Republic of the Philippines

Province of Cebu
City of Talisay
TALISAY CITY COLLEGE
Poblacion,Talisay City, Cebu
2nd Semester, Academic Year 2021-2022

GAS ELECT: GENDER AND SOCIETY

Module Writer Joshua L. Comeros Department Social & Behavioral
Reviewer Lourdes Dy

Course Facilitator Contact No.

Program & Year Credit Units 3.0
This course will develop the sociological methods and theories to empirical studies and
discussions of sex, gender, and society. We will look specifically on the social and political
Course Description
contexts in which gender as a complex process of identity and performance is played. The
exploration of key institution; family and workplace.
Culminating Develop a relevant and meaningful program in addressing gender stereotype and discrimination
Outcome within one’s locality.
Create a relevant and meaningful program in addressing gender stereotype and discrimination in
Final Unit Outcome
one’s locality.

Student’s Name Curricular Yr.& Sec.

Contact No. Time Allotment 9 hours
Residence Inclusive Date/s

Women in Economy, Governance

Course Material 5 Women in Media, and
Masculinity
CONTENT LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, you will…
 Identify the representation and influence
of arts, media and film in shaping the
 Women and Economy present objectification of women, and
 Women in politics and governance participation of women in the labor force
 Women in the Arts and Media  Explain why the concept of masculinity
 Masculinity can be oppressive to men and
participation of women in the economy
and governance
 Formulate measure that will address
issues of masculinity in your locality and
its consequence of the youth today.
ENGAGE
How do you think women are presented in arts,
media and films?

Newsom, J.S. 2016

EXPLORE

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 Women are constantly being made
objects of one’s viewing pleasure.
Whether anyone is looking at them or
not, women have taken on this
awareness as though looking at
themselves through another’s eye. They
are made the objects of men’s desire or
have learned to scrutinize themselves
using the standards of other women.
Viewing one’s self through the eyes of
another constitutes a form of external
social control, which becomes internal
social control if one eventually imbibes
Rubens, Peter Paul, 1638 (Museo Del Prado) the perception of others. The idea of women and
representation started with women’s role in Western
art. While women of previous centuries did not actively play a role in the art industry as painters, they did become
the “muse” or subject of various art forms (Rodriguez A.M. & Rodriguez A.M.L.).

The hypodermic needle theory is present in Avengers Assemble, ‘black widow’ is mainly represented
through the film as a superhero that wears her own suit and is practically the same as others. However, a poor image
of women can be contrasted within the film too; in a couple of scenes she wears clothing that is very revealing
where cleavage is present, this can give an image of how women might be forced to look derogatory to promote a
sexual view, if the audience is young this can lead to a bad impression to how they think women should be seen. The
hypodermic needle theory can pretty much force a specific view or opinion on someone and at a young influential
age, children/young adults may think that the way women are presented on TV/in movies is the way that they should
dress in the real world. Another similar theory is the ‘magic bullet’ theory is a theory of how mass amount of
audiences react to a mass amount of media. It means that a certain view is directed straight into the audience’s brain
and in a way brainwashes them to make them think that there’s only one opinion on a specific thing, this is used in
politics frequently. In TV/Film to represent
women specific way that a film presents
the specific sex, this can sometimes be in
a derogatory way, and sometimes not,
most of the time it is gender dependant.
(KJonesMedia, 2018). If the media is
sending girls the message that their value
lies in their bodies, this can only leave
them feeling disempowered and distract
them from making a difference and
become leaders (Newsome J.S.).

KJones Media,
Writers, 2018
filmmakers, psychologists,
and advertisers all have used the idea that
men and women are different to develop
stories, create conflict, and provide persuasive imagery (Sheehan K.B. 2014). All of Hollywood is run on one
assumption: That women will watch stories about men, men won’t watch stories about women. It is a horrible
indictment of our society of we assume that one half of our population is just not interested in other half”. Going to
advertising not only do advertisers view men and women differently, but men and women also bring different
perspectives to advertising. Thus, we can assume that men and women create different meanings from the
advertisements they see. Gender roles in our society have changed dramatically since the 1950s, and portrayals of
men and women in advertising have ben researched since nearly the same time. Researchers have consistently
sought to evaluate these roles to examine whether advertising has kept up with social changes (Sheehan K.B. 2014).
The insight about the display of the female nude is true not only for art, but for every medium where women are
displayed. Women are often presented as sex objects in advertisements, even for products that have nothing to do
with their sexuality or their bodies. Cars, alcoholic beverages, cigarettes, vacation spots, and sports features women
in some degree of undress. Why should it matter that a woman in a two-piece bathing suit is selling a car, or a
woman in a tight-fitting low-cut dress is selling whiskey? Why should mostly naked female be announcing the rounds
of a fight? These images are all designed to sell the product to men with the message that women can be attained
using this product, or that women are an accompanying pleasure to drinking or vacationing or watching two men
fight in a match. In most ads, women are accessories (Rodriguez A.M. & Rodriguez A.M.L.).one can say that man is
strong, but the degree of strength one may have depends on age, biology, and physical ability

