Compressibility of Soil

 key terms
Compressibility of Soil is the increase in stress caused by foundations and other
loads compressing the soil layer.
Consolidation is the time – dependent settlement of soils resulting from the
expulsion of water from the soil pores.
One – Dimensional Consolidation is the settlement restricted to vertical direction
only.
Soil Settlement may be divided into three categories:
1. Immediate or Elastic Settlement – caused by the elastic deformation of dry,
moist, and saturated soils, without any change in moisture content.
2. Primary Consolidation Settlement – caused by a volume change in saturated
cohesive soils due to expulsion of water that occupies the void spaces.
3. Secondary Consolidation Settlement – caused by plastic adjustment of soil
fabrics. It is an additional form of compression that occurs at constant effective
stress.
Drainage Path, Hdr, is the longest vertical path that a water particle will take to reach
the drainage surface.
Preconsolidation Pressure or past maximum effective stress is the maximum
vertical effective stress a soil was subjected to in the past.
Normally Consolidated Soil is one that has never experienced vertical effective
stresses greater than its current vertical effective stress.
Over-Consolidated Soil is one that has experienced vertical effective stresses
greater than its existing vertical effective stress.
 basic settlement formula

'
H (e o−e )
∆ H=
1+e o
 primary consolidation settlement
Normally Consolidated Soils
Cc pf
Sc =H log
1+ e o po

Where: H – thickness of stratum

Cc – compression index
eo – initial void ratio
po – initial vertical effective soil stress
pf – final vertical effective soil stress = po + Δp
Over-Consolidated Soils
When pf < pc :
Cs pf
Sc =H log
1+ e o po

When pf > pc :
Cs pc Cc pf
Sc =H log + H log
1+ e o po 1+ e o pc

Overconsolidation Ratio, OCR

pc
OCR=
po

Where: pc – preconsolidation pressure

Po – overburden effective stress
If OCR = 1, the soil is normally consolidated.
Compression Index, Cc
Skempton:
For Remolded Clay:
C c =0.007(¿−7)

For Undisturbed Clay:

C c =0.009(¿−10)

Rendon-Herreo:

( )
2.38
1.2 1+ eo
C c =0.141 G
G
 Nishida:
C c =1.15(e o−0.27)

Swell Index, Cs
1 1
C s= C c to C s= C c
5 10
Rendon-Herreo:

C c =0.0463 ( 100
¿%
) Gs
E1 From the given soil profile shown, the ground
surface is subjected to a uniformly distributed
load of 80kPa.

1. Compute the compression index. Use Skempton’s

formula for undisturbed clay;
2. Compute for po at mid-height of the compressible
clay layer;
3. Compute the settlement due to primary
consolidation.
C c =0.009 ( ¿−10 )=0.009 ( 42−10 )=0.288

γ w ( Gs +e ) 9.81 ( 2.70+0.52 ) 3
γ sat = = =20.78 KN /m
1+e 1+0.52
Po =γd =2 ( 19.0−9.81 ) +3.2 ( 20.78−9.81 )+ 1.5 (13.6 )=73.884 KPa

Pf =Po + ∆ P=73.884+ 80=153.884

( ) ( )
Cc pf 0.288 153.884
Sc =H log =4 log =0.229 m
1+ e o po 1+ 0.60 73.884

E2 From the figure shown, a soil profile with the

corresponding properties. The soil is acted upon by a
uniformly distributed load Δp = 60kPa at the ground
surface.
1. Compute the settlement of the clay layer caused by primary consolidation if the soil
is normally consolidated;

C c =0.009 ( ¿−10 )=0.009 ( 48−10 ) =0.342

Po =γd =3 ( 20−9.81 ) + 8 ( 18−9.81 ) +16.5 ( 4 )=162.09 KPa

Pf =Po + ∆ P=162.09+60=222.09 KPa

( ) ( )
Cc pf 0.342 222.09
Sc =H log =6 log =0.152 m
1+ e o po 1+0.85 162.09

2. Compute the settlement of the clay layer caused by primary consolidation if the
preconsolidation pressure of clay is 230kPa. Use Cs = 1/5Cc;
1 1
C s= C c= ( 0.342 )=0.068
5 5

( ) ( )
Cs pf 0.068 222.09
Sc =H log =6 log =0.03 m
1+ e o po 1+0.85 162.09

3. Compute the settlement of the clay layer caused by primary consolidation if the
preconsolidation pressure of clay is 200kPa. Use Cs = 1/5Cc.

