?

T`agfmñclaf Goalfgom d`
Jìxlaf
Lgstltutf T`agfmñclaf d` Qomtlmmf

^rfa`sfs d` Jogueoaturo
Dr. Xoûm B`rr`ro J`gdfzo

Pgldod
^rfa`sfs 4
d` uglñg
K`sûs Omh`rtf J`gdfzo Jortêg`z
?2>0?3<?

8? d` kuglf d`m 8>8?

 8

ODB@QLUFQ
Mo t`rjlgfmfcêo `s ug pfaf ljpr`also, p`rf ug odb`slvf `struaturom `s `m qu`
`stohm`a` ugo uglñg p`rjog`gt` `gtr` dfs port`s d` joyfr r`slst`galo
(odb`r`gdfs). Q` `sp`ro qu` mo uglñg r`t`gco su aopoaldod d` sfpfrt` d` aorco
durogt` ug morcf p`rlfdf, hokf ugo crog vorl`dod d` afgdlalfg`s ojhl`gtom`s, o

j`gudf bfstlm`s.
d` otrlhutfs D` `sto
d`s`ohm`s, jog`ro,
juabfs d`ug odb`slvf
ìstfs `struaturom
`stïg mlcodfs d`h`
o mos pfs``r ugd`
prfpl`dod`s gûj`rf
mfs
pfmêj`rfs.
?. @m odb`slvf d`h` t`g`r suelal`gt` r`slst`galo afb`slvo o mo t`jp`roturo d`
s`rvlalf. Mo r`slst`galo om afrt` `stï cfh`rgodo pfr mo afjpfslalñg ougqu`, poro
opmlaoalfg`s o morcf pmozf, mo r`slst`galo o mo t`rjfemu`galo -qu` c`g`romj`gt` `s
j`gfr qu` mo r`slst`galo o afrtf pmozf--`s d` crog lgt`rìs. Juabfs odb`slvfs sfg
t`rjfelkfs y `g `mmfs `m crodf d` `gmozojl`gtf aruzodf s` pu`d` lgar`j`gtor poro
`m`vor mo r`slst`galo o mo t`rjfemu`galo, ougqu` gfrjomj`gt` o afsto d` mo
em`xlhlmldod d`m `gmoa`. ^fr `k`jpmf, `g mfs `pñxlafs ugo s`poroalñg prfj`dlf d`
mfs `gmoa`s aruzodfs d` = 8 gj prfpfralfgo ug `gmoa` eu`rt` p`rf erïclm9 s`
fhtl`g` omcugo t`goaldod ouj`gtogdf mo s`poroalñg bosto oprfxljodoj`gt` 1
gj, yo7 1 gj `m `gmoa` s` vu`mv` suov` y em`xlhm`. Mo r`slst`galo o mo
t`rjfemu`galo tojhlìg s` lgar`j`gto om ocr`cor r`mm`gfs. Ìstfs sfg
portlaumorj`gt` ljpfrtogt`s `g mfs t`rjfpmïstlafs, p`rf tojhlìg s` usog poro
j`kfror mos prfpl`dod`s d` ljpoatf d` mfs t`rjf`stohm`s.

mf r`slst`galo om afrtogt` d` mfs odb`slvfs d`amlgf rïpldoj`gt` f ugf t`jp`roturo

qu` d`p`gd` d` mo afjpfslalñg, y mljltf su rogcf d` opmlaoalñg. (o) Odb`slvfs `g
postf y mêquldfs, (h) odb`slvfs `g algto, p`mêaumo, y afg hos` d` sfmv`gt`s.
8. @m odb`slvf d`h` s`r aopoz d` dlstrlhulr mfs `seu`rzfs ljpu`stfs `g `m s`rvlalf.
Mo em`xlhlmldod oyudo o r`dualr mos afga`gtroalfg`s d` `seu`rzfs qu` s` frlclgog

d` mosmoaorcos
`vlto j`aïglaos,
s`poroalñg do joyfr
aotostrñelao r`slst`galo
r`p`gtlgo o mo eotlco
`g `m aosf d` mo oeommo
mo uglñg
d` mo odb`slvo
uglñg. Ougy `g
 1

ous`galo d` aorcos j`aïglaos, mfs `seu`rzfs s` c`g`rog durogt` `m alamf tìrjlaf

pfrqu` mfs pfmêj`rfs tl`g`g, `g c`g`rom, af`elal`gt`s d` dlmotoalñg tìrjlao
joyfr`s qu` mfs j`tom`s. D` gu`vf mo em`xlhlmldod `s ûtlm y mfs r`mm`gfs s` `jpm`og
poro r`dualr mo dlmotoalñg tìrjlao bosto `g 30%.
1. @m odb`slvf gf d`h` suerlr d`crodoal5g afjf mo dlvlslñg d` mos aod`gos
j`dlogt` ocuo (bldrñmlsls) f pfr mo rodloalñg umtrovlfm`to, fxldoalñg, qu`jodf,
ocrl`tojl`gtf, pìrdldo d` afb`r`galo o mo t`jp`roturo d` fp`roalñg (d`crodoalñg
tìrjlao) f ocrl`tojl`gtf pfr afrrfslñg afg `seu`rzf f dlsfmualñg `g al`rtfs
j`dlfs.
4. Juabfs odb`slvfs s` opmlaog afjf mêquldfs, pfr mf qu` d`h`g t`g`r ugo
vlsafsldod suelal`gt`j`gt` hoko poro emulr d`gtrf d` mos ïr`os d` uglñg, p`rf gf
togtf qu` s` pl`rdog. Afg mfs t`rjfpmïstlafs s` r`qul`r` aom`gtojl`gtf pfr orrlho
d` mo Tc9 afg mfs t`rjfelkfs s` `jpm`o ug pr`pfmêj`rf qu` efrjo `gmoa`s aruzodfs
y pfmlj`rlzo d`spuìs d` mo opmlaoalñg. X`sumto ûtlm ugo dlsjlgualñg t`jpfrom d` mo
vlsafsldod `g `m afrtogt` (tlxftrfpêo).
0. @m d`sorrfmmf d` mfs `gmoa`s odb`slvfs r`qul`r` buj`atoalñg d` mos sup`relal`s
odb`rldos. Mo buj`atoalñg `s ug e`gñj`gf sup`relalom, qu` d`p`gd` `g crog
j`dldo d` mo goturom`zo d` mo sup`relal` odb`rldo, d` mo pr`s`galo d` p`mêaumos
sup`relalom`s odsfrhldos y d` mo jlcroalñg d` al`rtfs afjpfg`gt`s d`m odb`slvf o
mo sup`relal`.
Tlpfs d` odb`slvfs y su opmlaoalñg
Mos uglfg`s `struaturom`s d` omto aomldod s` `stohm`a`g sfmoj`gt` sl tfdos mos
eos`s d`m prfa`sf `stïg afjpm`toj`gt` afgtrfmodos.
?. @m dls`ÿf d` mo uglñg d`h` r`afgfa`r mos mljltoalfg`s d`m `gmoa` odb`slvf.
8. Mo pr`poroalñg sup`relalom `s arualom. Mos p`mêaumos frcïglaos sup`relalom`s sfg
doÿlgos afg mo joyfrêo d` (p`rf gf afg tfdfs) mfs odb`slvfs. Mos p`mêaumos d`
ñxldf sfg p`rkudlalom`s sl s` `gau`gtrog ugldos dìhlmj`gt`, `g togtf qu` ugo
p`mêaumo pfrfso d` ñxldf f ug r`auhrljl`gtf d` afgv`rslñg eu`rt`j`gt` `gmozodfs
sfg ûtlm`s. Q` bog d`sorrfmmodf tìaglaos `sp`alom`s d` pr`poroalñg sup`relalom poro
`vltor mo odb`slñg y poro pr`v`glr r`oaalfg`s lgd`s`ohm`s qu` frlclg`g mo
s`poroalñg d`m `gmoa` o morcf pmozf. Mfs ljprljodfr`s y mfs prfjftfr`s d` mo
odb`slñg sfg g`a`sorlfs auogdf `xlst` ug r`trosf `gtr` mo pr`poroalñg d` mo
sup`relal` y mo opmlaoalñg d`m odb`slvf.
1. Mo rucfsldod sup`relalom pu`d` s`r d`s`ohm` pfrqu` prfpfralfgo ug ïr`o joyfr
d` afgtoatf y ug `gtr`mozodf j`aïglaf. Qlg `jhorcf, `s dleêalm `mljlgor mos
p`mêaumos sup`relalom`s d` mfs vomm`s9 tojhlìg s` pu`d` otropor olr`, y `gtfga`s `m
`gmoa` `stï mljltodf o mos osp`r`zos. Mfs odb`slvfs o j`gudf s` amoslelaog pfr su
jfdf d` oaalñgs`cûg
mo amoslelaoalñg f ocrupojl`gtf quêjlaf9
`m jìtfdf d` poro gu`strf prfpñsltf, `s jïs r`m`vogt`
opmlaoalñg.
 4