Masculinity
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 One can say that man is strong, but the degree of strength one may have depends on age, biology, and
physical ability. Similarly, people may have different kinds of strength, from physical to emotional and even mental.
Is a man less of a man because he is physically weaker than his wife? Or because he earns less than his female
counterparts? Manhood is something that one can describe through adjectives-tough, brave, strong-but whose
definition is often continuously evolving (Rodriguez A.M. & Rodriguez A.M.L).

Manhood is equated with power-over women, over other men. Women have long understood this, and
feminist women have spent the past three decades challenging both the public and the private expressions of men’s
power and acknowledging their fear of men. Feminism as a set of theories both explains women’s fear of men and
empowers women to confront it both publicly and privately. Feminist women have theorized that masculinity is
about the drive for domination, the drive for power, for conquest. This feminist definition of masculinity as the drive
for power is theorized from women’s point of view. It is how women experience masculinity. But it assumes a
symmetry between the public and the private that does not conform to men’s experiences. Feminists observe that
women, as a group, do not hold power in our society. They also observe that individually, they, as women, do not
feel powerful. They feel afraid, vulnerable. Their observation of the social reality and their individual experiences are
therefore symmetrical. Feminism also observes that men, as a group, are in power. Thus, with the same symmetry,
feminism has tended to assume that individually men must feel powerful (Kimmel M.S.)

Manhood is neither static nor timeless; it is historical. Manhood is not the manifestation of an inner essence;
it is socially constructed. Manhood does not bubble up to consciousness from our biological makeup; it is created in
culture. Manhood means different things at different times to different people. We come to know what it means to
be a man in our culture by setting our definition in opposition to a set of “others”-racial minorities, sexual minorities,
and above all, women. Our definition of manhood is constantly changing, being played out on the political and social
terrain on which the relationships between women and men are played out. In fact, the search for transcendent,
timeless definition of manhood is itself a sociological phenomenon-we tend to search for the timeless and eternal
during moments of crisis, those points of transition when old definitions no longer work and new definitions are yet
to be firmly established (Kimmel M.). Men are not born-growing from infants through boyhood to manhood-to
follow a predetermined biological imperative encoded in their physical organization. To be a man is to participate in
social life as a man, as a gendered being. Men are not born; they are made. And men make themselves, actively
constructing their masculinities within a social and historical context (Aronson A. & Kimmel M.)

All masculinities are not created equal; or rather, we are all created equal, but any hypothetical equality
evaporates quickly because our definition of masculinity is not equally valued in our society. One definition of
manhood continues to remain the standard against which other forms of manhood are measured and evaluated.
Within the dominant culture, the masculinity that defines white, middle-class, early middle-aged heterosexual men is
the masculinity that sets the standards for other men, against which other men are measured and, more often than
not, found wanting. This definition that we will call “hegemonic” masculinity, the image of masculinity of those men
who hold power, which has become the standard in psychological evaluations, sociological research, and self-help
and advice literature for teaching you men to become “real men” as cited by Kimmel from Connel in 1987.

Our culture’s definition of masculinity is thus several stories at once. It is about the individual man’s quest to
accumulate those cultural symbols that denote manhood, signs that he has in fact achieved it. It is about those
standards being used against women to prevent their inclusion in public life and their consignment to a devalued
private sphere. It is about the differential access that different types of men have to those cultural resources that
confer manhood and about how each of these groups then develop their own modifications to preserve and claim
their manhood. It is about the power of these definitions themselves to serve to maintain the real-life power that
men have over women and that some men have over other men (Kimmel M.).
This definition of manhood has been summarized cleverly by psychologist Robert Brannon and Deborah
David (1976) into four succinct phrases:

1. “No Sissy Stuff!” One may never do anything that even remotely suggests femininity. Masculinity is the
relentless repudiation of the feminine.
2. “Be a Big Wheel.” Masculinity is measured by power, success, wealth, and status. As the current saying goes,
“He who has the most toys when he dies wins.”
3. “Be a Sturdy Oak.” Masculinity depends on remaining calm and reliable in a crisis, holding emotions in check.
In fact, proving you’re a man depends on never showing your emotions at all. Boys don’t cry.
4. “Give ‘Em Hell.” Exude and aura of manly daring and aggression. Go for it. Take risks.

