India without obtaining the necessary permit for operating such services. The
operating permit shall be maintained current and valid and the operations shall be
conducted within the scope and provisions of the permit. The operators shall
demonstrate, before grant of the permit, their capability to safely operate the air
transport services sought to be operated. It shall be ensured that the manpower,
infrastructure, facilities, systems and operating capability does not degrade below the
required level at any time and is enhanced continually commensurate with expansion
of operations. The operators shall clearly outline in their operations manual their
policy relating to flight operations in accordance with the provisions of ICAO Annex
6, Aircraft Rules, 1937 and the applicable CARs and shall also lay down the
procedures for implementation of the same.
10.6.5 Implementation of Safety Oversight Programme of Flight

Operations
Effective safety regulation and oversight of flight operations can be achieved only by
joint efforts on the part of the operators and the regulatory authority. It is, therefore,
essential that in addition to the safety oversight programme of DGCA, the operators
should also have their in-house monitoring programme commensurate with the type
and scale of their operations. Broadly, the safety oversight of flight operations shall be
conducted on the following lines:
The operators shall lay down their policies and procedures for compliance of the
operational, safety and training requirements in their operations manual, flight safety
manual and training manual.
The responsibility of implementation of the policies and procedures contained in these
manuals may be assigned to their officials as indicated below:
(a) Operations Manual – Chief of Flight Operations
(b) Flight Safety Manual – Chief of Flight Safety
188 (c) Training Manual – Chief of Training. The division of responsibility for this
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purpose shall be clearly reflected in the relevant manuals.
The day-to-day safety regulation and in-house monitoring of the flight operations
should be exercised by the Chief of Operations through the senior Pilots, Check Pilots,
Instructors, Examiners and operations officers. Necessary check lists should be
devised for carrying out such monitoring. There shall be a proper system of
documentation and recordkeeping of the deficiencies observed and the corrective
measures taken. In addition to the day-to-day monitoring, periodic in-house safety
audits shall be carried out by the dedicated safety audit teams of the operators to
ensure that the safety regulations are being complied with. Corrective action shall be
taken immediately by the Chief of Flight Safety on the deficiencies observed during
the audit. Relevant records and data in proper formats shall be maintained in this
regard. In order to discharge the responsibility for safety oversight in accordance with
the provisions of ICAO Annex 6, surveillance of flight operations including training
shall be carried out by the DGCA officers, viz. Flight Inspectors, safety audit teams
and other authorised officers.
10.7 ROLE OF DGCA IN AVIATION SAFETY AND

SECURITY
The responsibility of Aviation Safety for all the civil registered aircraft in the country,
including investigation of air accidents and preventive measures to be devised, issuing
safety instructions rests solely with Director General of Civil Aviation (DGCA).
Functions of DGCA
Following are the main functions of DGCA:
z Registration of civil aircraft
z Formulation of standards of airworthiness for civil aircraft registered in India and
grant of certificates of airworthiness to such aircraft
z Licensing of pilots, aircraft maintenance engineers and flight engineers, and
conducting examinations and checks for that purpose
z Licensing of air traffic controllers
z Certification of aerodromes and CNS/ATM facilities
z Maintaining a check on the proficiency of flight crew, and also of other
operational personnel such as flight dispatchers and cabin crew
z Granting of Air Operator's Certificates to Indian carriers and regulation of air
transport services operating to/from/within/over India by Indian and foreign
operators, including clearance of scheduled and non-scheduled flights of such
operators
z Conducting investigation into accidents/incidents and taking accident prevention
measures including formulation of implementation of Safety Aviation
Management Programmes
z Carrying out amendments to the Aircraft Act, the Aircraft Rules and the Civil
Aviation Requirements for complying with the amendments to ICAO Annexes,
and initiating proposals for amendment to any other Act or for passing a new Act
in order to give effect to an international Convention or amendment to an existing
Convention
z Coordination of ICAO matters with all agencies and sending replies to State 189
Airport Safety
Letters, and taking all necessary action arising out of the Universal Safety and Security
Oversight Audit Programme (USOAP) of ICAO
z Supervision of the institutes/clubs/schools engaged in flying training including
simulator training, AME training or any other training related with aviation, with a
view to ensuring a high quality of training. Granting approval to aircraft
maintenance, repair and manufacturing organizations and their continued
oversight
z To act as a nodal agency for implementing Annex 9 provisions in India and for
coordinating matters relating to facilitation at Indian airports including holding
meetings of the National Facilitation Committee
z Rendering advice to the Government on matters relating to air transport including
bilateral air services agreements, on ICAO matters and generally on all technical
matters relating to civil aviation, and to act as an overall regulatory and
developmental body for civil aviation in the country
z Coordination at national level for flexi-use of air space by civil and military air
traffic agencies and interaction with ICAO for provision of more air routes for
civil use through Indian air space
z Keeping a check on aircraft noise and engine emissions in accordance with ICAO
Annex 16 and collaborating with the environmental authorities in this matter, if
required
z Promoting indigenous design and manufacture of aircraft and aircraft components
by acting as a catalytic agent
z Approving training programmes of operators for carriage of dangerous goods,
issuing authorizations for carriage of dangerous goods, etc.
Most of the functions stated above are safety related so as to maintain and enhance
suitable level of Safety standards for Civil Aviation. Out of the above, the Aerodrome
Standards Directorate in the DGCA has been entrusted with the responsibilities of
licensing of aerodromes, Safety audits Aerodrome standards, etc. The functions of the
Air Safety Directorates are Investigation of Civil Registered aircraft accidents,
Accident to foreign registered aircraft in India, Accident to Indian registered
aircraft outside India, Investigation of Civil Registered aircraft Incidents, and
Accident/Incident Prevention work. The Airworthiness Directorate carries out the
regulatory control of airworthiness to ensure that the civil aircraft are airworthy.

Fill in the blanks:
1. The hand luggage should be small and not contain dry cells or battery
cells which would be removed while …………..
2. Safety and security is an imperative role in all airport …………..
3. SMS, or Safety Management Systems, is exactly the ………….. to
achieve safety in aviation.
4. Passengers who trigger the ………….. are then subject to a manual search
by a TSA screener.
190
Ancillary Services 10.8 ROLE OF BCAS IN AVIATION SAFETY AND
SECURITY
Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (BCAS) is the regulatory authority for civil aviation
security in India. It is headed by an officer of the rank of Director General of Police
and is designated as Commissioner of Security (Civil Aviation).
z Commissioner of security (CA) is the appropriate authority for implementation of
Annexure 17 to Chicago convention of International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO).
z Commissioner of security (CA) is responsible for the development, implementation
and maintenance of the National Civil Aviation Security Programme.
z BCAS Hqrs. is located at "A" Wing, I-III floor, Janpath Bhavan, Janpath, New
Delhi-110001. It has got four Regional Offices located at International airports
i.e., Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai, headed by an officer of the rank of
Deputy Commissioner of Security (CA).
Functions of BCAS
Following are the main functions of BCAS:
z Laying down Aviation Security Standards in accordance with Annex 17 to
Chicago Convention of ICAO for airport operators, airlines operators, and their
security agencies responsible for implementing AVSEC measures.
z Issuance of Aviation Security Circulars containing policy decisions and advisory
information for the information, reference and implementation by concerned
organizations.
z Monitoring the implementation of security rules and regulations and carrying out
survey of security needs.
z Ensure that the persons implementing security controls are appropriately trained
and possess all competencies required to perform their duties.
z Planning and coordination of Aviation security matters.
z Conducting:
Surprise/Dummy checks to test professional efficiency and alertness of
security staff.
Mock exercise to test efficacy of Contingency Plans and operational
preparedness of the various agencies. It may therefore be seen that overall
security policy, regulations, implementation, monitoring of airport and airline
security in the country rests with BCAS. In fact BCAS plays a very important
role in the matters related to Civil Aviation Security such as anti-hijacking,
anti-sabotage, Bomb Threat & Bomb Detection, etc.
Case Study: Airport Safety – A Case Study for Infrastructure Security