Jìtfdfs d` opmlaoalñg Pg hu`g `gmoa` odb`slvf `s, `g c`g`rom, jïs eu`rt` qu` mo
r`slst`galo (d` afb`slñg) d`m au`rpf jïs dìhlm, qu` pu`d` s`r ugf d` mfs
odb`rldfs f `m odb`slvf jlsjf. ^fr mf togtf, gfrjomj`gt` s` fhtl`g` mo
r`slst`galo jïxljo afg p`mêaumos odb`slvos juy d`mcodos, ougqu` gf d`joslodf.
@stf s` os`curo om utlmlzor jìtfdf d` opmlaoalñg od`auodf.
?. Mfs odb`slvfs d` euslñg aoml`gt` sfg pfmêj`rfs t`rjfpmïstlafs. ^oro os`curor
buj`atoalñg y omto emuld`z, `m pfmêj`rf s` aoml`gto juy pfr `galjo d` su Tc y s`
opmlao `g afrdfg`s f r`d`s, afg `m `qulpf oprfplodf, o mos sup`relal`s qu` s` vog
o uglr. @m `gerlojl`gtf rïpldf `stohm`a` ug `gmoa`. Mo em`xlhlmldod d` mo uglñg `s
afgtrfmodo `mlcl`gdf ug pfmêj`rf od`auodf. Mo r`slst`galo om ocuo `s omto, p`rf mo
r`slst`galo om aomfr y o mo t`rjfemu`galo tl`gd`g o s`r hokos9 mos pfmlojldos y mfs
pfmlìst`r`s sfg od`auodfs poro opmlaoalfg`s d` omto t`jp`roturo. Boy juabos
opmlaoalfg`s `g mos lgdustrlos d` mo afgstruaalñg, `jpoqu`, jfhlmlorlf y d`m
aomzodf.
8. Mos algtos y mos p`mêaumos d` pfmêj`rfs t`rjfelkfs s` opmlaog o t`jp`roturo
ojhl`gt` y s` aurog o t`jp`roturo `m`vodo. Q` afjpfg`g d` ug pfmêj`rf a`gtrom
d` omtf p`sf jfm`aumor afjf `m vlglmf em`xlhm`, `m g`fpr`gf f `m aouabf gltrlmf, y d`
ugo r`slgo
e`gñmlaf d` `gaod`gojl`gtf
aurodfs d` hokf
afg ug aotomlzodfr. p`sf
^oro jfm`aumor
`vltor afjf
mo eomto d` ug `pñxlaf
odb`slvf, f ug ugo
s` utlmlzo
jommo d` sfpfrt` d`m jot`rlom d` r`eu`rzf, afjf mo elhro d` vldrlf. Q` opmlao pr`slñg
y s` prfdua`g uglfg`s afgelohm`s d` hu`go t`goaldod. Uorlfs jlm`s d` ilmfcrojfs
d` `sfs odb`slvfs s` `jpm`og `g mo afgstruaalñg d` ugo o`rfgov` crogd`. Mo
tìaglao tojhlìg s` opmlao o mo uglñg d` r`auhrljl`gtfs d` er`gfs, mojlgoalñg d`
vldrlf d` porohrlsos y poro ugo vorl`dod d` opmlaoalfg`s `g mo afgstruaalñg.
1. Mos postos afgslst`g d` pfmêj`rfs y afg er`au`galo tojhlìg afgtl`g`g r`mm`gfs.
Mos amos`s qu` s` `gau`gtrog jïs er`au`gt`j`gt` sfg `pñxlafs d` dfs
afjpfg`gt`s afg aurodf o t`jp`roturo ojhl`gt`, `pñxlafs d` ug afjpfg`gt`,
oag?lafs f pfmlur`togfs em`xlhm`s poro aurodf afg aomfr, o mfs qu` s` m`s ocr`co `m

aotomlzodfr
`mostñj`rfs,kustf ogt`s
elhros, d` ymopmïstlafs
t`mos opmlaoalñg. O j`gudf
r`efrzodfs afgs`elhro
`jpm`og poro
o oa`rf `g uglr
mos lgdustrlos
outfjftrlz y d` ortêaumfs `m`atrfdfjìstlafs. osê afjf poro p`cor j`tom afg j`tom.
Q` opmlaog j`dlogt` slst`jos dlsfalodfs poro jog`kor emuldfs d` omto vlsafsldod.
4. Mfs odb`slvfs ogo`rñhlafs sfg mêquldfs jfgfjìrlafs qu` tl`g`g mo prfpl`dod
lgusuom d` aurodf `g mo `xamuslñg d` olr`. Q` omjoa`gog `g r`alpl`gt`s
p`rj`ohm`s om olr` y aurog auogdf s` opmlaog o ugo s`poroalñg jêgljo qu`
`xamuy` fxêc`gf. D` obê qu` s` us`g ojpmloj`gt` afjf s`mmodfr`s y poro
sfst`g`r rfsaos y ftrfs suk`todfr`s (pfr `k`jpmf, Mfatlt`, ugo jorao r`clstrodo d`
mo Mfatlt` Afrpfrotlfg).
0. Mfs odb`slvfs d` aurodf pfr buj`dod lgamuy`g mfs alogfarlmotfs, qu` sfg
emuldfs d` hoko vlsafsldod qu` aurog `g afgtoatf afg sup`relal`s bûj`dos u
fxldodos (pfr mf qu` s` p`cog lgstogtïg`oj`gt` o mo pl`m bujogo). Tl`g`g hoko
 0

r`slst`galo om d`spr`gdljl`gtf y o mo t`jp`roturo, p`rf sfg ûtlm`s `g mo lgdustrlo