1 1
C s= C c= ( 0.342 )=0.068
5 5
Cs Pc Cc Pf
Sc =H log + H log
1+ e o Po 1+ e o Pc

Sc =6 ( 1+0.068
0.85 ) log (
200
162.09 ) + 6(
0.342
1+ 0.85 ) log (
200 )
222.09
=0.070 m

 secondary settlement
Cα T2
S s=H log
1+e p T1

Where: SS – secondary settlement

 Cα – secondary compression index
ep – void ratio at the end of primary consolidation = eo – Δe
eo – in situ void ratio
Po + Δ P
Δ e=Cc log( )
Po
T1 – time for completion of primary settlement
T2 – time after completion of primary settlement
E1 Assume a buried stratum of clay 1.83m thick will be subjected to a stress
increase of 33.6 kPa at the center of clay. The magnitude of the pre-construction
soil overburden pressure Po = 48 kPa at the center of the clay layer. A laboratory
compression test indicates that the clay has a pre consolidation pressure of 72
kPa. Compression index is 0.30 and the value of swell index is 0.05. Void ratio of
clay is 1.50.
1. Compute the primary settlement;
Pf =Po + ∆ P=48+ 33.6=81.6 KPa

Pf > Pc

Cs Pc Cc Pf
Sc =H log + H log
1+ e o Po 1+ e o Pc

Sc =1.83 ( 1+1.50
0.05
) log ( 7248 )+1.83 ( 1+1.50
0.30
) log ( 81.6
72 )
=0.018 m

2. If full consolidation settlement (primary compression settlement) will require

approximately 8 years, compute the settlement due to secondary compression of
clay over a period of 20-year time span. Assume secondary compression index =
0.008.

Δ e=Cc log
( Po )
Po + Δ P
=0.30 log(48+33.6
48 )
=0.069

e p=eo – Δ e=1.50−0.069=1.431

( ) ( )
Cα T2 0.008 20
S s=H log =1.83 log =0.002 m
1+e p T1 1+1.431 8

3. Estimate the total settlement to be expected over a 20-year time span considering
the effects of secondary compression.
ST =Sc +S s =0.018+0.002=0.020 m
E2 A soil profile is shown in the figure. A uniformly
distributed load of 50 kPa is applied at the ground
surface. The clay is normally consolidated.

1. Compute the compression index;

( )
2.38

( )
2.38
1.2 1+ eo 1.2 1+0.80
C c =0.141 G =0.141 ( 2.70 ) =0.177
G 2.70

2. Compute the primary consolidation settlement;

Po =γd =3 (16 ) +6 ( 18−9.81 )+ 3 (19.08−9.81 ) =124.95 KPa

Pf =Po + ∆ P=124.95+50=174.95 KPa

( ) ( )
Cc pf 0.177 174.95
Sc =H log =6 log =0.086 m
1+ e o po 1+0.80 124.95

3. Compute the secondary settlement 8 years after the completion of primary

consolidation. Time for completion of primary settlement is 2 years. Assume
secondary compression index = 0.025.

Δ e=Cc log
( Po + Δ P
Po )
=0.177 log
124.95+50
124.95 (
=0.026 )
e p=eo – Δ e=0.80−0.026=0.774

( ) ()
Cα T2 0.025 8
S s=H log =6 log =0.051 m
1+e p T1 1+ 0.774 2

 Immediate or elastic settlement

( )
2
1−μ
Se =C s qB
Es

( )
2
1−μ
Se =I p qB
Es
 Where: Se – immediate settlement
Cs – shape and foundation rigidity factor
B – width of foundation or diameter of circular foundation
q – net vertical pressure
P
q= 2
B
μ – Poisson’s ratio of soil
Es – modulus of Elasticity
Ip – influence factor
E3 A rigid square footing shown 2m x 2m carries an
axial load of 2400kN.
1. The footing has a shape and foundation rigidity factor
Cs = 0.82, a modulus of elasticity of clay = 50,000
kPa., Poissons ratio of 0.50 for saturated clays.
Compute the settlement under the center of the rigid
foundation due to volume distortions occurring in a
saturated clay stratum;
P 2400 KN
q= 2
= 2
=600 KPa
B 4m