An opinion piece in a recent issue of US News & World Report defending the
internment of Japanese Americans during the Second World War has pushed
me over my limit in tolerating fuzzy thinking about infrastructure security, so
in this article I’m going to use airport security as a focus for what I hope you
will find to be a bit of clear thinking. I will dissect what I see as serious errors
of reasoning that are harming our ability to ensure passenger safety in this
country. On the way, I’ll also take some swipes at other aspects of public
policy on infrastructure security.
Contd…
My hope is that readers will be sufficiently (a) convinced and (b) incensed by 191
Airport Safety
the foolish waste of our defense resources to speak out in their professional and Security
capacity and influence public policy for the better. ACM Ubiquity readers
have the professional background and the intelligence to be able to intervene
in these matters – get on with it!
Names
As most readers know, authorizing access to resources involves both
Identification and Authentication (I&A). However, the key question for
security is whether the person asking for authorization is trustworthy for the
specific functions in question. For example, at an airport, we want to know
whether we should trust someone on a plane as a passenger. Now, when we
consider candidates for a job, we investigate their background. The
thoroughness of such investigations depends on how much harm the
candidates can do if they are Bad People. At an airport in the USA, there is
usually no background check. Knowing someone’s name means nothing in
itself. For example, if Timothy McVeigh had walked up to an airline counter
on April 18, 1995 (the day before the bombing of the Murrah Federal
Building) and used official documents showing that he called himself
“Timothy McVeigh” I doubt that an airline clerk would have stopped him
from boarding a plane. At that time, nobody at the airport would have known
anything about him. Thinking that knowing someone’s name – and nothing
else – has given sufficient information to judge that the person is or is not a
threat is an elementary error of reasoning. It is an example what
anthropologists and psychologists call “magical thinking:” believing that
knowing a being’s name gives one power. But alas, finding out what a person
claims to be called does not in itself tell us that the person is good or bad and
it does not in itself improve airport security.
Papers
In the first part of this paper, I suggested that knowing what people call
themselves is not in itself a sound basis for trusting them. Ah, but airport
personnel are much too savvy simply to ask people what they call themselves,
right? Airline clerks also ask for proof of that identification, so that must
make things safer, right? Well, no. As readers know, deciding whether to
authorize access usually requires both identification and authentication (I&A).
Identification consists of presenting an identifier (duh): a name or label.
Authentication is the binding of an identifier (e.g., “John Smith”) to a specific
entity (the John Smith born in Toledo on May 13, 1943, whose Social
Security Number is 123-45-6789; who married Jane Morrison on June 12,
1965; who is the father of twin daughters named Julie and Sandy born on
December 27, 1969; who lives at 234 Road Street in Townsville, Ohio; and
who works at Acme Corporation in the Accounting Department; whose
Scottish Terrier pup is 18 months old and called Josh – that particular John
Smith).
But the airport clerk doesn’t know or care anything about that particular John
Smith; the rules say that as long as the John Smith in front of him or her has a
piece of paper that also says “John Smith” then it’s OK to let him on the
plane. As readers will recall, there are four ways to authenticate the user of an
identifier: what they know (that others don’t), what they have (that others
don’t), what they are (that others aren’t), and what they do (that others do
differently). These phrases refer respectively to passwords or pass phrases,
tokens such as keys or cards or passports, passive biometrics such as
fingerprints or iris patterns and dynamic biometrics such as voice prints or
Contd…
192 keystroke dynamics. We say that an authentication method is “strong” when
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the authenticator makes it difficult to impersonate the authorized user of the
identifier. At an airport, for example, no one is going to propose using a red
poker chip as the basis for authenticating the identity of John Smith to decide
whether the person calling himself that should get on a plane; it’s too easy to
get red poker chips. Token-based authentication makes sense only if the token
is relatively difficult for a Bad Person to obtain or to fabricate. But at airports
I’ve gone through, people are being asked to identify themselves using
commonly available tokens: documents such as drivers’ licenses. You can get
a driver’s license in Vermont by showing a clerk a bill from a utility; if it
includes the name you are using in your application, the address you are using
in your application, and the name on some other form of identification, you
can have a driver’s license on the spot, complete with colour photo and
lamination.
We establish a chain of trust from the certifying authority (here, the
Department of Motor Vehicles – DMV – in Vermont) to the next authority
granting privileges (here, the airline clerk at the airport who issues a boarding
pass based on the driver’s license) and on to the final user (in our example,
perhaps the ticket-taker letting passengers onto the plane based on the
boarding pass).
But how strong is the original authentication for your name that is provided by
a utility bill shown to the DMV clerk? And therefore how strong is the chain
of trust conferred on your name by a driver’s license granted to anyone who
can produce a paper that looks like a utility bill and claims to be the person
referenced on that sheet of paper? You will recall that forgeable tokens are not
a sound basis for authentication. With minimal cost and effort, anyone can
scan a utility bill and alter it to make it look as if it belongs to, say, Santa
Claus who resides at 1234 State Street, Montpelier, Vermont. So how does
presenting a utility bill stop a terrorist from getting a driver’s license – that
magic key to getting on board an airplane? And have you looked at your own
driver's license recently? I just scanned mine on a $75 scanner and created a
600 dpi colour image of it which I then proceeded to alter so that it shows
images of one of my cats – one in full intensity and a little one at half intensity
– right on top of my original images.
Does anyone think that there are terrorist organizations unable to create as
many fake drivers’ licenses as they need to get on planes? So demanding
papers of dubious strength to authenticate identity doesn’t in itself materially
improve airport security either.
Lists
In this section I discuss the Do-Not-Fly list (DNFL) maintained by the US
Transportation Security Administration (TSA). The DNFL appears to consist
of names with little or no additional identifying information. There are now
many articles appearing in national newspapers recounting horror stories of
inoffensive travellers stopped from boarding planes in United States because
their names have been listed on the DNFL. If the TSA is really using names
without any other identifying characteristics as the basis for stopping people
from flying, you have to question their commitment to the rule of law and the
power of common sense. I don't know how many people will be blocked if a
single “John Smith” ever makes it onto that list. Senator Ted Kennedy was
stopped from boarding three US Airways flights in March 2004 because the
name “Edward Kennedy” was on the DNFL. He got on the planes after his
aides called for help from Tom Ridge, Secretary of Homeland Security.
Contd…
How many Edward Kennedys won’t be able to get through to the Secretary of 193
Airport Safety
Homeland Security when they are stopped? Deirdre McNamer (how and Security
appropriate) wrote a story in The New Yorker magazine in October 2002 about
a 28-year-old pinko-gray-skinned, blue-eyed, red-blond-haired criminal called
Christian Michael Longo who used the alias “John Thomas Christopher.” His
alias was placed on the DNFL used by the TSA. He was arrested in January
2002 but his alias was not removed from the DNFL. On March 23, 2002,
70-year-old brown-skinned, dark-eyed, gray-haired grandmother Johnnie
Thomas was informed that she was on the master terrorist list and would have
special security measures applied every time she flew. Indeed, the poor lady
found that she was repeatedly delayed by a scurry of activity when she
presented her tickets at an airline counter, extra X-rays of her checked
baggage, supplementary examination of her hand-baggage and extra wanding
at the entrance gates. On one occasion she was told that she had graduated to
the exalted status labelled, “Not allowed to fly.” She discovered that there was
no method available for having “her” name removed from the DNFL; indeed,
one person from her local FBI office dismissively told her to hire a lawyer
(although ironically, he refused to identify himself). An employee of the TSA
informed her that “four other law-abiding John Thomases had called to
complain.” In summary,
(a) The basis for being included in the DNFL is undocumented.
(b) There is no mechanism for informing people that they have been included
(other than being refused boarding at the airport).
(c) There is no standard procedure for being removed from the list (unless
you happen to know the Secretary of Homeland Security, I suppose).
(d) In general, lists of names alone, devoid of clear binding to specific people,
are not an effective basis for identifying threats to security.
One final question: Is the DNFL consistent with the ideals of the land of the
free and the home of the brave?
Profiles
I’d like now to demolish arguments in favour of racial and ethnic profiling as
a security measure. Imagine that the United States population included about
1 million people of Albigensian descent. Suppose a group of Albigensian
terrorists cause terrible things in the USA and so, egged on by jingoistic talk-
show hosts and narrow-minded politicians, some people in authority decide to
harass and even imprison Albigensians as a way of demonstrating their
commitment to protecting citizens of the USA. The government arrests
120,000 Albigensian-Americans, of whom 80,000 are native-born US
citizens. The Albigensians are forced to abandon their homes and property at
enormous economic loss and are kept behind barbed wire in violation of
habeas corpus: that is, without charge, without access to information about
why they are being interned (beyond being told they are a threat to national
security), without access to attorneys, and without any definite date for
release. In US News and World Report, a columnist sneers at people objecting
to the incarceration of the Albigensians as closed-minded orthodox thinkers
and justifies the extra-judicial imprisonment by writing that “It is always
reasonable to look in the direction from which the gravest danger is coming”
and smirks that the attacks against the USA were not carried out by “militant
Swedish nuns.”
Contd…
194 Well, in our scenario, we aren’t attacked by American Albigensians, either. So
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what’s the problem with this kind of ethnic profiling? Why shouldn’t we
apply the same logic at airports that has made DWB (driving while black) an
offense punishable by summary arrest, pepper spray in the eyes, and repeated
humiliations? Shouldn’t interrogating Albigensians be a useful security
measure?
No, it isn’t. We shouldn’t apply ethnic profiling because (a) it doesn’t work;
and (b) it violates the fundamental principle of law that demands impartiality
and fairness in the application of laws.
The problem with ethnic profiling is that the people who are using it do not
understand that there are two parts to the simplest comparison of behaviours.
Let’s return to the Albigensians. All of the attackers in our little psychodrama
were Albigensians. Therefore, the defective reasoning goes, it makes sense to
investigate/interrogate/incarcerate all Albigensians in America to protect
Americans. Yes, but there’s much more to consider.
First of all, in our story, the attackers were not Albigensian-Americans, they
were Albigensian terrorists from Albigensia. Second, even if they HAD been
Albigensian Americans, the question is what proportion of Albigensian-
Americans are terrorists compared with the proportion of non-Albigensian-
Americans who are terrorists.
The numbers might work out to a few dozen? A few hundred? Albigensian-
Americans posing a threat and roughly a million not posing a threat. The
numbers for non-Albigensian Americans might be a few hundred? A few
thousand? Militant anti-government gun-toting militia members and several
hundred million not posing a threat. If that difference in proportion is
supposed to justify mass suspicion and punishments, then Scottish- and Irish-
Americans should have been in serious trouble after Timothy McVeigh
bombed the Murrah building in 1995. Or are Scottish and Irish-Americans
off-limits when considering mass suspicion and punishments?
The only way this kind of racial or ethnic profiling seems fair is when its
defenders are not targets. It’s easy for people with underdeveloped moral
reasoning to dismiss violations of fundamental justice as long as the injustice
is seen to apply to “others” and not to “us.” It’s easy to excuse abuse by
pointing to “times of war” and “great danger” but such excuses play into the
hands of demagogues and dictators. German anti-Nazi pastor Martin
Niemöller warned of the dangers of silence in the face of such ethical
corruption in his famous confession: “First they came for the Jews. I was
silent. I was not a Jew. Then they came for the Communists. I was silent. I
was not a Communist. Then they came for the trade unionists. I was silent. I
was not a trade unionist. Then they came for me. There was no one left to
speak for me.” Pouring investigative efforts into mass screenings of entire
populations where the rate of success is on the order of million-to-one odds is
a complete waste of scarce resources. It’s also a moral obscenity.
El Al
I’d like to look at a model that has demonstrably worked. El Al is the Israeli
national airline. “The only successful hijacking of an El Al plane was in 1968
when a flight from Rome was hijacked by members of the militant Popular
Front for the Liberation of Palestine and forced to land in Algiers.”
The airline uses a number of measures during check-in that focus on the
behaviour of specific passengers rather than primarily on names, documents,
and lists.
Contd…
z At the time of booking, every passenger’s name is cross-referenced 195
Airport Safety
against several lists of known and suspected terrorists, including and Security
information from “Interpol, the FBI, Shin Bet (Israel’s intelligence
service) and others.”
z Airline personnel are trained in interrogation techniques; many have
military experience (in Israel, most people serve in the Israel Defense
Force). They ask specific, pointed questions about each passenger’s travel
plans, where they bought their ticket (the agents check codes on the
tickets to verify the answers), whom they are visiting and their relation to
the traveller, and where they have travelled in the world and why. They
introduce unexpected questions to keep people off balance even if they
have prepared for interrogation. Every page and every stamp in the
passport is examined; travel to countries viewed as enemies of Israel
sparks additional probing questions.
z The questioners watch the traveller carefully during this interrogation,
looking for any sign of nervousness or unusual reactions. Plain-clothed
security personnel circulate among the passengers and observe whether
they are traveling alone or with companions.
Travellers who chat with others are asked what they talked about and their
relation to those other people. The plain-clothed observers continue to
watch the traveller during the interrogation to provide another perspective
on whether there is reason for even more thorough questioning.
z Interrogation may be repeated once or twice more before the passenger is
allowed to board.
z All baggage is carefully examined. What is the history of the bag? Where
in the world has it been used? Who used it last? All luggages are checked
for residues of explosives passed through a depressurization chamber to
detonate altitude-sensitive bombs.
Baggage transferred from other airlines must go through full security
screening before being loaded onto the El Al flight.
z Anyone who seems to justify further investigation is delayed until the
agents are satisfied; such people may well miss their flight as a result. In
any case, all passengers are required to arrive at least three hours before
their departure time because of the delays caused through this high
security approach to air travel.
Additional measures make flights safer. El Al guards its planes 24 hours a
day, including while they are being cleaned and serviced, in any airport in
the world. El Al flight schedules are often changed in an attempt to
interfere with terrorists’ plans. Several armed, undercover, fully-trained
security agents fly every El Al flight in aisle seats. The pilots’ reinforced
bullet-resistant door is never opened during flight no matter what
happens.
The most controversial measures used by El Al security involve profiling.
El Al personnel classify passengers as “low-risk (Israeli or foreign Jews),
medium-risk (non-Jewish foreigners) and extremely high-risk travellers
(anyone with an Arabic name).” In addition, “Single women also are
considered high-risk, for fear they might be used by Palestinian lovers to
carry bombs.” Personally, I don’t see these ethnic and gender profiles
being acceptable in the USA for domestic travel.
Contd…
196 Costs
Ancillary Services
Could we apply security measures similar to those of El Al in the USA? One of
the major issues is cost. Given the parlous state of US airlines, it is unlikely that
additional costs occasioned by new security measures could be absorbed by the
companies and employees through lower profits and reduced salaries. So how
much more would a ticket cost when the costs of El Al-style security were
added to tickets prices? Estimates of the annual cost of security for El Al are in
the $90M range for about 15,000 flights a year. That’s at least $6,000 per flight.
In contrast, the US Bureau of Transportation Statistics (BTS) reports around 9M
flights a year in the USA. Thus security would funnel a good deal of money into
the pockets of airline employees responsible for security.
But the question is how much extra such security would cost per passenger
per flight. The BTS report cited above shows 638,902,993 passengers on
8,951,773 flights, or an average of about 70 passengers per flight in 2000,
implying a shared cost of about $85 per passenger per flight ($6,000/70) for
security. This estimate doesn’t count the existing costs of security measures in
place already in the USA, which might reduce the incremental cost per
passenger per flight for raising security to the El Al level. It’s surely worth
investigating further.
Questions
1. How is our political rhetoric about homeland defense measuring up to
actual expenditures for training and equipment for local emergency
response teams in our own communities?
2. Are the power plants/water supplies/transportation hubs in your own
communities adequately protected?
3. What are the security implications for local communities of the departure
of National Guard troops for extended service overseas?
Source: http://www.mekabay.com/opinion/airport_safety.pd
10.9 LET US SUM UP