`m`atrñglao y poro p`cor aouabf f pmïstlaf o j`tom. Omcugfs pfmlur`togfs y
slmlafgos tojhlìg s` aurog afg buj`dod.
5. Mfs odb`slvfs mêquldfs su`m`g afgt`g`r ug sfmv`gt`. Osê, mfs pmostlsfm`s d` ^UA,
omcugos v`a`s efrtlelaodfs afg ug `pñxlaf, s` usog poro `gsojhmor afer`s d`
outfjñvlm`s, topos d` aoku`mos, t`abfs, jfhlmlorlf y cohlg`t`s d` ortêaumfs
`m`atrfdfjìstlafs. Q` pu`d`g opmlaor pfr j`dlf d` ugo hrfabo, pfr rfaêf,
ljpr`slñg, `taìt`ro, p`rf `m sfmv`gt` pu`d` ar`or ug prfhm`jo ojhl`gtom.
3. Mos `jumslfg`s oaufsos d` pfmêj`rfs, afjf `m oa`totf d` pfmlvlglmf
(p`coj`gtf hmogaf) g`a`slto ug sustrotf pfrfsf poro p`rjltlr mo r`jfalñg d`m
ocuo.
2. Mfs odb`slvfs afgduatfr`s r`pr`s`gtog ugo amos` s`porodo. ^oro mo
afgduaalñg `mìatrlao, `m pmïstlaf (gfrjomj`gt` `pñxlaf) s` r`mm`go afg bosto 20%
d` bfku`mos d` pmoto9 poro afgduaalñg tìrjlao, s` ocr`co bosto 30% d` pfmvf d`
a`rïjlaf (omûjlgo).
O portlr d`m ogïmlsls ogt`rlfr, r`sumto `vld`gt` qu` mo uglñg
uglñg odb`slvo `s ug slst`jo
afjpu`stf pfr odb`r`gt`s, ñxldf d` j`tom, ljprljodfr, odb`slvf y `m `gtfrgf. ^fr
mf togtf, `g tfdfs mfs aosfs `s arualom `m afgtrfm tftom d` mo opmlaoalñg. @g
opmlaoalfg`s arêtlaos, afjf `g mo afgstruaalñg d` o`rfgov`s, mo pr`s`galo y
afgtlguldod d` mfs `gmoa`s `s v`rlelaodo pfr j`dlf d` tìaglaos GDT.

AFJ^FG@GT@Q J@AÏGLAFQ \ O ^X@QLÑG

@m `gsojhm` j`aïglaf ljpmlao `m usf d` dle`r`gt`s jìtfdfs d` suk`alñg poro
sfst`g`r kugtos `g efrjo j`aïglao dfs (f jïs) port`s. @g mo joyfrêo d` mfs
aosfs, mfs jìtfdfs d` suk`alñg ljpmlaog `m usf d` afjpfg`gt`s d` `qulpf
s`porodfs (suk`todfr`s), qu` s` ocr`cog o mos port`s durogt` `m `gsojhmodf.
?. Quk`todfr`s Xfsaodfs.
X`pr`s`gtog mo aot`cfrêo jïs ljpfrtogt` d`m `gsojhm` j`aïglaf. Qfg tfdfs
oqu`mmfs afjpfg`gt`s s`porodfs d`m `qulpf qu` tl`g`g rfsaos `xt`rgos f lgt`rgos
poro `m `gsojhm` d` port`s. C`g`romj`gt` p`rjlt`g `m d`s`gsojhm`.
 5

- Tfrglmmfs. Quk`todfr`s afg rfsaos `xt`rgos. ^fr mf c`g`rom s` `gsojhmo `g ug

frlelalf rfsaodf al`cf.
- ^`rgfs. Quk`todfr afg rfsao `xt`rgo qu` s` lgs`rto o trovìs d` frlelalfs `g
mos port`s y s` os`curo afg ugo tu`rao `g `m modf fpu`stf.
- Tu`raos. Quk`todfr afg rfsao lgt`rgo qu` aflgald` afg mo d` p`rgf d`m jlsjf
dlïj`trf, posf y efrjo d` rfsao.

Mfs tfrglmmfs s` eohrlaog `g joyfr vorl`dod y afgelcuroalfg`s qu` mfs p`rgfs, dodf
qu` sus eugalfg`s sfg jïs vorlodos.

o) Tfrglmmfs poro Jïqulgo. D` tlpf c`g`rom, dls`ÿodfs poro `gsojhm` `g bu`afs

rfsaodfs. ^u`d`g `gsojhmors` o tu`raos, y `g usf aflgaldlrêog afg mfs p`rgfs.
h) Tfrglmmfs d` Aoh`zo. Afg mo jlsjo c`fj`trêo d` mfs tfrglmmfs d` jïqulgo, p`rf
`stïg b`abfs d` j`tom`s afg joyfr r`slst`galo y tfm`rogalos jïs `str`abos.
a) Tfrglmmfs ^rlslfg`rfs. @stïg `gdur`aldfs y dls`ÿodfs poro eugalfg`s d`
`gsojhm` tom`s afjf afmmorlg`s d` suk`alñgY?Z
suk`alñg Y?Z,, `gcrog`s y pfm`os poro `k`s. Q`
eohrlao `g dlv`rsos c`fj`trêos.
d) Tfrglmmfs Outfrrfsaogt`s. @stï dls`ÿodf poro efrjor f afrtor mos rfsaos `g ug
frlelalf qu` yo `xlst`, d`gtrf d`m auom s` boa` clror.
Ftrfs Quk`todfr`s Xfsaodfs y @qulpfs.

o) ^`rgfs slg Aoh`zo (@spïrrocfs). @s ug suk`todfr afg rfsao `xt`rgo, o

`xa`palñg qu` gf pfs`` mo aoh`zo gfrjom qu` pfs`` ug p`rgf. Q` utlmlzo poro
`gsojhmor dfs port`s j`dlogt` ugo tu`rao. @stïg dlspfglhm`s afg rfsaos `g ug
`xtr`jf f `g ojhfs.
h) Lgs`rtfs afg Tfrglmmfs d` Xfsao. ^`rgfs slg aoh`zo afg rfsao lgt`rgo f rfmmfs d`
omojhr` b`abfs poro lgs`rtors` `g ug frlelalf slg rfsao y poro oa`ptor ug suk`todfr
afg rfsao `xt`rgo.
Q` `gsojhmog `g jot`rlom`s jïs dìhlm`s (^mïstlaf, jod`ro y j`tom`s mlc`rfs,

afjf `m jocg`slf)
`gsojhm` d`m tfrglmmfporo prfpfralfgor
d`gtrf d`m lgs`rtf,rfsaor eu`rt`s.
`m aoÿñg Tros `ms`
d`m lgs`rtf suhs`au`gt`
`xpogd` boalo mfs
modfs d`m frlelalf, os`curogdf `m `gsojhm`.
a) Quk`todfr`s Xfsaodfs ^rlslfg`rfs. Quk`todfr`s afg rfsao qu` s` bog
pr``gsojhmodf p`rjog`gt`j`gt` o ugo d` mos port`s qu` s` vog o uglr, `stf do
pl` o mo sfmdoduro pfr euslñg, sfmdoduro eu`rt`, om okust` d` pr`gso f `m efrjodf `g
erêf.
d) Orogd`mos. Afjpfg`gt` d` `qulpf qu` s` uso afg er`au`galo `g suk`todfr`s
rfsaodfs poro os`curor mo elrj`zo d` mo uglñg j`aïglao. @s tìrjlgfs s`galmmfs, `s
ug oglmmf d`mcodf pmogf d` abopo d` j`tom.
 3

8. X`joab`s.

@s ugo pugto afg aoh`zo slg rfsao qu` s` uso poro uglr dfs f jïs port`s.
Mo fp`roalñg d` d`efrjoalñg s` `k`auto `g aoml`gt` f `g erêf, y utlmlzo ug jortlmm`f
f pr`slñg afgstogt`. Pgo v`z afmfaodf, gf pu`d` r`jfv`rs`, o j`gfs qu` ugo d`
mos aoh`zos s` rfjpo (^`rjog`gt` - Q`jlp`rjog`gt`). B`rrojl`gtos y Jìtfdfs
d` Opmlaoalñg d` X`joab`.
?. ^fr ljpoatf. Pg jortlmmf g`ujïtlaf r`omlzo cfmp`s sua`slvfs poro r`aomaor `m
r`joab`.
8. D` afjpr`slñg uglefrj`. Pgo r`joabodfro prfpfralfgo pr`slñg afgstogt`
poro r`aomaor `m r`joab`.
1. Afjhlgoalñg d` Ljpoatf y Afjpr`slñg.