( ) ( )
2
1−μ 2 1−( 0.5 )
Se =C s qB =0.82 ( 600 ) ( 2 ) =0.015 m
Es 50,000

2. Compute the settlement due to primary compression of clay having a compression

index of Cc = 0.32;

po =16.5 (3 )+ 1 ( 17.5−9.81 ) +2 ( 16−9.81 )=69.57 KPa

P 2400
Ptop = 2
= 2 =150 KPa
b 4
P 2400
Pmiddle = 2
= 2 =66.67 KPa
b 6
P 2400
Pbot = 2
= 2 =37.5 KPa
b 8
Ptop +4 P middle + Pbot 150+4 ( 66.67 ) +37.5
∆ P= = =75.697 KPa
6 6
pf = po + ∆ P=69.57+75.697=145.267
 ( ) ( )
Cc pf 0.32 145.267
Sc =H log =4 log =0.227 m
1+ e o po 1+ 0.8 69.57

3. Estimate the total settlement to be expected over a 15-year time span, considering
the effects of secondary compression. Full consolidation settlement (primary
compression settlement) will require approximately 5 years. Compression index for
secondary compression Cα = 0.0128.

( )
pf 145.267
e p=eo −Cc log =0.8−0.32 log =0.698
po 69.57

log =4 ( ) log ( )=0.014 m

C Tα 0.0128
2 15
S =H
s
1+e T p1+0.698
1 5
ST =Se +S c +S s=0.015 m+ 0.227 m+ 0.014 m=0.256 m

E4 A rigid 3m square footing is constructed over a

loose sand layer as shown on the figure. It carries
a total load of 710 kN.

1. Compute the elastic settlement of the 3m footing if the

poisson’s ratio of soil is 0.32, modulus of elasticity of
soil Es = 16000 kPa, influence factor Ip = 0.88;
P 710 KN
q= 2
= 2
=78.89 KPa
B 9m

( ) ( )
2
1−μ2 1−( 0.32 )
Se =I p qB =0.88 ( 78.89 ) ( 3 ) =0.012 m
Es 16,000

2. Compute the primary consolidation settlement of the clay layer if it is normally

consolidated.
po =16 ( 4 )+ 2 ( 18−9.81 ) +2 ( 20−9.81 )=100.76 KPa

2 1.2 5.2 9.2

= = = ; x =0.6 ; x 2=2.6 ; x 3=4.6
1 x1 x2 x3 1

2 1.2
= ; b=0.6 ;
1 b
 P 710
Ptop = 2
= 2 =40.249 KPa
b 4.2
P 710
Pmiddle = 2
= 2 =10.559 KPa
b 8.2
P 710
Pbot = 2
= 2
=4.770 KPa
b 12.2
Ptop +4 P middle + Pbot 40.249+ 4 ( 10.559 ) + 4.770
∆ P= = =14.543 KPa
6 6
pf = po + ∆ P=100.76+14.543=115.303

( )
2.38

( )
2.38
1.2 1+ eo 1.2 1+0.60
C c =0.141 G =0.141 ( 45 ) =0.005
G 45

( ) ( )
Cc pf 0.005 115.303
Sc =H log =4 log =0.0011 m
1+ e o po 1+ 0.6 100.76

3. Compute the total consolidation settlement of the clay 5 yrs. after the completion of
primary consolidation settlement. Time for completion of primary settlement is 2.0
yrs. Secondary compression index Cα = 0.02.

( )
pf 115.303
e p=eo −Cc log =0.6−0.005 log =0.5997
po 100.76

log =4 ( ) log ( )=0.0199 m

C Tα 0.02 2 5
S =Hs
1+e T p1+0.5997 1 2
ST =Se +S c +S s=0.012 m+0.0011 m+0.0199 m=0.033 m

 time rate of consolidation

Cvt
T v= 2
(H ¿¿ dr) ¿
Where: Tv – time factor
Cv – coefficient of consolidation
t – time corresponding to degree of consolidation
Hdr – half the thickness of the sample if drained on both sides or thickness
of the sample if drained on one side only
o Time Factor, Tv:
 ( )
2
π U
when 0<U ≤ 60 % :T v =
4 100

when U >60 % :T v =1.781−0.933 log (100−U ¿) ¿

o Degree of Consolidation, U:
primary consolidation settlement at time' t '
U=
ultimate primary consolidation settlement
o Coefficient of Consolidation, Cv:
K
C v=
mv γ w

where: K – coefficient of permeability

mv – coefficient of volume compressibility
γ w – unit weight of water

o Coefficient of Volume Compressibility, mv:

av
mv =
(1+ e ave )

where: av – coefficient of compressibility

o Coefficient of Compressibility, av:
e 1−e 2 ∆ e
a v= =
P f −Po ∆ P

E1 A normally consolidated clay layer is 4m (one-way drainage). From the

application of a given pressure, the total anticipated primary consolidation
settlement will be 80mm.