people located in a particular location. While Safety is the state in which the risk of
harm to persons or of property damage is reduced to, and maintained at or below, an
acceptable level through a continuing process of hazard identification and risk
management. Aviation security is another component of ensuring the safety of
passengers. It rests on a careful mix of intelligence information, procedures,
technology, and security personnel.

Conduct a survey and identify the various security-sensitive areas found at airports, as
defined by Transportation Security Regulations.
10.11 KEYWORDS
Safety Management System: It is an organized approach to managing safety,
including the necessary organizational structures, accountabilities, policies and
procedures.
Safety Programme: It is an integrated set of regulations and activities aimed at 197
Airport Safety
improving safety. and Security
Safety Oversight: It refers to the activities of a state under its safety programme.
Safety Performance Monitoring: It refers to the activities of an operator or service
provider under its Safety Management Service.
Line Operations Safety Audit (LOSA): It is a critical organizational strategy aimed at
developing countermeasures to operational errors.

1. What is the difference between the Safety Performance Indicators and Safety
Targets? Give examples.
2. What is meant by Safety Management System (SMS)? Explain safety regulation
of flight operations.
3. Discuss the role of DGCA/BCAS in aviation safety and security.
4. What do you understand by in-flight safety and security?

CYP 1
1. True
2. True
3. True
4. True
CYP 2
1. Right tool
2. Magnetometer
3. Planning
4. Checking