Fklmmfs
Qfg suk`todfr`s tuhumor`s d` por`d`s d`mcodos afg ug r`hfrd` `g ug `xtr`jf, y
c`g`romj`gt` `stïg b`abfs d` abopos j`tïmlaos. Qfg usodos poro prfdualr ugo
uglñg `jpomjodo p`rjog`gt` `gtr` dfs (f jïs) port`s pmogos. Qfg sustltuldfs
afg r`joab`s `g opmlaoalfg`s d` hokfs r`qu`rljl`gtfs d` t`gslñg poro obfrror
jot`rlom y afstfs.
Abov`tos d` Dfhm` ^ugto.
Qfg suk`todfr`s efrjodfs d` omojhr` afg ugo jltod r`dfgdo `g ugo abov`to
ûglao d` dfs aoÿos. @stos aoÿos f pugtos s` lgs`rtog `g mfs bu`afs d` mos port`s
qu` aflgdla`g y sus `xtr`jldod`s s` s`porog poro elkor `m `gsojhm`.
Opmlaoalfg`s; Os`curor port`s `g `k`s.
1. Okust`s d` Lgt`re`r`galo.
Boy vorlfs jìtfdfs d` `gsojhm` qu` s` hosog `g mo lgt`re`r`galo j`aïglao `gtr`
dfs port`s aflgald`gt`s qu` s` vog o uglr. Mo lgt`re`r`galo `s mf qu` jogtl`g`
kugtos dlabos port`s.

o) Okust` afg ^r`gso.

@s oqu`m dfgd` mfs afjpfg`gt`s tl`g`g ug dlspfsltlvf d` okust` pfr lgt`re`r`galo
`gtr` `mmfs. @m aosf têplaf `s auogdf ugo abov`to (Almêgdrlao X`ato) s` pr`slfgo

d`gtrf d` ug frlelalf
Opmlaoalfg`s; @gsojhm`d` dlïj`trf mlc`roj`gt`
d` afmmorlg`s, j`gfr.
@gcrog`s, ^fm`os y Afjpfg`gt`s Qljlmor`s
Qljlmor`s
 2

`g @k`s.

h) Okust` pfr Afgtroaalñg y pfr @xpogslñg.

@stfs okust`s boa`g r`e`r`galo om `gsojhm` d` dfs port`s qu` tl`g`g ug okust` pfr
lgt`re`r`galo o t`jp`roturo ojhl`gt`. (@k`jpmf; Abov`to).

-p`rjog`a`
Afgtroaalñg. Aoml`gto mo sup`relal`
o t`jp`roturo ojhl`gt` poro ocrogdormo,
f `s `gerlodo porojl`gtros
afgtro`rmosu
lgt`rgo
tojoÿf. Q`
`gsojhmog mos pl`zos,
pl`zos, y s` d`vu`mv` o tt`jp`roturo
`jp`roturo ojhl`gt`, y mo p port`
ort` `xt`rgo
s` `gafko y mo port` `xt`rgo s` `xpogdo poro efrjor ug sñmldf okust` pfr
lgt`re`r`galo.

- @xpogslñg; Qfmf mo port` lgt`rgo s` `gerêo y s` afgtro` poro ug `gsojhm`9 ugo

v`z lgs`rtodf mo lgt`re`r`galo, s` aoml`gto o t`jp`roturo ojhl`gt`, `xpogdl`gdf `m
`m`j`gtf poro ar`or `m `gsojhm` pfr lgt`re`r`galo.

a) Okust`s d` Ocorr` Outfjïtlaf y Og

Oglmmfs
lmmfs d
d`
` X`t
X`t`galñg.
`galñg.
Mfs okust`s d` ocorr` outfjïtlaf sfg ugo jfdlelaoalñg d` mfs okust`s pfr
lgt`re`r`galo. @st`moljpmlao
aflgald`g pfs``g mo uglñgt`jpfrom
lgt`re`r`galo d` dfs port`s,
jl`gtros`gs`
mosfprlj`g
auom`s mfs `m`j`gtfs
kugtfs, qu`
p`rf ugo
v`z `gsojhmodfs s` `gtr`mozog poro afgs`rvor `m `gsojhm`.

QFMDODPXO D@ @QTODF QÑMLDF

Om ogomlzor mo odb`slñg s` j`galfgñ qu` mfs `gmoa`s lgt`rotñjlafs s` `stohm`a`g
`stohm`a`g
oprfxljogdf jutuoj`gt` mfs ïtfjfs d` dfs sup`relal`s. @s ohsfmutoj`gt`
`s`galom qu` mos sup`relal`s qu` s` vog o uglr (tojhlìg mmojodos sup`relal`s d`
`jpomj`) `stìg mlhr`s d` afgtojlgogt`s (ñxldfs, p`mêaumos d` cos odsfrhldf f
r`sldufs muhrlaogt`s) qu` pfdrêog `vltor mo efrjoalñg d` `gmoa`s lgt`rotñjlafs.
@sto afgdlalñg `s dleêalm d` sotlseoa`r `g mo otjñse`ro d` mo Tl`rro, pfr mf qu` s`
d`h`g tfjor j`dldos poro g`utromlzor mfs `e`atfs d` mos p`mêaumos sup`relalom`s;
?. @m jfvljl`gtf r`motlvf `gtr` mos sup`relal`s oyudo o rfjp`r mos p`mêaumos
sup`relalom`s. Boa`r rucfso mo sup`relal` afg a`plmmodf d` omojhr` `s ûtlm pfrqu`, om
r`omlzor mo uglñg, mfs plafs s` d`efrjog.
8. Mo d`efrjoalñg pmïstlao d` mfs au`rpfs `g afgtoatf aouso ug ar`aljl`gtf,
`xt`gslñg d` mo sup`relal` lgt`reoalom y, sl mos p`mêaumos sup`relalom`s sfg lgaopoa`s
d` s`culrmo, s` `xpfg`g sup`relal`s gu`vos y er`saos qu` mu`cf efrjog sfmdoduros
d` `stodf sñmldf.
1. Ougqu` `g t`frêo gf s` r`qul`r` pr`slñg poro uglr sup`relal`s p`re`atoj`gt`
oafpmodos y mljplos, `g mo prïatlao `s g`a`sorlo ugo pr`slñg gfrjom poro os`curor

mo odoptoalñg d` mos sup`relal`s `g afgtoatf y poro rfjp`r mos p`mêaumos

sup`relalom`s.
 <

4. @m aomfr gf `s ugo port` `s`galom d`m prfa`sf hïslaf d` uglñg, p`rf `m

ohmogdojl`gtf d` mfs jot`rlom`s prfju`v` `m afgtoatf êgtljf y mo dleuslñg d`
ïtfjfs oyudo o mfcrormo. Qlg `jhorcf, mo dleuslñg `s lgoa`ptohm` auogdf dfs
j`tom`s dlsêjlm`s efrjog afjpu`stfs lgt`rj`tïmlafs qu` vu`mv`g erïclm o mo uglñg.
@g prlgalplf, s` pu`d`g uglr dfs jot`rlom`s auom`squl`ro y, `g `e`atf, mo uglñg d`
`stodf sñmldf o j`gudf s` opmlao auogdf ftros tìaglaos eommog. Gf fhstogt`, mos
j`kfr`s uglfg`s s` fhtl`g`g `gtr` j`tom`s auogdf `xlst` r`clstrf otñjlaf (`s
d`alr, mfs ïtfjfs d` dfs afjpfg`gt`s `stïg sljlmorj`gt` `spoalodfs y arlstomlzog
`g mo jlsjo `struaturo d` r`d). @stf slcglelao qu` mfs j`tom`s s` ug`g j`kfr afg
`mmfs jlsjfs y afg ftrfs, afg mfs qu` efrjog sfmualfg`s sñmldos.
Qfmdoduro `g erêf (AS)
@m tìrjlgf sfmdoduro `gerêf (AS) s` uso ojpmloj`gt` poro d`sarlhlr `m
prfa`sojl`gtf o t`jp`roturo ojhl`gt`.
?. Mo sfm
sfmdoduro
doduro d
d`
` trosm
trosmopf
opf s` hoso
hoso `g u
ugo
go `xpo
`xpogslñg
gslñg dd`
` 0> o <<>%
>% d` mmos
os
sup`relal`s auogdf s` lgtrfdua`g p`g`trodfr`s `g mo mïjlgo qu` s` vo o
uglr. Mfs bfjhrfs `g mfs p`g`trodfr`s mljltog mo dlstfrslñg y prfju`v`g mo
sfmdoduro.
 ?>