Proving Masculinity
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 Gender is an identity that is socially constructed through interaction. One myth of manhood is that men act to
prove themselves to women. But the fact that masculinity is so strongly connected to a shared gender identity
shows that men must constantly prove their masculinity to other men.
Masculine Culture:

1. Lad culture – is a concept often linked to the crisis of masculinity in the West. Men in colleges and
universities perpetuate traditions that objectify and sexualize others, usually women and LGBTQ.
2. Raunch culture – the potential and actual harm it can cause students from binge drinking to
harassment.
3. Hookup culture – sexual activity is regarded as the transition marker from boyhood into manhood.

Masculinity through its dissociation with women and feminity, may have become a form of homophobia.
Homophobia is not the fear itself of gay men, but the fear that a man can and will become gay or feminine.
According to Kimmel sees homophobia as the cause of sexism, racism, and heterosexism. It is necessary to change
the attitudes of men towards gender equality, to show them that it is also beneficial to them as men to be allies for
gender equality. It takes both genders’ cooperation to change a sexist culture(Rodriguez A.M. & Rodriguez A.M.L,
2019).

Women and Economy

Women and Work in the Philippines

 The participation of Filipino women in the labor force increased in 2013. About 49.8% of
women and 78.1% of men were engaged in the formal economy. These figures merited a 0.1
increase in female participation rate and a 0.2 decrease for male participation rate from 2009-
2012.
 One million more women are engaged in the private sphere, although this number includes
women who participated in domestic work, or are working in private households.
 Women-headed homes in the Philippines earn more than their local male counterparts and
even other women=headed households worldwide. Female-headed households earned
PHP257,000, while male-headed households earned PHP 227,000 in 2012.
 Separation of genders in various labor sectors is evident in the 2012 Labor Force Survey. Men
still outnumber women in the agricultural sector. Women are mostly employed in the
wholesale and retail trade industries. Around 2.3 million women are involved in unpaid family
work in 2012. Statistics from previous years show no decrease in the number of women who
work in vulnerable sectors.
 The average daily basic pay of women in real terms was lower than that of their male
counterpart.
 Reproductive responsibilities still hinder Filipino women from fully participating in the labor
force. This explains why in terms of the labor force participation rate, Filipino women have
remained much lower than that of Filipino men. Women constitute only 40% of paid labor
outside of agriculture.

As cited by ADB from Kabeer 2008, Analysis of gender inequality

in the labor market must take account of gendered constraints
arising from informal and formal norms, beliefs, regulations, and
laws (ADB 2013). Example from ADB that due to social norms,
beliefs, and values within family and kinship systems, women
have more limited resources in the form of assets, education,
time, and social contacts. In addition, women’s greater
responsibility for unpaid domestic and care work affects their
ability to engage in paid work on the same terms as men.

The Philippines is the only ASEAN country to make it to the top

ten of the Global Gender Gap Index 2018 placing 8 th (Investing in
Woman, 2019).
O’Mahoney, J. 2016
As cited by the Initiative of the Australian Government in a September 2019 episode of ABS-CBN’s NXT, host Nina
Corpuz led a discussion on the causes and effects of gender Dynah Basuil, Executive Director of the Ramon V. Del
Rosario Center for Corpe Social Responsibility at the Asian Institute of Management; Jobstreet Country Manager
Phiip Gioca; and Catherine Uy, COO of Buskowitz Group. According to Professor Basuil, there is no disparity in the
educational opportunities available to Filipino women and men. Neither is there a significant difference between the
number of men and women hired for entry-level jobs (Investing in Woman, 2019).

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Jobstreet Country Manager Phillip Gioca also said that A greater number of corporates still have a lot of men in the
top echelons of the corporations (Investing in Woman, 2019).