Jaroslav, J. Hajek, Jim W. H., Hein, D.K., (2011), Common Airport Pavement
Manuel, A. (2007), Safety Management Systems for Airports: Guidebook.
Antonín, K., Robert, E. C., (2007), Airport Design and Operation. Emerald Group
Publishing.
198
Ancillary Services ANNEXURE 17: SARP
(Standard and Recommended Practices)
Chapter 1. Definitions
Airside. The movement area of an airport, adjacent terrain and buildings or portions
thereof, access to which is controlled.
Aircraft Security Check. An inspection of the interior of an aircraft to which
passengers may have had access and an inspection of the hold for the purposes of
discovering suspicious objects, weapons, explosives or other dangerous devices.
Background Check. A check of a person’s identity and previous experience, including
any criminal history, where appropriate, as part of the assessment of an individual’s
suitability for unescorted access to a security restricted area.
Cargo. Any property carried on an aircraft other than mail, stores and accompanied or
mishandled baggage.
Human Factors Principles. Principles which apply to design, certification, training,
operations and maintenance and which seek safe interface between the human and
other system components by proper consideration to human performance.
Human Performance. Human capabilities and limitations which have an impact on
the safety, security and efficiency of aeronautical operations.
Regulated Agent. An agent, freight forwarder or any other entity who conducts
business with an operator and provides security controls that are accepted or required
by the appropriate authority in respect of cargo, courier and express parcels or mail.
Screening. The application of technical or other means which are intended to identify
and/or detect weapons, explosives or other dangerous devices which may be used to
commit an act of unlawful interference.
Note: Certain dangerous articles or substances are classified as dangerous goods by
Annex 18 and the associated Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of
Dangerous Goods by Air (Doc 9284) and must be transported in accordance with
those instructions.
Security. A combination of measures and human and material resources intended to
safeguard civil aviation against acts of unlawful interference.
Security Control. A means by which the introduction of weapons, explosives or other
dangerous devices which may be utilized to commit an act of unlawful interference
can be prevented.
Security Restricted Area. Airside areas of an airport into which access is controlled to
ensure security of civil aviation. Such areas will normally include, inter alia, all
passenger departure areas between the screening checkpoint and the aircraft, the ramp,
baggage make-up areas, cargo sheds, mail centres, airside catering and aircraft
cleaning premises.
Unidentified Baggage. Baggage at an airport, with or without a baggage tag, which is
not picked up by or identified with a passenger.
Chapter 2. General Principles 199
Airport Safety
2.1 Objectives and Security
2.1.1 Each Contracting State shall have as its primary objective the safety of
passengers, crew, ground personnel and the general public in all matters related to
safeguarding against acts of unlawful interference with civil aviation.
2.1.2 Each Contracting State shall establish an organization and develop and
implement regulations, practices and procedures to safeguard civil aviation against
acts of unlawful interference taking into account the safety, regularity and efficiency
of flights.
2.1.3 Each Contracting State shall ensure that principles governing measures designed
to safeguard against acts of unlawful interference with international civil aviation are
applied to domestic operations to the extent practicable.
2.1.4 Recommendation: Each Contracting State should ensure appropriate protection
of aviation security information.
Note 1: Guidance material on achieving civil aviation security objectives through
application of the Standards and Recommended Practices in the following chapters is
to be found in the Security Manual for Safeguarding Civil Aviation Against Acts of
Unlawful Interference (Doc 8973 — Restricted).
Note 2: The comprehensive aviation security training material to assist States in
achieving civil aviation security objectives is contained in the ICAO Training
Programme for Aviation Security comprising a series of Aviation Security Training
Packages (ASTPs).
2.2 Security and Facilitation
Recommendation: Each Contracting State should whenever possible arrange for the
security controls and procedures to cause a minimum of interference with, or delay to
the activities of, civil aviation provided the effectiveness of these controls and
procedures is not compromised.
2.3 International Cooperation
2.3.1 Each Contracting State shall ensure that requests from other States for special
security controls in respect of a specific flight or specified flights by operators of such
other States are met, as far as may be practicable.
2.3.2 Each Contracting State shall cooperate with other States in relation to their
respective national civil aviation security programmes as necessary.
2.3.3 Each Contracting State shall cooperate with other States in the development and
exchange of information concerning training programmes, as necessary.
2.3.4 Each Contracting State shall share with other Contracting States threat
information that applies to the aviation security interests of those States, to the extent
practicable.
2.3.5 Each Contracting State shall provide suitable protection and handling procedures
for sensitive security information shared by other Contracting States, or sensitive
security information that affects the security interests of other Contracting States, in
order to ensure that inappropriate use or disclosure of such information is avoided.
2.3.6 Recommendation: Each Contracting State should cooperate with other States in
the field of research and development of new security equipment which will better
achieve civil aviation security objectives.
200 2.3.7 Recommendation: Each Contracting State should include in its bilateral
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agreements on air transport a clause related to aviation security.
2.3.8 Recommendation: Each Contracting State should make available to other States
on request a written version of the appropriate parts of its national civil aviation
security programme.
2.4 Equipment, Research and Development
2.4.1 Recommendation: Each Contracting State should promote research and
development of new security equipment which will better achieve civil aviation
security objectives.
2.4.2 Recommendation: Each Contracting State should ensure that the development of
new security equipment takes into consideration Human Factors principles.
Note: Guidance material regarding Human Factors principles can be found in the
Human Factors Digest — Human Factors in Civil Aviation Security Operations* and
in Part 1,Chapter 4 of the Human Factors Training Manual (Doc 9683).
* In preparation
Chapter 3. Organization 201
Airport Safety
3.1 National Organization and Appropriate Authority and Security
3.1.1 Each Contracting State shall establish and implement a written national civil
aviation security programme to safeguard civil aviation operations against acts of
unlawful interference, through regulations, practices and procedures which take into
account the safety, regularity and efficiency of flights.
3.1.2 Each Contracting State shall designate and specify to ICAO an appropriate
authority within its administration to be responsible for the development,
implementation and maintenance of the national civil aviation security programme.
3.1.3 Each Contracting State shall establish an organization and develop and
implement regulations, practices and procedures, which together provide the security
necessary for the operation of aircraft in normal operating conditions and capable of
responding rapidly to meet any increased security threat.
3.1.4 Each Contracting State shall keep under constant review the level of threat to
civil aviation operations within its territory and adjust relevant elements of its national
civil aviation security programme accordingly.
3.1.5 Each Contracting State shall require the appropriate authority to define and
allocate tasks and coordinate activities between the departments, agencies and other
organizations of the State, airport and aircraft operators and other entities concerned
with or responsible for the implementation of various aspects of the national civil
aviation security programme.
3.1.6 Each Contracting State shall establish a national aviation security committee or
similar arrangements for the purpose of coordinating security activities between the
departments, agencies and other organizations of the State, airport and aircraft
operators and other entities concerned with or responsible for the implementation of
various aspects of the national civil aviation security programme.
3.1.7 Each Contracting State shall require the appropriate authority to ensure the
development and implementation of training programmes to ensure the effectiveness
of its national civil aviation security programme. These training programmes shall
include training of civil aviation security personnel inhuman performance.
Note: Guidance material on training in human performance can be found in the
Security Manual for Safe-guarding Civil Aviation Against Acts of Unlawful
Interference(Doc 8973 — Restricted); the Human Factors Digest — Human Factors in
Civil Aviation Security Operations*; and in Part 2, Chapter 1 of the Human Factors
Training Manual (Doc 9683).
3.1.8 Each Contracting State shall ensure that the appropriate authority arranges for
the supporting resources and facilities required by the aviation security services to be
available at each airport serving international civil aviation.
3.1.9 Recommendation: Each Contracting State should make available to its airport
and aircraft operators operating in its territory and other entities concerned, a written
version of the appropriate parts of its national civil aviation security programme.
3.2 Airport Operations
3.2.1 Each Contracting State shall require each airport serving international civil
aviation to establish and implement a written airport security programme appropriate
to meet the requirements of the national aviation security programme.
* In preparation
202 3.2.2 Each Contracting State shall arrange for an authority at each airport serving
Ancillary Services
international civil aviation to be responsible for coordinating the implementation of
security controls.
3.2.3 Each Contracting State shall arrange for the establishment of an airport security
committee at each airport serving international civil aviation to assist the authority
mentioned under 3.2.2 in its role of coordinating the implementation of security
controls and procedures as specified in the airport security programme.
3.2.4 Each Contracting State shall ensure that contingency plans are developed and
resources made available to safeguard civil aviation, against acts of unlawful
interference. The contingency plans shall be practised and exercised on a regular
basis.
3.2.5 Each Contracting State shall ensure that authorized and suitably trained
personnel are readily available for deployment at its airports serving international civil
aviation to assist in dealing with suspected, or actual, cases of unlawful interference
with civil aviation.
3.2.6 Each Contracting State shall ensure that the architectural and infrastructure-
related requirements necessary for the optimum implementation of civil aviation
security measures are integrated into the design and construction of new facilities and
alterations to existing facilities at airports.
3.3 Aircraft Operators
3.3.1 Each Contracting State shall require operators providing service from that State
to establish and implement a written operator security programme appropriate to meet
the requirements of the national civil aviation security programme of that State.
3.3.2 Recommendation: Each Contracting State should take into account the ICAO
model as a basis for operators’ security programmes.
3.3.3 Recommendation: Each Contracting State should require operators providing
service from that State and participating in code-sharing or other collaborative
arrangements with other international operators to notify the appropriate authority of
the nature of these arrangements, including the identity of the other operators.
3.4 Quality Control
3.4.1 Each Contracting State shall ensure that the persons implementing security
controls are subject to background checks and selection procedures.
3.4.2 Each Contracting State shall ensure that the persons implementing security
controls are appropriately trained and possess all competencies required to perform
their duties and that appropriate records are maintained. Relevant standards of
performance shall be established and initial and periodic assessments shall be
introduced to maintain those standards.
3.4.3 Each Contracting State shall ensure that the persons carrying out screening
operations are certified according to the requirements of the national civil aviation
security programme.
3.4.4 Each Contracting State shall require the appropriate authority to ensure the
development, implementation and maintenance of a national civil aviation security
quality control programme to ensure the effectiveness of its national civil aviation
security programme.
3.4.5 Each Contracting State shall arrange for surveys to identify security needs,
arrange for inspections of the implementation of security controls and arrange tests of
security controls to assess their effectiveness.
3.4.6 Each Contracting State concerned with an act of unlawful interference shall 203
Airport Safety
require its appropriate authority tore-evaluate security controls and procedures and and Security
take action necessary to remedy weaknesses so as to prevent recurrence. These actions
shall be notified to ICAO.
3.4.7 Recommendation: Each Contracting State should require that the effectiveness
of individual aviation security measures be assessed by considering their role in the
overall system performance of aviation security systems.
* In preparation
204 Chapter 4. Preventive Security Measures
Ancillary Services
4.1 Objective
Each Contracting State shall establish measures to prevent weapons, explosives or any
other dangerous devices which may be used to commit an act of unlawful interference,
the carriage or bearing of which is not authorized, from being introduced, by any
means whatsoever, on board an aircraft engaged in international civil aviation.
4.2 Measures relating to Aircraft
4.2.1 Each Contracting State shall ensure that aircraft security checks of originating
aircraft assigned to international flights are performed.
4.2.2 Each Contracting State shall require measures to be taken in respect of flights
under an increased threat to ensure that disembarking passengers do not leave items on
board the aircraft at transit stops on its airports.
4.2.3 Each Contracting State shall require its operators to take adequate measures to
ensure that during flight unauthorized persons are prevented from entering the flight
crew compartment.
4.3 Measures relating to Passengers and their Cabin Baggage
4.3.1 Each Contracting State shall establish measures to ensure that originating
passengers and their cabin baggage are screened prior to boarding an aircraft engaged
in international civil aviation operations.
4.3.2 Each Contracting State shall ensure that transfer and transit passengers and their
cabin baggage are subjected to adequate security controls to prevent unauthorized
articles from being taken on board aircraft engaged in international civil aviation
operations.
4.3.3 Each Contracting State shall ensure that there is no possibility of mixing or
contact between passengers subjected to security control and other persons not
subjected to such control after the security screening points at airports serving
international civil aviation have been passed; if mixing or contact does take place, the
passengers concerned and their cabin baggage shall be re-screened before boarding an
aircraft.
4.4 Measures relating to Hold Baggage
4.4.1 Each Contracting State shall establish measures to ensure that hold baggage is
subjected to appropriate security controls prior to being loaded into an aircraft
engaged in international civil aviation operations.
4.4.2 Each Contracting State shall establish measures to ensure that hold baggage
intended for carriage on passenger flights is protected from unauthorized interference
from the point it is checked in, whether at an airport or elsewhere, until it is placed on
board an aircraft.
4.4.3 Each Contracting State shall establish measures to ensure that operators when
providing service from that State do not transport the baggage of passengers who are
not on board the aircraft unless that baggage is subjected to appropriate security
controls which may include screening.
4.4.4 Each Contracting State shall require the establishment of secure storage areas at
airports serving international civil aviation, where mishandled baggage may be held
until forwarded, claimed or disposed of in accordance with local laws.
4.4.5 Each Contracting State shall establish measures to ensure that consignments
checked in as baggage by courier services for carriage on passenger aircraft engaged
in international civil aviation operations are screened.
4.4.6 Each Contracting State shall ensure that transfer hold baggage is subjected to 205
Airport Safety
appropriate security controls to prevent unauthorized articles from being taken on and Security
board aircraft engaged in international civil aviation operations.
4.4.7 Each Contracting State shall establish measures to ensure that aircraft operators
when providing a passenger service from that State transport only hold baggage which
is authorized for carriage in accordance with the requirements specified in the national
civil aviation security programme.
4.4.8 From 1 January 2006, each Contracting State shall establish measures to ensure
that originating hold baggage intended to be carried in an aircraft engaged in
international civil aviation operations is screened prior to being loaded into the
aircraft.
4.4.9 Recommendation: Each Contracting State should establish measures to ensure
that originating hold baggage intended to be carried in an aircraft engaged in
international civil aviation operations is screened prior to being loaded into the
aircraft.
4.4.10 Recommendation: Each Contracting State should take the necessary measures
to ensure that unidentified baggage is placed in a protected and isolated area until such
time as it is ascertained that it does not contain any explosives or other dangerous
device.
4.5 Measures relating to Cargo, Mail and other Goods
4.5.1 Each Contracting State shall ensure the implementation of measures at airports
serving international civil aviation to protect cargo, baggage, mail, stores and
operators’ supplies being moved within an airport and intended for carriage on an
aircraft to safeguard such aircraft against an act of unlawful interference.
4.5.2 Each Contracting State shall establish measures to ensure that cargo, courier and
express parcels and mail intended for carriage on passenger flights are subjected to
appropriate security controls.
4.5.3 Each Contracting State shall establish measures to ensure that operators do not
accept consignments of cargo, courier and express parcels or mail for carriage on
passenger flights unless the security of such consignments is accounted for by a
regulated agent or such consignments are subjected to other security controls to meet
the requirements of 4.5.2.
4.5.4 Each Contracting State shall establish measures to ensure that catering supplies
and operators’ stores and supplies intended for carriage on passenger flights are
subjected to appropriate security controls.
4.6 Measures relating to Special Categories of Passengers
4.6.1 Each Contracting State shall establish measures to ensure that the aircraft
operator and the pilot-in-command are informed when passengers are obliged to travel
because they have been the subject of judicial or administrative proceedings, in order
that appropriate security controls can be applied.
4.6.2 Each Contracting State shall ensure that the pilot-in-command is notified as to
the number of armed persons and their seat location.
4.6.3 Each Contracting State shall require operators providing service from that State,
to include in their security programmes, measures and procedures to ensure safety on
board their aircraft when passengers are to be carried who are obliged to travel
because they have been the subject of judicial or administrative proceedings.
206 4.6.4 Each Contracting State shall ensure that the carriage of weapons on board
Ancillary Services
aircraft, by law enforcement officers and other authorized persons, acting in the
performance of their duties, requires special authorization in accordance with the laws
of the States involved.
4.6.5 Each Contracting State shall consider requests by any other State to allow the
travel of armed personnel on board aircraft of operators of the requesting State. Only
after agreement by all States involved shall such travel be allowed.
4.6.6 Each Contracting State shall ensure that the carriage of weapons in other cases is
allowed only when an authorized and duly qualified person has determined that they
are not loaded, if applicable, and then only if stowed in a place inaccessible to any
person during flight time.
4.7 Measures relating to Access Control
4.7.1 Each Contracting State shall ensure that security restricted areas are established
at each airport serving international civil aviation and that procedures and
identification systems are implemented in respect of persons and vehicles.
4.7.2 Each Contracting State shall ensure that appropriate security controls, including
background checks on persons other than passengers granted unescorted access to
security restricted areas of the airport, are implemented.
4.7.3 Each Contracting State shall require that measures are implemented to ensure
adequate supervision over the movement of persons and vehicles to and from the
aircraft in order to prevent unauthorized access to aircraft.
4.7.4 Recommendation: Each Contracting State should ensure that identity documents
issued to aircraft crew members conform to the relevant specifications set forth in Doc
9303, Machine Readable Travel Documents.
4.7.5 Recommendation: Each Contracting State should ensure that persons other than
passengers being granted access to security restricted areas, together with items
carried, are screened at random in accordance with risk assessment carried out by the
relevant national authorities.
4.7.6 Recommendation: Each Contracting State should ensure that checks specified in
4.7.2 be reapplied on a regular basis to all persons granted unescorted access to
security restricted areas.
207
Chapter 5. Management of Response to Acts of Unlawful Interference Airport Safety
and Security
5.1 Prevention
5.1.1 Each Contracting State shall establish measures to safeguard aircraft when a
well-founded suspicion exists that the aircraft may be subject to an act of unlawful
interference while on the ground and to provide as much prior notification as possible
of the arrival of such aircraft to airport authorities.
5.1.2 Each Contracting State shall establish procedures, which include notification to
the operator, for inspecting aircraft, when a well-founded suspicion exists that the
aircraft may be the object of an act of unlawful interference, for concealed weapons,
explosives or other dangerous devices.
5.1.3 Each Contracting State shall ensure that arrangements are made for the
investigation and disposal, if necessary, of suspected sabotage devices or other
potential hazards at airports serving international civil aviation.
5.2 Response
5.2.1 Each Contracting State shall take adequate measures for the safety of passengers
and crew of an aircraft which is subjected to an act of unlawful interference until their
journey can be continued.
5.2.2 Each Contracting State responsible for providing air traffic services for an
aircraft which is the subject of an act of unlawful interference shall collect all
pertinent information on the flight of that aircraft and transmit that information to all
other States responsible for the Air Traffic Services units concerned, including those
at the airport of known or presumed destination, so that timely and appropriate
safeguarding action may be taken en route and at the aircraft’s known, likely or
possible destination.
5.2.3 Each Contracting State shall provide such assistance to an aircraft subjected to
an act of unlawful seizure, including the provision of navigation aids, air traffic
services and permission to land as may be necessitated by the circumstances.
5.2.4 Each Contracting State shall take measures, as it may find practicable, to ensure
that an aircraft subjected to an act of unlawful seizure which has landed in its territory
is detained on the ground unless its departure is necessitated by the overriding duty to
protect human life. However, these measures need to recognize the grave hazard
attending further flight. States shall also recognize the importance of consultations,
wherever practicable, between the State where that aircraft has landed and the State of
the Operator of the aircraft, and notification by the State where the aircraft has landed
to the States of assumed or stated destination.
5.2.5 Each Contracting State in which an aircraft subjected to an act of unlawful
interference has landed shall notify by the most expeditious means the State of
Registry of the aircraft and the State of the Operator of the landing and shall similarly
transmit by the most expeditious means all other relevant information to:
a) the two above-mentioned States;
b) each State whose citizens suffered fatalities or injuries;
c) each State whose citizens were detained as hostages;
d) each Contracting State whose citizens are known to be on board the aircraft; and
e) the International Civil Aviation Organization.
5.2.6 Recommendation: Each Contracting State should ensure that information
received as a consequence of action taken in accordance with 5.2.2 is distributed
208 locally to the Air Traffic Services units concerned, the appropriate airport
Ancillary Services
administrations, the operator and others concerned as soon as practicable.
5.2.7 Recommendation: Each Contracting State should cooperate with other States for
the purpose of providing a joint response in connection with an act of unlawful
interference. When taking measures in their territory to free passengers and crew
members of an aircraft subjected to an act of unlawful interference, each Contracting
State should use, as necessary, the experience and capability of the State of the
Operator, the State of manufacture and the State of Registry of that aircraft.
5.3 Exchange of Information and Reporting
5.3.1 Each Contracting State concerned with an act of unlawful interference shall
provide ICAO with all pertinent information concerning the security aspects of the act
of unlawful interference as soon as practicable after the act is resolved.
5.3.2 Recommendation: Each Contracting State should exchange information with
other States as considered appropriate, at the same time supplying such information to
ICAO, related to plans, designs, equipment, methods and procedures for safeguarding
civil aviation against acts of unlawful interference.
209
ATTACHMENT TO ANNEX 17 Airport Safety
and Security
Extracts from Annex 2 — Rules of the Air
Chapter 3. General rules
......
3.7 Unlawful interference