8. Mo sfmdoduro o tfp` d` omojhr`s `stohm`a` mo uglñg r`aomaogdf mfs `xtr`jfs d`m

omojhr` poro aousor `xpogslñg d` mo sup`relal`, s` r`eu`rzo oûg jïs auogdf s`
do ug clrf.
1. Mo uglñg afg rfdlmmfs f sfmdoduro afg rfdlmmfs (XFS) `s omtoj`gt` `e`atlvo
pfrqu` mos crogd`s r`duaalfg`s (d` 0> o 2>% `g ugo sfmo posodo) r`sumtog `g
crog `xt`gslñg y rfjpljl`gtf d` mos p`mêaumos sup`relalom`s. Mo uglñg s` pu`d`
`vltor mfaomj`gt` d`pfsltogdf ug oc`gt` d` s`poroalñg (olsmojl`gtf), afjf croeltf
f ug a`rïjlaf, `g ug potrñg pr`d`t`rjlgodf. Mu`cf, mo lgemoalñg pfr olr` f emuldf
pr`surlzodf prfdua` pl`zos afjf mos pmoaos d`m `vopfrodfr d`m r`erlc`rodfr.
4. @g mo sfmdoduro pfr `xpmfslñg (@RS), mo uglñg s` `stohm`a` o trovìs d` mo
d`efrjoalñg lgt`gso d` mo lgt`reos`. Pgo `st`rlmmo `xpmfslvo s` afmfao `galjo d` mo
mïjlgo f pmoao d` r`v`stljl`gtf (mo pmoao jñvlm), jogt`gldo o ugo dlstogalo arêtlao
d` mo sup`relal` d`m jot`rlom hos`. Auogdf `m `xpmfslvf `s d`tfgodf d`sd` ug
`xtr`jf, mo pr`slñg d`sorrfmmodo oa`m`ro mo pmoao jñvlm `g ug ïgcumf r`sp`atf o mo
sup`relal`. Hokf mo lgt`gso pr`slñg, s` efrjo ug abfrrf emuldf qu` `xpumso mfs
afgtojlgogt`s sup`relalom`s9 `m emukf turhum`gtf r`sumto `g mo efrjoalñg d`
r`jfmlgfs ocudfs f vñrtla`s `g mo lgt`reos`. @g juabfs aosfs gf boy euslñg, p`rf
mo afjhlgoalñg d` mo odb`slñg y d`m `gtr`mozodf j`aïglaf os`curo ugo uglñg
eu`rt`. Mo tìaglao s` utlmlzo poro r`v`stlr pmoaos crogd`s poro mo lgdustrlo quêjlao y
tojhlìg poro mo `xpogslñg lg sltu d` tuhfs poro efrjor mfs aoh`zom`s d` aomd`ros y
afgd`gsodfr`s tuhumor`s.
0. @g mo sfmdoduro umtrosñglao (PQS) s` lgdua` ug jfvljl`gtf r`motlvf d` mo
lgt`reos` j`dlogt` vlhroalñg togc`galom. Gf boy d`efrjoalñg `xt`gso, y `m prfa`sf
`s od`auodf poro mo sfmdoduro d` trosmopf d` bfkos y d` lgstruj`gtfs d`mlaodfs y
afjpfg`gt`s `m`atrñglafs, auogdf mo pugto d` sfmdoduro `s r``jpmozodo pfr ug
rfdlmmf, s` pu`d`g prfdualr sfmdoduros d` afsturo.
Qfmdoduro pfr dleuslñg
C`g`romj`gt`, s` fhtl`g` j`kfr uglñg auogdf mo t`jp`roturo `s suelal`gt`j`gt`
omto poro os`curor mo dleuslñg. Mo sfmdoduro pfr dleuslñg (DES) gf `s gu`vo9 pfr
slcmfs mfs kfy`rfs bog r`mm`godf frf afmfaogdf bfkos d` r`auhrljl`gtf sfhr` ug
gûam`f d` pmoto f d` afhr` y afjprljl`gdf `m mojlgodf afg ugo p`so. Om
jogt`g`rmf `g ug bfrgf pfr ug tl`jpf prfmfgcodf, s` fhtl`g` ugo uglñg
p`rjog`gt`. Mo pr`slñg r`qu`rldo tojhlìg s` pu`d` c`g`ror `g ugo pr`gso f
r`strlgcl`gdf `m `gsojhm` afg ug odltoj`gtf b`abf d` ug jot`rlom d` j`gfr
dlmotoalñg (er`au`gt`j`gt`, jfmlhd`gf). Tojhlìg s` uso `m tìrjlgf sfmdoduro `g
aoml`gt` pfr pr`slñg (B^S). @g mo dìaodo d` mfs 3>, mo tìaglao s` `xt`gdlñ o mo
afgstruaalñg d` eus`mok`s. Mo d`efrjoalñg sljumtïg`o oyudo `g crog j`dldo om
d`sorrfmmf d` ugo uglñg sñmldo, pfr mf togtf, mo sfmdoduro pfr dleuslñg afjhlgodo
afg `m efrjodf sup`r pmïstlaf bo d`jfstrodf s`r juy `xltfso. Psogdf dfs, tr`s f
 ??

auotrf mïjlgos, s` ljprlj`g potrfg`s afg ug olsmojl`gtf d` gltrurf d` hfrf. @m

`gsojhm` s` afmfao `g ugo aoko `voauodo.

(r`tfrto) jogt`gldo `g ugo pr`gso, y s` efrjog sup`relal`s lgt`crom`s jl`gtros sfg

sfpmodos mos aovldod`s. Afjf `m tltoglf dlsu`mv` sus ñxldfs y mos om`oalfg`s afjf
Tl5OL-4U tl`g`g `m p`qu`ÿf tojoÿf d` crogf g`a`sorlf poro `m efrjodf
sup`rpmïstlaf oug slg prfa`sojl`gtf `sp`alom, mos om`oalfg`s d` tltoglf sfg
goturom`s poro mo tìaglao. @s eoatlhm` mo afgsfmldoalñg d` pl`zos o crog `saomo. ^fr
`k`jpmf, `g mos o`rfgov`s d` omtf r`gdljl`gtf afjf mfs o`rfpmogfs aozo
sup`rsñglafs, `m eus`mok` s` afgstruy` d` ug r`v`stljl`gtf d`mcodf r`efrzodf afg
g`rvoduros d` afjpm`kldod afgsld`rohm`. Afgv`galfgomj`gt`, mos pl`zos d`
mïjlgo j`tïmlao, mos `xtruslfg`s y mos pmoaos afg aovldod`s er`sodos s` ug`g afg
jlm`s d` r`joab`s. Mo uglñg pfr dleuslñg afg efrjodf sup`rpmïstlaf r`dua` `m
gûj`rf d` pl`zos, mo jogf d` fhro, `m tl`jpf d` `gtr`co y `m afstf. Om opmlaor mos
tìaglaos o mos om`oalfg`s d` omujlglf, mo d`efrjoalñg `s vltom poro rfjp`r `m ñxldf
`stohm` y erïclm. Mo sfmdoduro pfr dleuslñg tojhlìg s` opmlao o mo jogueoaturo d`
afjpu`stfs d` jotrlz j`tïmlao (pfr `k`jpmf, tltoglf f omujlglf r`efrzodf afg elhro
d` hfrf). Auogdf mo uglñg gf faurro d`hldf o mo eomto d` sfmuhlmldod f r`sumt` `g mo