Highlights of the Global Gender Gap Index Report 2018 Source: Australian Aid Investing in Women Smart
Economics
 Today, the Global gender Gap score 68%. This means that, on average, there is still a 32% gap to close. The
gap is still large across most of the 149 countries assessed. To date, no country as achieved parity, and
only the top seven countries in the rankings have closed at least 80% of the gap.
 The top positions are held by Nordic counties (Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Finland), one is from Latin
American (Nicaragua, 5th), one is from Sub-Saharan Africa (Rwanda, 6th) and two are from the East Asia
and the Pacific region (New Zealand, 7 th and Philippines 8th). The top ten is completed by Ireland (9 th) and
Namibia (10th).
 Lao PDR was a far second to the Philippines among ASEAN countries in the ranking, taking the 26 th spot.
It was followed by Singapore (7th), Vietnam (77th), Thailand (73rd), Myanmar (88th), Cambodia (98th),
Brunei (90th) and Malaysia (101st).
 Across the four subindexes, on average, the largest gender disparity is on Political Empowerment, which
today maintains a gap of 77.1%. The Economic Participation and Opportunity gap is the second-largest at
41.9%, while the Educational Attainment and Health and Survival aps are significantly lower 4.4% and 4.6%,
respectively.
 When it comes to political and economic leadership, the world still has a long way to go. Across the 149
countries assessed, there are just 17 that currently have women as heads of state, While, on average, just
18% of ministers and 24% of parliamentarians globally are women. Similarly, women hold just 34% of
managerial positions.
 In terms of broader economic power, gaps in control of financial assets and in time spend on unpaid
tasks continue to preserve economic disparities between men and women. Women have as much access
to financial services as men in just 60% of the countries and to land ownership in just 52% of the countries
assessed. Also,

According to 2017 Gender Statistic on labor and Employment (GSLE) published by the Philippine Statistics
Office (PSA)As cited by Librojo R. of NUBE News and Info.

The Labor force participation rate among men stood at 77.9% while that of women stood at 49.3% or a gap of
28.6% (data as of October 2016). However, once in the labor force, employment rate is almost equal between
women (95.6%) and men (95.1%). Nevertheless, in terms employment to population ratio, only 47% of women
are employed compared to 73% for men. A positive development shown in the 2017 GSLE is that of the 6.992
million managers in private and public establishments, 46% (3.422 million) are women. And of the country’s
1.973 million professionals, 65.5% (1.293 million) are women. It is also interesting to note that the finance and
insurance industry employs more women (285,000) than men (229,000). The 2017 GSLE data on the average
daily basic pay of wage and salary workers shows that, overall, the wages of women are slightly higher than
those of men. However, an examination of specific occupation groups show that men receive higher salaries
in higher level occupations (managers, professionals, technicians and associate professionals) while women
received higher wages in only two occupation groups: clerical occupations. In support workers and skilled
agricultural, forestry and fishery workers. Men also received higher wages other a survey by Monster.com in
May 2017, around 39% of working women have felt that they were being passed over from promotion
because of their gender, and another 18% say that they experienced intrusive gender-based questioning such
as their plans for having children (17%), being talked down to (18%), and being called names and negative
labels (16%). Domestic abuse and sexual harassment cases have been on the rise the past year as well.

Men
Women
414.29 All Occupations 392.82
971.79 Managers 983.59
832.36 Professionals 922.42
563.75 Technicians and associate 597.55
professionals
533.08 Clerical support workers 530.62
278.52 Service and sales workers 380.34
400.31 Skilled agricultural, forestry and 387.11
fishery workers
278.96 Craft and related trades workers 370.4
3363.24 Plant and machine operators and 393.02
assemblers
187.62 Elementary occupations 253.36

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 431.12 Others 439.16

Women in Politics and Governance

The Philippines has shown men’s political participation and women are increasingly visible as leaders and
decision makers. There have been two women presidents and one vice-president. In the 2010 elections, two women
were re-elected as senators and the number of men in the House of Representatives increased from 21 in 1995 to 45
in 2007. Locally, there was a steady increase in the number of women elected for the city and municipality
governments, particularly as governors, vice mayors, and councilors (Asian Development Bank, 2013).

Comparative Statistics of Candidates by sex from 1998-2013 source: COMELEC

Total No. Total No.
Election No. Of
Of Male (%) Female (%) Of Elected Male (%) Female (%)
Year Seats
Candidates Candidates
1998 17,512 64,531 85.71 14.29 17,403 83.85 16.15

2001 17,623 52,408 84.59 15.40 17,479 82.84 17.16

2004 17,713 50,160 85.14 14.86 17,573 83.37 16.63
2007 17,887 46,211 83.93 16.07 17,482 82.61 17.38
2010 17,996 50,268 83.04 16.60 17,803 81.44 18.56
2013 18,054 44,449 81.89 17.82 17,969 79.75 19.92

Learning Check:

What can you say about the representation of women in the government according to the statistics on the
table above?