An aircraft which is being subjected to unlawful interference shall endeavour to notify
the appropriate ATS unit of this fact, any significant circumstances associated
therewith and any deviation from the current flight plan necessitated by the
circumstances, in order to enable the ATS unit to give priority to the aircraft and to
minimize conflict with other aircraft.
Note 1.— Responsibility of ATS units in situations of unlawful interference is
contained in Annex 11.
Note 2.— Guidance material for use when unlawful interference occurs and the
aircraft is unable to notify an ATS unit of this fact is contained in Attachment B to this
Annex.
Note 3.— Action to be taken by SSR-equipped aircraft which are being subjected to
unlawful interference is contained in Annex 11, the PANS-RAC (Doc 4444) and the
PANS-OPS (Doc 8168).
Note 4.— Action to be taken by CPDLC-equipped aircraft which are being subjected
to unlawful interference is contained in Annex 11, the PANS-RAC (Doc 4444), and
guidance material on the subject is contained in the Manual of Air Traffic Services
Data Link Applications (Doc 9694).
......
Attachment B. Unlawful interference

1. General
The following procedures are intended as guidance for use by aircraft when unlawful
interference occurs and the aircraft is unable to notify an ATS unit of this fact.
2. Procedures
2.1 Unless considerations aboard the aircraft dictate otherwise, the pilot-in-command
should attempt to continue flying on the assigned track and at the assigned cruising
level at least until able to notify an ATS unit or within radar coverage.
2.2 When an aircraft subjected to an act of unlawful interference must depart from its
assigned track or its assigned cruising level without being able to make radiotelephony
contact with ATS, the pilot-in-command should, whenever possible:
a) attempt to broadcast warnings on the VHF emergency frequency and other
appropriate frequencies, unless considerations aboard the aircraft dictate
otherwise. Other equipment such as on-board transponders, data links, etc., should
also be used when it is advantageous to do so and circumstances permit; and
b) proceed in accordance with applicable special procedures for in-flight
contingencies, where such procedures have been established and promulgated in
Doc 7030 — Regional Supplementary Procedures; or
c) if no applicable regional procedures have been established, proceed at a level
which differs from the cruising levels normally used for IFR flight in the area by
300 m (1000 ft.) if above FL 290 or by 150 m (500 ft.) if below FL 290.
210 Note.— Action to be taken by an aircraft which is intercepted while being subject to
Ancillary Services
an act of unlawful interference is prescribed in 3.8 of this Annex.
Extracts from Annex 6 — Operation of Aircraft
Part I — International Commercial Air Transport — Aeroplanes
Chapter 13. Security*
13.1 Security of the flight crew compartment
In all aeroplanes which are equipped with a flight crew compartment door, this door
shall be capable of being locked. It shall be lockable from within the compartment
only.
13.2 Aeroplane search procedure checklist
An operator shall ensure that there is on board a checklist of the procedures to be
followed in searching for a bomb in case of suspected sabotage. The checklist shall be
supported by guidance on the course of action to be taken should a bomb or suspicious
object be found and information on the least-risk bomb location specific to the
aeroplane.
13.3 Training programmes
13.3.1 An operator shall establish and maintain a training programme which enables
crew members to act in the most appropriate manner to minimize the consequences of
acts of unlawful interference.
13.3.2 An operator shall also establish and maintain a training programme to acquaint
appropriate employees with preventive measures and techniques in relation to
passengers, baggage, cargo, mail, equipment, stores and supplies intended for carriage
on an aeroplane so that they contribute to the prevention of acts of sabotage or other
forms of unlawful interference.
13.4 Reporting acts of unlawful interference
Following an act of unlawful interference, the pilot-in-command shall submit, without
delay, a report of such an act to the designated local authority.
13.5 Miscellaneous
13.5.1 Recommendation.— Specialized means of attenuating and directing the blast
should be provided for use at the least-risk bomb location.
13.5.2 Recommendation.— Where an operator accepts the carriage of weapons
removed from passengers, the aeroplane should have provision for stowing such
weapons in a place so that they are inaccessible to any person during flight time.
Extracts From Annex 9 — Facilitation
Chapter 1. Definitions and applicability
A. Definitions
......
Security equipment. Devices of a specialized nature for use, individually or as part of a
system, in the prevention or detection of acts of unlawful interference with civil
aviation and its facilities.
......
* In the context of this Chapter, the word ‘‘security’’ is used in the sense of prevention of
illicit acts against civil aviation.
Chapter 2. Entry and departure of aircraft 211
Airport Safety
A. General and Security
......
2.2 Contracting States shall make provision whereby procedures for the clearance of
aircraft, including those normally applied for aviation security purposes, as well as
those appropriate for narcotics control, will be applied and carried out in such a
manner as to retain the advantage of speed inherent in air transport.
Note.— With respect to application of aviation security measures, attention is drawn
to Annex 17 and to the ICAO Security Manual.
......
Chapter 3. Entry and departure of persons and their baggage
A. General
......
3.2 Contracting States shall make provision whereby the procedures for clearance of
persons travelling by air, including those normally applied for aviation security
purposes, as well as those appropriate for narcotics control, will be applied and carried
out in such a manner as to retain the advantage of speed inherent in air transport.
......
C. Departure requirements and procedures
......
3.33 Contracting States shall, in conformity with their respective regulations,
endeavour to reduce the documentation required to be produced by passengers
departing from their territories to a valid passport or other acceptable form of identity
document.
Note.— It is understood that such documentation should include a valid visa if
required.
3.34 Contracting States shall not require the presentation or inspection of baggage of
passengers departing from their territory, except for aviation security measures or in
special circumstances.
Note.— This provision is not intended to prevent the application of appropriate
narcotics control measures and specific customs control where required.
......
Chapter 4. Entry and departure of cargo and other articles
A. General
......
4.2 Contracting States shall make provisions whereby procedures for the clearance of
goods carried by air and for the interchange of air cargo with surface transport,
including those normally applied for aviation security purposes as well as those
appropriate for narcotics control, will be applied and carried out in such a manner as
to retain the advantage of speed inherent in air transport and to avoid delay.
212 ......
Ancillary Services
C. Clearance of export cargo
......
4.13 Contracting States shall make arrangements consistent with aviation security, as
well as those appropriate for narcotics control, which permits operators to select and
load cargo, including unaccompanied baggage, and stores on outbound aircraft up to
the time of departure.
......
4.15 Except for reasons of aviation security, Contracting States shall not normally
require physical examination of cargo, including unaccompanied baggage, to be
exported by air.
Note.— This provision is not intended to prevent authorities from examining goods
exported under certain conditions, e.g. under bond, licence or drawback, nor is it
intended to preclude other essential examinations including any appropriate narcotics
control measures.
......
4.17 Contracting States shall permit cargo, including unaccompanied baggage which
is to be exported by air, to be presented for clearance purposes at any approved
customs office. Transfer from the first office to the air customs office of the airport
where the cargo, including unaccompanied baggage, is to be laden on the aircraft,
shall be affected in accordance with the procedure laid down in the laws and
regulations of the State concerned. Such procedure shall be as simple as possible,
making due allowance for aviation security requirements, and any appropriate
narcotics control measures.
......
G. Aircraft equipment, stores and parts
......
4.48 Recommended Practice.— Ground equipment and security equipment imported
into the territory of a Contracting State by an airline of another Contracting State for
use within the limits of an international airport in connection with the establishment or
maintenance of an international service operated by that airline should be admitted
free of customs duties and, as far as possible, other taxes and charges, subject to
compliance with the regulations of the Contracting State concerned. Such regulations
should not unreasonably interfere with the necessary use by the airline concerned of
such ground equipment and security equipment.
Note.— It is the intent of this provision that items such as the following should be
admissible under the above provision, and it is not desired to discourage a
Contracting State from allowing once-admitted items to be used by another foreign
airline or at a location other than an international airport:
......
a) Security equipment:
— weapon-detecting devices;
— explosives-detecting devices;
— intrusion-detecting devices.
b) Component parts for incorporation into security equipment.
...... 213
Airport Safety
4.51 Contracting States shall establish procedures for airlines and/or operators of other and Security
Contracting States allowing the prompt entry into or departure from their territories of
aircraft equipment, spare parts, ground, training and security equipment, whether or
not they are free of customs duties and other taxes and charges, under the provisions
of this Annex or any other arrangements. Contracting States shall grant prompt
clearance for the importation and exportation of such goods upon completion of
simplified documentary procedures by the airlines or operators concerned. These
arrangements shall not extend to goods intended for general sale, food, beverages and
tobacco.
......
4.53 Contracting States shall allow the loan of aircraft equipment and spare parts and
security equipment and spare parts between airlines, when these are used in
connection with the establishment or maintenance of scheduled international air
services, without payment of customs duties or other taxes or charges subject only to
control measures which may provide that repayment of the loan is normally to be
accomplished by means of the return of articles that are qualitatively and technically
similar and of the same origin, and in any event that no profit-making transaction is
involved.
......
Chapter 6. International airports —facilities and services for traffic
A. General
6.1 Contracting States shall take all necessary steps to secure the co-operation of
operators and airport administrations in ensuring that satisfactory facilities and
services are provided for rapid handling and clearance of passengers, crew, baggage,
cargo and mail at their international airports. Such facilities and services shall be
flexible and capable of expansion to meet anticipated growth in traffic volume, or
increased security measures during higher threat situations, while permitting
appropriate narcotics control measures.
Note.— With respect to the application of aviation security measures, attention is
drawn to the relevant specification in Annex 17, Chapter 2 [2.2].
......
B. Airport traffic flow arrangements