efrjoalñg d` ug afjpu`stf
qu` s`og jutuoj`gt` lgt`rj`tïmlaf
sfmuhm`s, `g efrjo erïclm,
d` bfkoss` pu`d`g usor
f mïjlgos aopos lgt`raomodos
d`mcodos. ^fr
`k`jpmf, mos sup`rom`oalfg`s s` ug`g d`spuìs d` `m`atrfabopor afg ugo om`oalñg
d` Gl-Af.
Qfmdoduro `g aoml`gt`
@m afga`ptf sfmdoduro `g aoml`gt` d`sarlh` mo sfmdoduro pfr d`efrjoalñg `g `m
rogcf d` t`jp`roturo d` trohokf `g aoml`gt`.
?. Mo sfmdoduro efrkodo (EFS) s` r`el`r` om prfa`sf d` sfmdoduro lgdustrlom jïs
ogtlcuf. @m `gmoa` s` ar`o pfr j`dlf d` mo d`efrjoalñg mfaom sustogalom d` mo
uglñg. Mos pl`zos d` trohokf aoml`gt`s y pr`efrjodos, usuomj`gt` d` bl`rrf f
oa`rf, s` efrko `m
poro os`curor g kugtos
`gmoa`poro `xpumsor mfs
lgt`rotñjlaf. ñxldfs, s`
Mo tìaglao mo `safrlo
`jpm`ohoy mfs
gfafgtojlgogt`s
sñmf poro uglr y
 ?8

(pfr `k`jpmf, efrkodf d` `smohfg`s d` aod`go), slgf tojhlìg poro mo sfmdoduro d`

tuhfs y poro efrjor, aopo pfr aopo, `spodos j`dl`vom`s ` lgamusf fhk`tfs juy
crogd`s, afjf ogamos. @s pfslhm` mo sfmdoduro efrkodo `g qu` mfs `xtr`jfs d` mos
pl`zos d` trohokf s` pr`gsog kugtfs oxlomj`gt` (sfmdoduro o tfp`), p`rf mo aomldod
d` mo kugto tl`gd` o s`r pfhr`.
8. @g mos vorlogt`s jïs r`al`gt`s d`m prfa`sf, `m aomfr `s prfpfralfgodf o trovìs
d`m aom`gtojl`gtf pfr lgduaalñg poro jlgljlzor mo fxldoalñg (Bc. ?2-3h). Juabf
j`gfs d`efrjoalñg `s suelal`gt`, pfr mf togtf, `s proatlaohm` mo sfmdoduro o tfp`
d` mos pl`zos d` trohokf.
1. @m aomfr tojhlìg s` pu`d` c`g`ror posogdf ugo afrrl`gt` o trovìs d` mos aoros
afjprljldos. Oatuomj`gt`, mo sfmdoduro `mìatrlao o tfp` s` bo r``jpmozodf `g
crog j`dldo pfr mo sfmdoduro o tfp` pfr ablspos.
4. Mo uglñg `g aoml`gt` pfr rfdlmmfs (sfmdoduro mojlgodo, XFS) s` utlmlzo
ojpmloj`gt` poro ar`or jot`rlom`s afjpu`stfs d` hokf afstf f omtf r`gdljl`gtf.
Osê, `m om`odf afjhlgo mo r`slst`galo o mo afrrfslñg d` ug r`v`stljl`gtf d`
omujlglf purf afg mo omto r`slst`galo d` ug gûam`f d` omujlglf `gdur`aldf pfr
pr`alpltoalñg. Q` `jpm`o oa`rf lgfxldohm` poro r`v`stlr oa`rf duma` poro
prft`aalñg afgtro mo afrrfslñg, y mos om`oalfg`s d` dle`r`gt` af`elal`gt` d`
dlmotoalñg tìrjlao s` ug`g poro ar`or algtos hlj`tïmlaos poro t`rjfstotfs. @m
mojlgodf, qu` afgslst` d` ugo pmoao hos` y d` mïjlgos d` auhl`rto, `s `ga`rrodf
y `voauodf sl s` d`h` `vltor mo fxldoalñg.

Qfmdoduro pfr erlaalñg (EXS)

@m trohokf d` erlaalñg c`g`rodf auogdf dfs au`rpfs s` d`smlzog ugf sfhr` ftrf s`
trogsefrjo `g aomfr9 auogdf mo ropld`z d`m d`smlzojl`gtf `s omto y `m aomfr `s
afgt`gldf `g ugo zfgo ogcfsto, faurr` mo sfmdoduro.
 ?1

@g mo EXS d` oaalfgojl`gtf afgtlguf, ugo pl`zo s` suk`to elrj`j`gt` jl`gtros mo

ftro (usuomj`gt` d` slj`trêo oxlom) `s clrodo hokf mo opmlaoalñg sljumtïg`o d`
pr`slñg oxlom. Mo t`jp`roturo s` lgar`j`gto, mos. zfgos sfmdodos poralomj`gt`
efrjodos s` afrtog, mos p`mêaumos sup`relalom`s s` rfjp`g9 r`p`gtlgoj`gt`, mo
rftoalñg s` d`tl`g` y ugo eu`rzo odlalfgom d` r`aomaodf `s opmlaodo auogdf tfdo mo
sup`relal` s` su`mdo. Omcf d`m jot`rlom suovlzodf `s `xpumsodf afrgf r`hoho, p`rf
gf
juy`stï afjpm`toj`gt`
d`mcodo9 amorf
osê qu` mfs³ sl `g r`omldod
j`tom`s dlsêjlm`sfaurr` mo euslñg.
s` ug`g Mo zfgo
eïalmj`gt`. @g moaom`gtodo
EXS d` `s
oaalfgojl`gtf pfr lg`ralo, mo rftoalñg `s ljportldo pfr ug vfmogt` d` lg`ralo, auyo
`g`rcêo s` aomaumo d` jog`ro qu` mo sfmdoduro s`o afjpm`todo auogdf mo rftoalñg
s` d`tl`g`. Mo EXS d` oaalfgojl`gtf afgtlguf s` r`omlzo `g tomm`r`s aoutlvfs d`
eohrlaogt`s outfjftfr`s y d` ortêaumfs `m`atrfdfjìstlafs, osê afjf `g tomm`r`s d`
trohokfs `sp`alomlzodfs. ^fr `k`jpmf, mfs aohm`s d` omujlglf d` mos mêg`os
`mìatrlaos d` dlstrlhualñg suht`rrïg`os s` d`h`g uglr o afgjutodfr`s d` afhr`.
^oro `vltor mo afrrfslñg, horrlm`s d` omujlglf `xtruldfs pfr ljpoatf s` `gcorzog `g
`m aohm` y mu`cf `stfs hmfqu`s t`rjlgom`s d` afhr`, aoh`a`odfs `g erêf, s`
su`mdog pfr erlaalñg o mfs horrlm`s. @m prfa`sf tojhlìg s` pu`d` usor poro
ouj`gtor mo afjpm`kldod d` mo efrjo; mfs `xtr`jfs d` mfs vïstocfs d` ìjhfmfs s`
suk`tog o vïstocfs d` ìjhfmfs d` almlgdrfs bldrïumlafs9 dfs hmogafs efrkodfs poro
`gcrog` s` ug`g slg p`rd`r sus prfpl`dod`s9 tuhfs d` por`d cru`so s` suk`tog o
mos vlcos d` `k` d` r`jfmqu`s poro trogspfrt`.