Start answering here…..

Women in governance still has low percentage than men according to statistics it is despite of a higher ranking of
the Philippines in terms of equality opportunity to women. According to a sociologist Clifford Sorita as cited by
Veronica Pulumbarit from GMA News Online he said that in the Philippines, the low percentage of women
participating in politics was not an issue of opportunity” As long as woman is willing to be of service to our country,
there is no limit to the extent of her involvement” (GMA News Online 2016).

In a study conducted by COMELEC Gender and Development-Focal Point System (COMELEC GAD-FPS) held from
March to April 2016, women and men agree that females are competent for public office. However, the same
respondents do not maintain an equally strong belief that women should run for and be elected to political office.
Simply put, respondents say that yes, women can serve but should not necessarily occupy elected posts. This
disparity in perception is reflected in election statistics. COMELEC data show that while female comprise more than
half of the registered and actual voters, women occupy only around 21% of the total national and local elected seats.
When asked specifically why women do not seek elected posts, survey respondents pointed to women’s capacity to
serve in public office as primary concern. The topmost reasons identified were that women do not have the
necessary confidence, skills, leadership experience and interest in political office. These findings may seem to
contradict the respondents’ position that women can serve as elected officials. But the next set of responses to why
women do not run may provide an explanation. Limited support, as well as negative perceptions about women,
constitute a second layer of barriers to women’s political participation based on the survey. Women do not vie for
public office because they do not have sufficient campaign funds, expansive political networks and support from
political parties. Religion and family members also discourage women from running. Prevailing notions that politics
is a man’s world and that voters consider women to be less qualified candidates further dissuade women from
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competing as candidates. It appears that there is a recognition of women’s potential to exercise political leadership,
but it was mostly the female respondents who acknowledge this. From among those surveyed, females were more
convinced than males that women are capable political leaders and that more women should be elected. But such
potential remains a mere latent resource because of the existing view, politics, and practices that favor men in
politics (Gender and Election 2016).

Supplementary Materials:
Philippine Commission on Women, Women’s Political Participation and Representation,
https://pcw.gov.ph/womens-political-participation-and representation/#:~:text=From
%201998%20to%202016%2C%20the,of%20the%20candidates%20were%20female.

KNOWLEDGE-BUILDING
Assessment Task 1 Essay
 Read each questions carefully and answer
on the space provided after each
Instructions
questions.

 Read and understand the questions

 Provide details and examples
Help Guide:
 Get to the point and be very clear in your
answers
Your Rating/Total
Basis for Rating 30 points each 60
Points

1. How can you as an individual stop the presentation of women as sex objects in
advertisements?
ASSESS

2. In your own observation, how is masculinity manifested in the society?

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 CRITICAL THINKING
Assessment Task 2 Double Matching Type
 Match Column A to Columns B and C, write
your two answers (letter only) on the
Instructions space provided.

 Look for key terms.

Help Guide:  Review your knowledge on the content of
this material.
Your Rating/Total
Basis for Rating: 100
Points

ANSWERS COLUMN A COLUMN B COLUMN C

1. Masculine culture A. Hookup K. In support workers
such as skilled
agricultural, forestry and
fishery workers
2. Definition of B. Clerical occupations L. Sexism
manhood in succinct
phrases:
3. Reasons were C. Physical M. Cisgender Men
women not interested
in public office:
4. Women received D. Straight Men N. Lad
higher wages in only
two occupation
groups:
5. Analysis of gender E. Arising from informal O. Internal social control
inequality in the labor and formal norms
market:
6. Different kinds of F. Be a Sturdy Oak P. Insurance industry
strength:
7. Viewing one’s self G. Finance industry Q. Negative perceptions
through the eyes of about women
another constitutes a
form of:
8. What industries H. External social R. Be a big wheel
employ more women control
than men?
9. Causes of I. Religion and family S. Emotional
homophobia members also
discourage women
from running
10. The discussion of J. Heterosexism T. Beliefs, regulations,
masculinities will and laws
center around:

CREATING
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 Assessment Task 3 Masculinity in my Community
 Formulate measure that will address issues of
masculinity in your locality and its consequence to the
Instructions youth today.
 Make your campaign ad in a 1 whole bond paper short.