......
III. Outbound passengers, crew and baggage
......
6.22 Recommended Practice.— In order to facilitate aircraft departure, Contracting
States, in examining passengers as a security measure, or for purposes of narcotics
control as appropriate, should, to the extent feasible, utilize specialized equipment in
conducting such examinations so as to reduce materially the number of persons to be
searched by other means.
Note 1.— The use of radiological techniques for screening passengers should be
avoided.
Note 2.— Privacy should be assured when a thorough physical search is to be carried
out. If special rooms are not available, portable screens may be used for this purpose.
214 6.23 Recommended Practice.— In order to facilitate aircraft departure, Contracting
Ancillary Services
States, in examining baggage of passengers departing from their territory as a security
measure, or for narcotics control purposes as appropriate, should, to the extent
feasible, utilize specialized equipment in conducting such examinations so as to
reduce materially the amount of baggage to be searched by other means.
......
V. Transit and transfer of passengers and crew
......
6.34 Recommended Practice.— Contracting States should ensure that physical
facilities at airports are provided, where the volume and nature of the traffic so
require, whereby crew and passengers in direct transit on the same aircraft, or
transferring to other flights, may remain temporarily without being subject to
inspection formalities, except for aviation security measures, or in special
circumstances.
Note.— This provision is not intended to prevent the application of appropriate
narcotics control measures.
......
VII. Cargo and mail handling and clearance facilities
......
6.44 Recommended Practice.— Adequate space should be available in cargo terminals
for storage and handling of air cargo, including building up and breaking down of
pallet and container loads, located next to the customs area and easily accessible to
authorized persons and vehicles from both the apron and the landside road. Such
arrangements should take into account aviation security and appropriate narcotics
control measures.
......
6.46 Recommended Practice.— Cargo terminals should be equipped with storage
facilities as appropriate for special cargo (e.g. valuable goods, perishable shipments,
human remains, radioactive and other dangerous goods, as well as live animals).
Those areas of cargo terminals in which general and special cargo and mail are stored
prior to shipment by air should be protected against access by unauthorized persons at
all times.
.....
Chapter 8. Other facilitation provisions
A. Bonds and exemption from requisition or seizure
......
8.2 Recommended Practice.— The aircraft, ground equipment, security equipment,
spare parts and technical supplies of an airline located in a Contracting State (other
than the Contracting State in which such airline is established) for use in the operation
of an international air service serving such Contracting State, should be exempt from
the laws of such Contracting State authorizing the requisition or seizure of aircraft,
equipment, parts or supplies for public use, without prejudice to the right of seizure
for breaches of the laws of the Contracting State concerned.
215
Extracts from Annex 10 — Aeronautical Telecommunications, Volume IV Airport Safety
(Surveillance Radar and Collision Avoidance Systems) and Security
Chapter 2. General
......
2.1 SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR (SSR)
......
2.1.4 Mode A reply codes (information pulses)
......
2.1.4.2.1 Code 7700 to provide recognition of an aircraft in an emergency. . . . . . .
2.1.4.2.3 Code 7500 to provide recognition of an aircraft which is being subjected to
unlawful interference.
2.1.4.3 Appropriate provisions shall be made in ground decoding equipment to ensure
immediate recognition of Mode A codes 7500, 7600 and 7700.
Extracts from Annex 11 — Air Traffic Services
Chapter 2. General
......
2.22 Service to aircraft in the event of an emergency
2.22.1 An aircraft known or believed to be in a state of emergency, including being
subjected to unlawful interference, shall be given maximum consideration, assistance
and priority over other aircraft as may be necessitated by the circumstances.
Note.— To indicate that it is in a state of emergency, an aircraft equipped with an
appropriate data link capability and/or an SSR transponder might operate the
equipment as follows:
a) on Mode A, Code 7700; or
b) on Mode A, Code 7500, to indicate specifically that it is being subjected to
unlawful interference; or
c) activate the appropriate emergency and/or urgency capability of ADS; or
d) transmit the appropriate emergency message via CPDLC.
......
2.22.2 When an occurrence of unlawful interference with an aircraft takes place or is
suspected, ATS units shall attend promptly to requests by the aircraft. Information
pertinent to the safe conduct of the flight shall continue to be transmitted and
necessary action shall be taken to expedite the conduct of all phases of the flight,
especially the safe landing of the aircraft.
......
Chapter 5. Alerting service
5.1 Application
5.1.1 Alerting service shall be provided: . . . . . .
c) to any aircraft known or believed to be the subject of unlawful interference. . . . . . .
5.2 Notification of rescue coordination centres
216 5.2.1 Without prejudice to any other circumstances that may render such notification
Ancillary Services
advisable, air traffic services units shall, except as prescribed in 5.5.1, notify rescue
coordination centres immediately an aircraft is considered to be in a state of
emergency in accordance with the following:
......
b) Alert phase when:

......
except when evidence exists that would allay apprehension as to the safety of the
aircraft and its occupants, or when
4) an aircraft is known or believed to be the subject of unlawful interference.
......
5.5 Information to the operator
5.5.1 When an area control or a flight information centre decides that an aircraft is in
the uncertainty or the alert phase, it shall, when practicable, advise the operator prior
to notifying the rescue coordination centre.
Note.— If an aircraft is in the distress phase, the rescue coordination centre has to be
notified immediately in accordance with 5.2.1.
5.5.2 All information notified to the rescue coordination centre by an area control or
flight information centre shall, whenever practicable, also be communicated, without
delay, to the operator.
5.6 Information to aircraft operating in the vicinity of an aircraft in a state of
emergency
5.6.1 When it has been established by an air traffic services unit that an aircraft is in a
state of emergency, other aircraft known to be in the vicinity of the aircraft involved
shall, except as provided in 5.6.2, be informed of the nature of the emergency as soon
as practicable.
5.6.2 When an air traffic services unit knows or believes that an aircraft is being
subjected to unlawful interference, no reference shall be made in ATS air-ground
communications to the nature of the emergency unless it has first been referred to in
communications from the aircraft involved and it is certain that such reference will not
aggravate the situation.
Extracts From Annex 13 — Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation
Chapter 5. Investigation
......
Organization and Conduct of the Investigation
......
Responsibility of the Stateconducting the Investigation
......
Informing aviation security authorities
5.11 If, in the course of an investigation it becomes known, or it is suspected, that an
act of unlawful interference was involved, the investigator-in-charge shall
immediately initiate action to ensure that the aviation security authorities of the
State(s) concerned are so informed.
Extracts From Annex 14 — Aerodromes, Volume I — Aerodrome Design And 217
Airport Safety
Operations and Security
Chapter 3. Physical characteristics
......
3.13 Isolated aircraft parking position
3.13.1 An isolated aircraft parking position shall be designated or the aerodrome
control tower shall be advised of an area or areas suitable for the parking of an aircraft
which is known or believed to be the subject of unlawful interference, or which for
other reasons needs isolation from normal aerodrome activities.
3.13.2 Recommendation.— The isolated aircraft parking position should be located at
the maximum distance practicable and in any case never less than 100 m from other
parking positions, buildings or public areas, etc. Care should be taken to ensure that
the position is not located over underground utilities such as gas and aviation fuel and,
to the extent feasible, electrical or communication cables.
......
Chapter 5. Visual aids for navigation
......
5.3 Lights
......
5.3.21 Apron floodlighting
(see also 5.3.15.1 and 5.3.16.1)
Application
5.3.21.1 Recommendation.— Apron floodlighting should be provided on an apron, on
a de-icing/anti-icing facility and on a designated isolated aircraft parking position
intended to be used at night.
Note 1. — Where a de-icing/anti-icing facility is located in close proximity to the
runway and permanent floodlighting could be confusing to pilots, other means of
illumination of the facility may be required.
Note 2. — The designation of an isolated aircraft parking position is specified in 3.13.
Note 3. — Guidance on apron floodlighting is given in the Aerodrome Design Manual,
Part 4.
......
Chapter 8. Equipment and installations
8.1 Secondary power supply
General
Application
8.1.1 Recommendation.— A secondary power supply should be provided, capable of
supplying the power requirements of at least the aerodrome facilities listed below:
......
e) essential security lighting, if provided in accordance with 8.5;
......
218 8.4 Fencing
Ancillary Services
Application
......
8.4.2 Recommendation.— A fence or other suitable barrier should be provided on an
aerodrome to deter the inadvertent or premeditated access of an unauthorized person
onto a non-public area of the aerodrome.
Note 1.— This is intended to include the barring of sewers, ducts, tunnels, etc., where
necessary to prevent access.
Note 2.— Special measures may be required to prevent the access of an unauthorized
person to runways or taxiways which overpass public roads.
8.4.3 Recommendation.— Suitable means of protection should be provided to deter
the inadvertent or premeditated access of unauthorized persons into ground
installations and facilities essential for the safety of civil aviation located off the
aerodrome.
Location
8.4.4 Recommendation.— The fence or barrier should be located so as to separate the
movement area and other facilities or zones on the aerodrome vital to the safe
operation of aircraft from areas open to public access.
8.4.5 Recommendation.— When greater security is thought necessary, a cleared area
should be provided on both sides of the fence or barrier to facilitate the work of
patrols and to make trespassing more difficult. Consideration should be given to the
provision of a perimeter road inside the aerodrome fencing for the use of both
maintenance personnel and security patrols.
8.5 Security lighting
Recommendation.— At an aerodrome where it is deemed desirable for security
reasons, a fence or other barrier provided for the protection of international civil
aviation and its facilities should be illuminated at a minimum essential level.
Consideration should be given to locating lights so that the ground area on both sides
of the fence or barrier, particularly at access points, is illuminated.
......
Chapter 9. Emergency and other services
9.1 Aerodrome emergency planning
General
Introductory Note.— Aerodrome emergency planning is the process of preparing an
aerodrome to cope with an emergency occurring at the aerodrome or in its vicinity.
The objective of aerodrome emergency planning is to minimize the effects of an
emergency, particularly in respect of saving lives and maintaining aircraft operations.
The aerodrome emergency plan sets forth the procedures for coordinating the response
of different aerodrome agencies (or services) and of those agencies in the surrounding
community that could be of assistance in responding to the emergency. Guidance
material to assist the appropriate authority in establishing aerodrome emergency
planning is given in the Airport Services Manual, Part 7.
9.1.1 An aerodrome emergency plan shall be established at an aerodrome,
commensurate with the aircraft operations and other activities conducted at the
aerodrome.
9.1.2 The aerodrome emergency plan shall provide for the coordination of the actions 219
Airport Safety
to be taken in an emergency occurring at an aerodrome or in its vicinity. and Security
Note.— Examples of emergencies are: aircraft emergencies, sabotage including bomb
threats, unlawfully seized aircraft, dangerous goods occurrences, building fires and
natural disasters.
9.1.3 The plan shall coordinate the response or participation of all existing agencies
which, in the opinion of the appropriate authority, could be of assistance in responding
to an emergency.
Note.— Examples of agencies are:
— on the aerodrome: air traffic control unit, rescue and fire fighting services,
aerodrome administration, medical and ambulance services, aircraft operators,
security services, and police;
— off the aerodrome: fire departments, police, medical and ambulance services,
hospitals, military, and harbour patrol or coast guard.
9.1.4 Recommendation.— The plan should provide for cooperation and coordination
with the rescue coordination centre, as necessary.
9.1.5 Recommendation.— The aerodrome emergency plan document should include
at least the following:
a) types of emergencies planned for;
b) agencies involved in the plan;
c) responsibility and role of each agency, the emergency operations centre and the
command post, for each type of emergency;
d) information on names and telephone numbers of offices or people to be contacted
in the case of a particular emergency; and
e) a grid map of the aerodrome and its immediate vicinity.
.....
Emergency operations centre and command post
9.1.7 Recommendation.— A fixed emergency operations centre and a mobile
command post should be available for use during an emergency.
9.1.8 Recommendation.— The emergency operations centre should be a part of the
aerodrome facilities and should be responsible for the overall coordination and general
direction of the response to an emergency.
9.1.9 Recommendation.— The command post should be a facility capable of being
moved rapidly to the site of an emergency, when required, and should undertake the
local coordination of those agencies responding to the emergency.
9.1.10 Recommendation.— A person should be assigned to assume control of the
emergency operations centre and, when appropriate, another person the command
post.
Communication system
9.1.11 Recommendation.— Adequate communication systems linking the command
post and the emergency operations centre with each other and with the participating
agencies should be provided in accordance with the plan and consistent with the
particular requirements of the aerodrome.
220 Aerodrome emergency exercise
Ancillary Services
9.1.12 The plan shall contain procedures for periodic testing of the adequacy of the
plan and for reviewing the results in order to improve its effectiveness.
Note.— The plan includes all participating agencies and associated equipment.
9.1.13 The plan shall be tested by conducting:
a) a full-scale aerodrome emergency exercise at intervals not exceeding two years;
and
b) partial emergency exercises in the intervening year to ensure that any deficiencies
found during the full-scale aerodrome emergency exercise have been corrected;
and
reviewed thereafter, or after an actual emergency, so as to correct any deficiency
found during such exercises or actual emergency.
Note.— The purpose of a full-scale exercise is to ensure the adequacy of the plan to
cope with different types of emergencies. The purpose of a partial exercise is to ensure
the adequacy of the response to individual participating agencies and components of
the plan, such as the communications system.
Extracts From Annex 18 — The Safe Transport of dangerous Goods By Air
Chapter 2. Applicability
.....
2.2 Dangerous Goods Technical Instructions
2.2.1 Each Contracting State shall take the necessary measures to achieve compliance
with the detailed provisions contained in the Technical Instructions for the Safe
Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air (Doc 9284), approved and issued periodically
in accordance with the procedure established by the ICAO Council. Each Contracting
State shall also take the necessary measures to achieve compliance with any amend-
ment to the Technical Instructions which may be published during the specified period
of applicability of an edition of the Technical Instructions.
2.2.2 Recommendation.— Each Contracting State should inform ICAO of difficulties
encountered in the application of the Technical Instructions and of any amendments
which it would be desirable to make to them.
......
Chapter 10. Establishment of training programmes
Dangerous goods training programmes shall be established and updated as provided
for in the Technical Instructions.
Extracts from Doc 9284 — Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of
Dangerous Goods by Air
Part 1. General
......
+ Chapter 4 Training
Parts of this Chapter are affected by State Variations CA 5, HK 1; see Table A-1
4.1 Establishment of Training Programmes
4.1.1 Initial and recurrent dangerous goods training programmes must be established
and maintained by or on behalf of: . . . . . .
g) agencies engaged in the security screening of passengers and their baggage. 221
Airport Safety
Extracts from the Procedures for Air Navigation Services —Air Traffic Management and Security
(DOC 4444)
Chapter 5. Separation methods and minima
......
5.2 General Provisions for the Separation of Controlled Traffic
......
5.2.1.2 Larger separations than the specified minima should be applied whenever
exceptional circumstances such as unlawful interference or navigational difficulties
call for extra precautions. This should be done with due regard to all relevant factors
so as to avoid impeding the flow of air traffic by the application of excessive
separations.
Note — Unlawful interference with an aircraft constitutes a case of exceptional
circumstances which might require the application of separations larger than the
specified minima, between the aircraft being subjected to unlawful interference and
other aircraft.
......
Chapter 15. Procedures related to emergencies, communication failure and
contingencies
15.1 Emergency Procedures
15.1.1 General
15.1.1.1 The various circumstances surrounding each emergency situation preclude
the establishment of exact detailed procedures to be followed. The procedures outlined
herein are intended as a general guide to air traffic services personnel. Air traffic
control units shall maintain full and complete coordination, and personnel shall use
their best judgement in handling emergency situations.
Note 1.— Additional radar procedures to be applied in relation to emergencies and
contingencies are contained in Chapter 8, 8.8.1
Note 2.— If the pilot of an aircraft encountering a state of emergency has previously
been directed by ATC to operate the transponder on a specific code, that code will
normally be maintained unless, in special circumstances, the pilot has decided or has
been advised otherwise. Where ATC has not requested a code to be set, the pilot will
set the transponder to Mode A Code 7700.
15.1.1.2 When an emergency is declared by an aircraft, the ATS unit should take
appropriate and relevant action as follows:
a) unless clearly stated by the flight crew or otherwise known, take all necessary
steps to ascertain aircraft identification and type, the type of emergency, the
intentions of the flight crew as well as the position and level of the aircraft;
b) decide upon the most appropriate type of assistance which can be rendered;
c) enlist the aid of any other ATS unit or other services which may be able to provide
assistance to the aircraft;
d) provide the flight crew with any information requested as well as any additional
relevant information, such as details on suitable aerodromes, minimum safe alti-
tudes, weather information;
222 e) obtain from the operator or the flight crew such of the following information as
Ancillary Services
may be relevant: number of persons on board, amount of fuel remaining, possible
presence of hazardous materials and the nature thereof; and
f) notify the appropriate ATS units and authorities as specified in local instructions.
15.1.1.3 Changes of radio frequency and SSR code should be avoided if possible and
should normally be made only when or if an improved service can be provided to the
aircraft concerned. Manoeuvring instructions to an aircraft experiencing engine failure
should be limited to a minimum. When appropriate, other aircraft operating in the
vicinity of the aircraft in emergency should be advised of the circumstances.
Note.— Requests to the flight crew for the information contained in 15.1.1.2 e) will be
made only if the information is not available from the operator or from other sources
and will be limited to essential information.
15.1.2 Priority
An aircraft known or believed to be in a state of emergency, including being subjected
to unlawful interference, shall be given priority over other aircraft.
15.1.3 Unlawful interference and aircraft bomb threat
15.1.3.1 Air traffic services personnel shall be prepared to recognize any indication of
the occurrence of unlawful interference with an aircraft.
15.1.3.2 Whenever unlawful interference with an aircraft is suspected, and where
automatic distinct display of SSR Mode A Code 7500 and Code 7700 is not provided,
the radar controller shall attempt to verify any suspicion by setting the SSR decoder to
Mode A Code 7500 and thereafter to Code 7700.
Note.— An aircraft equipped with an SSR transponder is expected to operate the
transponder on Mode A Code 7500 to indicate specifically that it is the subject of
unlawful interference. The aircraft may operate the transponder on Mode A Code
7700, to indicate that it is threatened by grave and imminent danger and requires
immediate assistance.
15.1.3.3 Whenever unlawful interference with an aircraft is known or suspected or a
bomb threat warning has been received, ATS units shall promptly attend to requests
by, or to anticipated needs of, the aircraft, including requests for relevant information
relating to air navigation facilities, procedures and services along the route of flight
and at any aerodrome of intended landing, and shall take such action as is necessary to
expedite the conduct of all phases of the flight.
15.1.3.3.1 ATS units shall also:
a) transmit, and continue to transmit, information pertinent to the safe conduct of the
flight, without expecting a reply from the aircraft;
b) monitor and plot the progress of the flight with the means available, and
coordinate transfer of control with adjacent ATS units without requiring trans-
missions or other responses from the aircraft, unless communication with the
aircraft remains normal;
c) inform, and continue to keep informed, appropriate ATS units, including those in
adjacent FIRs, which may be concerned with the progress of the flight;
Note.— In applying this provision, account must be taken of all the factors which may
affect the progress of the flight, including fuel endurance and the possibility of sudden
changes in route and destination. The objective is to provide, as far in advance as is
practicable in the circumstances, each ATS unit with appropriate information as to the
expected or possible penetration of the aircraft into its area of responsibility.
d) notify: 223
Airport Safety
1) the operator or its designated representative; and Security
2) the appropriate rescue coordination centre in accordance with appropriate