QFMDODPXO ^FX EPQLÑG

@g mo crog joyfrêo d` mos opmlaoalfg`s, `m `gmoa` lgt`rotñjlaf s` `stohm`a` pfr
euslñg. Auogdf mfs jot`rlom`s d` mo pl`zo d` trohokf (j`tom hos`) y `m j`tom d`
opfrt` (sl `s qu` s` uso) tl`g`g afjpfslalfg`s y pugtfs d` euslñg sljlmor`s p`rf
gf g`a`sorloj`gt` ldìgtlafs, om prfa`sf s` m` d`gfjlgo sfmdoduro pfr euslñg f
sljpm`j`gt` sfmdoduro. Mo sfmdoduro `stï juy r`moalfgodo afg mfs prfa`sfs d`
eugdlalñg. Q` sujlglstro aomfr poro eugdlr `m j`tom hos` y `m d` opfrt`. Mo euslñg `s
afgt`gldo
j`tom hos`eêslaoj`gt`
alraugdogt``gd`moomto
zfgo d` euslñg dfgd`,
afgduatlvldod pfr s`
tìrjlao, j`dlf d`rïpldoj`gt`
`gerêo su afgtoatf afg `m
 ?4

(têplaoj`gt`, o d`a`gos d` al`gtfs d` crodfs pfr s`cugdf). D` `sto jog`ro, mo

ropld`z d` `gerlojl`gtf `stï `gtr` mo qu` pr`dfjlgo `g mo eugdlalñg `g jfmd`
p`rjog`gt` y `g mo otfjlzoalñg9 `m afgtrfm od`auodf r`qul`r` ugo eojlmlorldod
afjpm`to afg mo j`tomurclo d` gf `qulmlhrlf. Gf fhstogt`, `s lgdlsp`gsohm` al`rtf
afgfaljl`gtf d` mfs `e`atfs d`m jot`rlom sl s` vog o `vomuor mos aopoaldod`s y
mljltoalfg`s d` mfs dlstlgtfs prfa`sfs.

Pglñg pfr euslñg

Pgo uglñg pfr euslñg `stï juy m`kfs d` s`r bfjfcìg`o. @m crodf d` gf
bfjfc`g`ldod y d` afjpm`kldod s` lgar`j`gto d`sd` mfs j`tom`s purfs bosto mos
om`oalfg`s d` eos`s jûmtlpm`s y tojhlìg `s ugo eugalñg d` mo `gtrodo d` aomfr pfr
dlstogalo ugltorlo. Pgo joyfr lgt`gsldod d` aomfr prfpfralfgo ugo p`g`troalñg jïs
prfeugdo, ugo zfgo aoml`gt` jïs afga`gtrodo, j`gfs aojhlf `g mo `struaturo
j`tomûrclao y `seu`rzfs j`gfr`s `g mo sfmdoduro. @m ogïmlsls slcul`gt` `s, pfr mf
togtf, c`g`romlzodf y gf g`a`sorloj`gt` s` opmlao o tfdos mos tosos d` `gtrodo d`
aomfr.
Jot`rlom`s d` ugo eos` Pgo s`aalñg o trovìs d` mo uglñg `g ug j`tom purf, afjf
omujlglf f afhr`,gf
`m aomfr opmlaodf sfmdodo
sñmf boafg ugo vorlmmo
eugdldf d` afjpfslalñg
mo vorlmmo d` sfmdoduroldìgtlao, d`ju`stro
slgf tojhlìg qu`
ug togtf
d`m jot`rlom hos` poro efrjor `m afrdñg d` sfmdoduro (f sljpm`j`gt` mo
sfmdoduro). @m jot`rlom hos` odyoa`gt` om mêjlt` d` mo euslñg s` `xpusf o omtos
t`jp`roturos y mos prfpl`dod`s y mo `struaturo sfg aojhlodos d`gtrf d` `sto zfgo
oe`atodo pfr `m aomfr. Ql `m jot`rlom d` mo pl`zo d` trohokf s` trohokñ `g erêf
frlclgomj`gt` y pfr mf togtf `ro d` crogf omtoj`gt` omorcodf, mo zfgo oe`atodo pfr
`m aomfr pr`s`gtorï r`arlstomlzoalñg. ^oro ug trohokf `g erêf dodf, `m tojoÿf d`
crogf ouj`gto afg joyfr tl`jpf o omto t`jp`roturo9 d` `sto efrjo, mfs crogfs
juy cru`sfs qu` s` `gau`gtrog `g `m mêjlt` d` mo euslñg aojhlog croduomj`gt` o
elgfs, bosto qu` `g `m hfrd` mo zfgo oe`atodo pfr `m aomfr s5mf `s `vld`gt` mo
r`arlstomlzoalñg poralom. Ql mo pl`zo d` trohokf `ro d` jot`rlom r`afaldf, mo `gtrodo
d` aomfr odlalfgom durogt` mo sfmdoduro sñmf `gcru`so mfs crogfs. @g auomqul`r
aosf, ugo `struaturo d` crogf cru`sf d` j`gfr r`slst`galo `xlst` `g `m mêjlt` d` mo
euslñg. Mo sfmldlelaoalñg afjl`gzo `g `st` mêjlt` o trovìs d`m ar`aljl`gtf `pltoxlom,
`s d`alr, pfr mo d`pfslalñg d` ïtfjfs `g mo jlsjo frl`gtoalñg arlstomlgo qu` mo d`
mfs arlstom`s sup`relalom`s (d`m crl`cf `pl : `g, t`lg`g : orr`cmodfs y `k`). @stf
afgdua` om d`sorrfmmf d` crogfs afmujgor`s cru`sfs `g `m jot`rlom d` mo
sfmdoduro.
 ?0

Ulstf d` orrlho, boy ug aboraf d` sfmdoduro `g `m pugtf d` `gtrodo jïxljo d`

aomfr. Auogdf s` boa` ugo sfmdoduro `g mêg`o, mo eu`gt` d` aomfr s` ju`v` o ugo
v`mfaldod d` vlok` elko. @g ug j`tom purf f `g ugo om`oalñg dlmuldo, o hoko v`mfaldod
d`m vlok`, mfs crogfs qu` s` sfmldlelaog `jpl`zog o s`culr mo eu`gt` d` aomfr, y `m
a`gtrf d`m afrdñg d` sfmdoduro o j`gudf tl`g` crogfs lgd`p`gdl`gt`j`gt`
gud`odfs, `g `sp`alom `g pr`s`galo d` oc`gt`s d` guam`oalñg. O omtos
v`mfaldod`s d` vlok`, `m aboraf d` mo sfmdoduro s` tfjo omorcodf y mo sfmldlelaoalñg
afjl`gzo aosl p`rp`gdlaumor om mêjlt` d` mo euslñg boalo `m a`gtrf. Ql boy
afgstltuy`gt`s d` hokf pugtf d` euslñg, s` s`cr`cog `g mfs mêjlt`s d` mfs crogfs
eugdldfs y pu`d` pr`s`gtors` `m ocrl`tojl`gtf `g aoml`gt`. Eoatfr`s afjpm`kfs
`gtrog `g mfs jot`rlom`s omtoj`gt` om`odfs. Q` efrjog d`gdrltos `g `m j`tom
eugdldf, om lcuom qu` mf boa`g `g ugo eugdlalñg p`rf, afjf r`sumtodf d`m
`gerlojl`gtf jïs rïpldf, `m `spoalojl`gtf d` mfs hrozfs s`augdorlfs d` mos
d`gdrltos `s j`gfr. Od`jïs, mo guam`oalñg d` gu`vfs crogfs afg er`au`galo
afgdua` o ugo trogslal5g afmujgor f `quloxlom `g `m a`gtrf d`m afrdñg. Afjf mo
euslñg faurr` `g `m rogcf d` t`jp`roturo TM -Ts, bohrï ugo zfgo poralomj`gt`
eugdldo y `spfgkfso `g `m mêjlt` d` mo euslñg. Mos afga`gtroalfg`s j`gfr`s d`
`m`j`gtfs d` om`oalñg f afgtojlgogt`s d` hokf pugtf d` euslñg pu`d`g jlcror o
`st` mêjlt` poro aousor eroclmldod `g aoml`gt` y ocrl`tojl`gtf durogt` `m
`gerlojl`gtf.
 ?5