1. What is the average degree of consolidation for the clay layer when the settlement is
30mm?

primary consolidation settlement at time' t ' 30

U= = x 100=37.5 %
ultimate primary consolidation settlement 80

2. If the average value of Cv for the pressure range is 0.003 cm 2/sec., how long will it
take for 50% settlement to occur?

( ) ( )
2 2
π U π 50
T v= = =0.1963
4 100 4 100
 Cvt
T v= 2
(H ¿¿ dr) ¿
2
0.003 cm / sec ( t ) 1 hr 1 day
0.1963= 2
; t=10,469,333.33 sec x x =121.17 days
( 400 ) 3600 sec 24 hrs

3. How long will it take for 50% consolidation to occur if the clay layer is drained at both
top and bottom?

0.003t 1hr 1 day

0.1963= ; t=2,617,333.33 sec x x =30.29 days
( 200 ) 2
3600 sec 24 hrs

E2 A 2m thick buried clay (double drainage) has a coefficient of consolidation of

0.001m2/day. Settlement calculations indicate that the clay layer will eventually
compress 40mm (primary settlement due to effect of building loads.

1. How long a time period is required for 90% of the estimated settlement to occur?

T v =1.781−0.933 log(100−U ¿)=1.781−0.933 log(100−90¿)=0.8480 ¿ ¿

Cvt
T v= 2
(H ¿¿ dr) ¿
0.001t
0.848= ; t=848 days
( 1 )2

2. How much settlement occurs in the first 12 months?

Cv t
T v=
2 0.001 ( 360 )
(H ¿¿ dr) = 2
=0.36 ¿
1

( )
2
π U
T v=
4 100

( )
2
π U
0.36= , U=67.70 inconsistent
4 100
T v =1.781−0.933 log (100−U ¿)¿
0.36=1.781−0.933 log (100−U ¿) ; U =66.65 % consistent ¿

3. What time period is required for a settlement of 20mm?

 primary consolidation settlement at time' t ' 20
U= = x 100=50 %
ultimate primary consolidation settlement 40

( ) ( )
2 2
π U π 50
T v= = =0.1963
4 100 4 100
Cvt
T v= 2
(H ¿¿ dr) ¿
0.001t
0.1963= ; t=196.3 days
( 1 )2

E3 For a normally consolidated clay, the following are given:

Thickness of clay = 4m
Po = 50 kPa eo = 0.81
Pf = 120kPa e = 0.70
-7
K = 3.1x10 cm/sec
1. In how many days will it take for a 4m thick clay layer (drained on both sides) in the
field to reach 50% consolidation?

( ) ( )
2 2
π U π 50
T v= = =0.1963
4 100 4 100
e 1−e 2 0.81−0.70
a v= = =0.0016
P f −P0 120−50
e1 +e 2 0.81+ 0.70
e ave = = =0.755
2 2
av 0.0016
mv = = =0.0009
(1+ e ave ) (1+0.755)

C v=
K
=
3.1 x 10−7 cm/ s ( 1001mcm ) =3.51 x 10 −7 m2

( )( 9.81 KNm )
mv γ w m
2 sec
0.0009 3
KN

Cv t
T v=
( ) ; t=2,237,037.04 sec x
2
−7 m
3.51 x 10 t
2 sec 1h r 1 day
(H ¿¿ dr) ; 0.1963= 2 2
x =25.89 days ¿
2 m 3600 sec 24 h rs
2. Compute the primary consolidation settlement of the clay layer.

C c =1.15 ( e o−0.27 )=1.15 ( 0.81−0.27 )=0.621

( ) ( )
Cc pf 0.621 120
Sc =H log =4 log =0.5218 m
1+ e o po 1+ 0.81 50

3. What is the settlement when it reaches 50% consolidation?

Name:
Year & Section:
A rigid square footing shown 1.5m x 1.5m carries an axial load of 1400kN.

2m

2m

2m
a. The footing has a shape and foundation rigidity factor Cs = 0.72, a modulus of
elasticity of clay = 45,000 kPa., Poissons ratio of 0.50 for saturated clays. Compute
the settlement under the center of the rigid foundation due to volume distortions
occurring in a saturated clay stratum;

b. Compute the settlement due to primary compression of clay having a

compression index of Cc = 0.3;

c. Estimate the total settlement to be expected over a 10-year time span, considering
the effects of secondary compression. Full consolidation settlement (primary
compression settlement) will require approximately 5 years. Compression index for
secondary compression Cα = 0.0123.