 Identify and define your audience for your campaign ad

Help Guide:
 Craft a message for your campaign ad
Rubric:

Levels of Achievement
Highly Relevant Moderately
Criteria Relevant (2) Less Relevant (1) Weight Rating
(4) Relevant (3)
Accurately Some success Some difficulties Fails to identify
identifies main identifying the in identifying the the main ethical
ethical issues; main ethical main ethical issues; does not
shows good issues; shows issues; some show
understanding of some difficulties in understanding of
Quality X10
why different understanding of understanding why different
approaches may why different why different approaches may
be taken to the approaches may approaches may be taken to this
problem be taken to this be taken to this problem
problem
Accurately Some success in Some difficulties Fails to provide
identifies making sufficient in identifying any, or accurate
sufficient and and relevant sufficient or empirical
relevant empirical empirical claims relevant information;
information, and and in providing information; makes empirical
Application of
draws on support sufficient support insufficient claims with no
Critical
from sufficient for them from a support for evidence to back X8
Thinking and
and reliable reasonable empirical claims them up; uses no
Perspective
sources number of from reliable or inappropriate
reliable sources sources; us of few sources
or somewhat
inappropriate
sources
Successfully Some success in Discusses a very Fails to discuss a
discusses a range discussing limited range of range of
of appropriate appropriate appropriate appropriate
Open-minded
values that may values that may values that may values that might
and fair X5
be at stake (e.g. be at stake (e.g. be at stake (e.g. be at stake (e.g.
discussion
justice, suffering, justice, suffering, justice, suffering, justice, suffering,
liberty, privacy, liberty, privacy, liberty, privacy, privacy, liberty,
naturalness) naturalness) naturalness) naturalness)
Highly organized Well organized Competently Inconsistently
with a keen with a logical organized with a organized with a
sensitivity to approach to logical if haphazard
building an building an uninspired approach to
argument. argument. approach to building an
Organization X2
Transitions are Transitions are building an argument.
sophisticated and solid and varied argument Transitions are
varied Transitions are choppy or lacking
ordinary but
sufficient

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Aronson, A. & Kimmel, M., Men and Masculinities, A Social, Cultural, and Historical Encyclopedia Volume 1
Canva, Michael, 2016, This doesn’t seem real’: Angelo Lopez of Philippines Today wins 2016 RFK Award for Cartoons, The
Washington Post, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/comic-riffs/wp/2016/05/12/this-doesnt-seem-real-angelo-
lopez-of-philippines-today-wins-2016-rfk-award-for-cartoons/
COMELEC, Data on Women I Elections: 1998-2013, August 19, 2015,
https://www.comelec.gov.ph/?r=SpecialProjects/GenderandDevelopmentProgram/
StatisticsPerElectivePositionBySex/StatisticsPerElectivePositionBySexc
Gender Equality in the Labor Market in the Philippines 2013, Asian Development Bank
Investing in Women 2019, Gender Pay Gap Still Exists in the Philippines-Study,
https://investinginwomen.asia/posts/video-gender-pay-gap-philippines/
Kimmel, M.S. 2005, The Gender of Desire Essays on Male Sexuality, State University of New York Press
Kimmel, M.S. 2010, Masculinity as homophobia: Fear, shame, and silence in the construction of gender identity, Centre for
Gender and Development Studies, University of the West Indies, 1996, Representation of Women in Media,
https://kjonesmedia.home.blog/2018/09/28/representation-of-women-in-media
Librojo, Rosa. March 30, 2018, The Philippines Ranks High in Gender Parity But Fililipinas still Experience Gender-Based

THIS MATERIAL IS FOR EDUCATIONAL USE ONLY AND NOT FOR SALE. Page 9 of 10
 Discrimination and Violence, NUBE Global Gender Gap Index 2017, http://www.nubephil.com/the-philippines-ranks-
high-in-gender-parity-but-filipinas-still-experience-gender-based-discrimination-and-violence/
Newsom, J.S. 2016, Miss Representation,’ NEPA SCENE, https://nepascene.com/2016/04/miss-representation-film-women-media-
screens-free-scranton-april-30/
O’Mahoney, Joe 2016, O’Mahoney Cartoon: Equal Pay, Journal Star, https://www.pjstar.com/news/20160805/omahoney-cartoon-
equal-pay?template=ampart
Pulumbarit, Veronica March 8, 2016, Gender Politics, More female voters, but much fewer women running-and winning-in
elections, GMA News Online, https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/specialreports/558302/more-female-voters-
but-much-fewer-women-running-and-winning-in-elections/story/
Rodriguez, A.M., and Rodriguez, A.M.L., Gender and Society , The Whys of Women, Their Oppressions, and Paths to Liberation
2018, C and E Publishing
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