alerting procedures;
3) the designated security authority;
Note.— It is assumed that the designated security authority and/or the operator
will in turn notify other parties concerned in accordance with pre-established
procedures.
e) relay appropriate messages, relating to the circumstances associated with the
unlawful interference, between the aircraft and designated authorities.
15.1.3.4 The following additional procedures shall apply if a threat is received
indicating that a bomb or other explosive device has been placed on board a known
aircraft. The ATS unit receiving the threat information shall:
a) if in direct communication with the aircraft, advise the flight crew without delay
of the threat and the circumstances surrounding the threat; or
b) if not in direct communication with the aircraft, advise the flight crew by the most
expeditious means through other ATS units or other channels.
15.1.3.5 The ATS unit in communication with the aircraft shall ascertain the intentions
of the flight crew and report those intentions to other ATS units which may be
concerned with the flight.
15.1.3.6 The aircraft shall be handled in the most expeditious manner whilst ensuring,
to the extent possible, the safety of other aircraft and that personnel and ground
installations are not put at risk.
15.1.3.7 Aircraft in flight shall be given re-clearance to a requested new destination
without delay. Any request by the flight crew to climb or descend for the purpose of
equalizing or reducing the differential between the outside air pressure and the cabin
air pressure shall be approved as soon as possible.
15.1.3.8 An aircraft on the ground should be advised to remain as far away from other
aircraft and installations as possible and, if appropriate, to vacate the runway. The
aircraft should be instructed to taxi to a designated or isolated parking area in
accordance with local instructions. Should the flight crew disembark passengers and
crew immediately, other aircraft, vehicles and personnel should be kept at a safe
distance from the threatened aircraft.
15.1.3.9 ATS units shall not provide any advice or suggestions concerning action to be
taken by the flight crew in relation to an explosive device.
15.1.3.10 An aircraft known or believed to be the subject of unlawful interference or
which for other reasons needs isolation from normal aerodrome activities shall be
cleared to the designated isolated parking position. Where such an isolated parking
position has not been designated, or if the designated position is not available, the
aircraft shall be cleared to a position within the area or areas selected by prior
agreement with the aerodrome authority. The taxi clearance shall specify the taxi route
to be followed to the parking position. This route shall be selected with a view to
minimizing any security risks to the public, other aircraft and installations at the
aerodrome.
Note.— See Annex 14, Volume I, Chapter 3.
224 Extracts From the Procedures for Air Navigation Services —Aircraft Operations
Ancillary Services
(Doc 8168), Volume I — Flight Procedures
PART VIII. — Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) Transponder Operating
Procedures
Chapter 1
Operation of Transponders
......
1.4 Emergency Procedures
1.4.1 The pilot of an aircraft encountering a state of emergency shall set the
transponder to Mode A Code 7700 except when previously directed by ATC to
operate the transponder on a specified code. In the latter case the pilot shall maintain
the specified code unless otherwise advised by ATC.
1.4.2 Notwithstanding the procedures at 1.4.1, a pilot may select Mode A Code 7700
whenever there is a specific reason to believe that this would be the best course of
action.
......
1.6 Unlawful Interference with Aircraft in Flight
1.6.1 Should an aircraft in flight be subjected to unlawful interference, the pilot-in-
command shall endeavour to set the transponder to Mode A Code 7500 to give
indication of the situation unless circumstances warrant the use of Code 7700.
1.6.2 A pilot, having selected Mode A Code 7500 and subsequently requested to
confirm this code by ATC in accordance with 1.1.5 shall, according to circumstances,
either confirm this or not reply at all.
Note.— The absence of a reply from the pilot will be taken by ATC as an indication
that the use of Code 7500 is not due to an inadvertent false code selection.
225
Airport Safety
and Security
MODEL QUESTION PAPER
BBA (Annual Pattern)
Second Year
Sub: Ancillary Services
Time: 3 hours Total Marks: 100
Direction: There are total eight questions, each carrying 20 marks. You have to
attempt any five questions.
1. What is ground handling? Explain the roles and responsibilities of ground handlers
at airports.
2. What is passenger handling? Define specialized handling of physically challenged
passengers.
3. Explain cargo services at export shed, import shed and at transit shed.
OR
Define airway bill along with its functions, purposes and validation.
4. What do you understand by air cargo? Define the types of air cargos.
OR
Explain escorting. Does escorting includes security or excludes? Signify.
5. Differentiate between accommodation and hospitality services.
6. What is airport management? Does airline management and airport management
are synonyms or not? Explain.
7. Explore the access point and access control mechanism. Discuss the physical
access control system components using by aviation security.
8. What do you mean by security screening procedure? Discuss the in-flight safety
and security.

BBA AA Ancillary Services

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ANCILLARY SERVICES

1.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Figure 1.1: Ground Handling

1.3 FUNCTIONS OF GROUND HANDLING

8. Fueling of the aircraft

1.4 GROUND HANDLER

1.5.1 Inside the Airport Terminal

1.5.2 Outside the Airport Terminal

1. Ground handling covers a wide variety of services for airlines delivered at

1.6 CATEGORIES OF GROUND HANDLING

Figure 1.2: Overview of the Ground Handling Activities

Figure 1.3: Ramp Handling

Figure 1.4: Baggage Handling

1.7 SELF-HANDLING AND OUTSOURCING/THIRD PARTY

Figure 1.7: Freedoms and Possible Restrictions of Council Directive 96/97/EC

1.7.1 Self-handling Companies

1.7.2 Third Party Ground Handling Companies

Selection Procedure for Ground Handling Companies

Check Your Progress 2

1.8 LET US SUM UP

1.9 LESSON END ACTIVITY

1.11 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

Check Your Progress: Model Answers

1.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

2.2 INTERNATIONAL AIR TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION

Figure 2.1: IATA

2.3 IATA’S TWO-TIER SYSTEMS

2.4 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Check Your Progress 1

2.5 IATA: FORM A NEW TRADE ASSOCIATION TO A

Who Can Join

Annual General Meetings

Check Your Progress 2

Case Study 1: At Abroad Denver International Airport Baggage

Case Study 2: At India/Abroad the No Frills Model

2.7 LET US SUM UP

2.8 LESSON END ACTIVITY

2.10 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

Check Your Progress: Model Answers

2.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

3.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

3.2 PASSENGER HANDLING

3.3 PASSENGER ARRIVAL & DEPARTURE PROCEDURES

Figure 3.1: Flow Chart of Passenger Arrival & Departure

3.5 PASSENGER FLOW IN THE AIRPORT

Figure 3.2: Passenger Flow in the Airport

Figure 3.3: Various Areas of the Airport

Figure 3.4: Spatial Distribution of Passenger Types

Transfer/Transit Passengers: (International Transfer Passengers with a Domestic

Transit Passengers: (Domestic Transfer Passengers with an International

Transfer Passengers: (Domestic Transfer Passengers with a Domestic Connection

Transit Passengers: (Passengers Continuing Their Journey on the Same Flight)

3.6.4 Problems with Passengers

Check Your Progress 1

3.7 BAGGAGE HANDLING

3.7.1 Types of Baggage

3.7.2 Steps in Baggage Handling

3.8 AIRPORT PASSENGER AND BAGGAGE

Case Study: Transfer Passengers’ Perceptions of Airport Service

3.9 LET US SUM UP

3.10 LESSON END ACTIVITY

3.12 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

3.13 SUGGESTED READINGS