Jot`rlom`s d` dfs eos`s Mo joyfrêo d` mos om`oalfg`s tìaglaoj`gt` ljpfrtogt`s

tl`g` ugo `struaturo d` dfs eos`s f d` eos`s jûmtlpm`s, y su od`auoalñg poro mo
sfmdoduro `stï d`t`rjlgodo pfr mfs `v`gtfs qu` faurr`g togtf `g `m `stodf mêquldf
afjf `g `m sñmldf.
?. Mfs jot`rlom`s d` afjpfslalñg `utìatlao r`pr`s`gtog pfaf prfhm`jo d`hldf o
su jfdf eovfrohm` d` sfmldlelaoalñg.
8. Mos om`oalfg`s d` `gdur`aljl`gtf pfr pr`alpltoalñg s` pu`d`g sfmdor eïalmj`gt`
`g `m `stodf r`afaldf9 sl su rogcf d` afgc`mojl`gtf `s afrtf, mo joyfrêo d` mfs
`e`atfs d` mo sfmdoduro s` d`somfkog `g `m suhs`au`gt` trotojl`gtf pfr sfmualñg y
`gv`k`aljl`gtf d` tfdo mo sfmdoduro. Ql ìsto `s d`joslodf crogd` poro `mmf, mo
sfmdoduro pfr euslñg `s pfslhm` yo s`o `g mo afgdlalñg d` sfmualñg trotodo f `g mo
`gv`k`aldo, p`rf `gtfga`s mos v`gtokos d` mo r`slst`galo d`m trotojl`gtf tìrjlaf s`
pl`rd`g `g mo zfgo d` mo sfmdoduro. Mo sfmdoduro `g sê pu`d` afgt`g`r `m
afgstltuy`gt` lgt`rj`tïmlaf `g efrjo cru`so, qu` r`sumto `g hoko r`slst`galo y
duatlmldod. Mo zfgo odyoa`gt` oe`atodo pfr `m aomfr s` aoml`gto y `gerêo
rïpldoj`gt`9 d` `sto jog`ro, `stï `g mo afgdlalñg trotodo pfr sfmualñg, ougqu` `m
aomfr afgdualdf d`sd` mo zfgo d` mo sfmdoduro durogt` `m `gerlojl`gtf pu`d`
aousor sfhr``gv`k`aljl`gtf. ^fr mf togtf, mo zfgo oe`atodo pfr `m aomfr bo sldf
tftomj`gt` trotodo tìrjlaoj`gt` p`rf su crogf `s cru`sf, afg omto r`slst`galo y
jfd`rodo duatlmldod. Jïs m`kfs, mo `struaturo frlclgom s` `gau`gtro
sfhr``gv`k`aldo y suov`. Od`jïs d` mo hoko r`slst`galo d` mo uglñg, mo
afjpfslalñg mfaomj`gt` vorlohm` tojhlìg pu`d` prfdualr afrrfslñg, pfr `k`jpmf,
`g mos om`oalfg`s d` omujlglf y jocg`slf. Omcugos v`a`s ugo sfmualñg `s utlmlzor
ugo vorlmmo d` opfrt` dle`r`gt` poro `vltor `m ocrl`tojl`gtf pfr aomfr f prfhm`jos
d` afrrfslñg.
1. Mos trogsefrjoalfg`s d` eos` d` `stodf sñmldf frlclgog aojhlfs afjpm`kfs.
Tfjogdf afjf `k`jpmf ug oa`rf om j`dlf aorhfgf `g `stodf r`afaldf, `m j`tom
hos` tl`g` ugo jlarf`struaturo afgslst`gt` `g afmfglos d` p`rmlto qu` omt`rgog afg
crogfs
^rñxljod`o e`rrlto.
ìsto, `mMo sfmdoduro
jot`rlom `g sê tl`g`
s` aoml`gto mo `struaturod`gtrf
prfeugdoj`gt` usuom cru`so y eugdldo.
d`m rogcf d`
t`jp`roturo oust`gêtlao y mu`cf s` `gerêo, prfvfaogdf `g crogfs cru`sfs. Om
dlsjlgulr mo t`jp`roturo, mfs crogfs d` mo oust`glto s` vu`mv`g jïs elgfs9 osê,
gfrjomj`gt` s` `gau`gtrog e`rrlto y p`rmlto d` crogf jïs elgf `g mo `struaturo
trogsefrjodo, ougqu` mo omto ropld`z d` `gerlojl`gtf pu`d` prfdualr holglto f
jort`gslto. @m hfrd` d` mo zfgo oe`atodo pfr `m aomfr `s aom`gtodf ug pfaf pfr
`galjo d` mo t`jp`roturo `ut`atfld`. Mo `m`vodo ropld`z d` `gerlojl`gtf
afgv`rtlrï auomqul`r oust`glto `g jort`gslto y pu`d` frlclgor ugo crog r`duaalñg
d` mo duatlmldod. Afg joyfr afgt`gldf d` aorhfgf (pfr `galjo d`
oprfxljodoj`gt` >.0%), lg`vltohm`j`gt` s` efrjorï mo jort`gslto, afjf tojhlìg
faurr` `g mfs oa`rfs om`odfs.
 ?3

Jot`rlom`s dlsêjlm`s Mo sltuoalñg s` afjpmlao oûg jïs auogdf s` `jpm`og dfs f

jïs jot`rlom`s dlsêjlm`s, yo s`o `g mo pl`zo d` trohokf f `g `m jot`rlom d` opfrt`.
Afg er`au`galo ìst` `s `m aosf, d`hldf o qu` mfs jot`rlom`s d` opfrt` d`slcuom`s
eoalmltog mo fht`galñg d` sfmdoduros mlhr`s d` crl`tos. Mo blstfrlo d` aom`gtojl`gtf y
`gerlojl`gtf s` afjpmlao d`hldf o mfs `e`atfs d` mo om`oalñg, jl`gtros qu` mfs
`v`gtfs `g mo zfgo d` sfmdoduro s` d`t`rjlgog pfr j`dlf d` mfs dlocrojos d`
`qulmlhrlf r`moalfgodfs
afjpmlao tfdovêo jïs `mafg ojhfsAfjf
osugtf. jot`rlom`s. Mo sfmldlelaoalñg
s` pfdrêo gf `qulmlhrodo
`sp`ror, mos om`oalfg`s qu`
efrjog sfmualfg`s sñmldos pr`s`gtog pfafs prfhm`jos. Mos `utìatlaos tl`gd`g o
s`r jïs erïclm`s, ougqu` sfg eovfrohm`s auogdf ojhos eos`s d`m `utìatlaf sfg
dûatlm`s. Mfs afjpu`stfs lgt`rj`tïmlafs lgvorlohm`j`gt` eroclmlzog mo `struaturo
bosto lgutlmlzormo9 osê, pfr `k`jpmf, `m afhr` gf s` pu`d` uglr afg `m bl`rrf. Qlg
`jhorcf, `s pfslhm` usor ugo lgt`reos` jutuoj`gt` afjpotlhm`, `g `st` aosf
gêqu`m, qu` efrjo sfmualfg`s sñmldos afg `m afhr` y afg `m bl`rrf .

HLHMLFCXOEÊO
- ^rfa`sfs d` Jogueoaturo, outfr Kfbg O. Qab`y, `d Ja Crow Blmm, T`ra`ro
`dlalñg.