Magnetism and nanosciences

Introduction & Magnetostatics

Thibaut Devillers : thibaut.devillers@neel.cnrs.fr
Hélène Béa : Helene.bea@cea.fr

Magnetism : Introduction 1
Organization

▪ 10x2h of lectures/exercices : every Tuesday 13h30 (phitem D112 or

D111)
▪ 2x4h of practicals (2 out of 4 practicals)
– wednesday 15/11 (8h-12h)
– wednesday 22/11 (8h-12h)
– wednesday 29/11 (8h-12h)
– wednesday 06/12 (8h-12h)
▪ Form https://link.infini.fr/magnetism-2

Magnetism : Introduction 2
Magnetism : Introduction 3
Magnetism : Introduction 4
Let’s try to be critical !
What does magnetism mean ?
▪ What is the origin of magnetism ?
▪ What are the effects of magnetism ?
▪ How to probe magnetism ?
▪ What are the order of magnitudes ? (of force for example)

▪ Easy ways to prove/disprove the role of magnetism in post-covid-stickiness:

– Measure / evaluate the magnetic field / magnetization / magnetic moment
– Bring a compass close to the arm
– Change the surface properties without changing the magnetic properties
– Calculate how much magnetic material should have been injected
– Stick non magnetic metals and other materials
– See the attraction of the skin by a strong magnet
Magnetism : Introduction 5
Bibliography

J.M.D Coey E. du Tremolet de Lacheisserie Ashcroft Blundell

+ Lecture notes of Olivier Fruchart on his website (http://fruchart.eu/olivier/publications/index.html)

Magnetism : Introduction 7
Outline of the course

▪ History, current applications and prospects

▪ Magnetostatics (reminder)
▪ Magnetic response of materials and magnetic orders
▪ Experimental techniques : producing and measuring magnetic fields
and magnetization
▪ Anisotropy
▪ Magnetization reversal
▪ Domain walls
▪ Spintronics (Hélène Béa)

Magnetism : Introduction 8
Outline of today

▪ History, current applications and prospects

▪ Magnetostatics (reminder)

At the end of this lecture, you should know

▪ The difference between magnetic field (H), induction (B), flux
(𝚽), magnetic moment (m), magnetization (M)
▪ How to calculate field distribution from simple magnetization
distribution

Magnetism : Introduction 9
History of magnetism :antiquity

Magnetism : Introduction 10
History of magnetism : 19th century and the electromagnetic
revolution
Oerstedt Ampere

Equivalence between magnets

and coil+currents

Creation of magnetic field

with electric current

Faraday
Magnetic induction in conductors
Maxwell
Electric motor

Magnetism : Introduction 11
History of magnetism : 20th century : theoretical fundaments

Uhlenbeck
and Goudsmid
▪ spin ½ of the electron (1927)

▪ interaction of spins (exchange) Dirac, Heisenberg (1926)

▪ Magnetic orders Curie, Weiss, Néel
▪ Development of permanent magnets
▪ Magnetic recording
▪ Spintronics Fert, Grünberg (90’s)

Néel

Magnetism : Introduction 12
Magnetism todays
Motors, Generators

Actuators

Sensors (angle position,

magnetic field), radars

Electroacoustic

Magnetic levitation

Medecine: Imaging (NMR),

Nanoparticles (hypertermia)

Electronics: transformers,
circulators, resonators

Micro-electronic/spintronics:
Hard disc drives
Magnetic memories (MRAMs)
Magnetic sensors

Magnetism : Introduction 13
 Prospects for high-end magnets (bulk)

▪ Need for sustainable high performance magnets for

Motors/generators (e-mobility / robots / Energy production) →
search for new materials Nd(Dy)FeB
▪ Data storage (hard drives)
Co price

SmCo5

Magnetism : Introduction 14
Prospects for magnetism at nanoscale

Magnetism : Introduction 15
 Magnetostatics recap
2 sources of magnetic induction : Magnets and moving charges (current)

Biot & Savart

𝝁𝟎 𝑰 𝒅𝒍 ∧ 𝒓
𝒅𝑩 =
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟑
𝑰
B magnetic induction
Tesla (T)
Permeability of vacuum
𝜇0 dl In vacuum
= 10−7 𝐻. 𝑚−1 dB
4𝜋
1 𝑢
𝜇0 = 2 𝑟റ
𝑐 𝜀0 P
Henry

Magnetism : Introduction 16
 Maxwell’s equations

𝜌 𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜌
𝛻. 𝐸 = Maxwell-Gauss
𝜀0
𝛻. 𝐵 =0
𝛻. 𝐵 =0 Maxwell-Flux
𝜕𝐵
𝜕𝐵 𝛻×𝐸 =−
𝛻×𝐸 =− Maxwell-Faraday 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑡
1 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐷
𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑗Ԧ + 2 Maxwell-Ampere 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝑗Ԧ +
𝑐 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

Magnetism : Introduction 17
Maxwell’s equations

𝜌 𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜌
𝛻. 𝐸 = Maxwell-Gauss
𝜀0

𝛻. 𝐵 =0
𝛻. 𝐵 =0 Maxwell-Flux
𝜕𝐵
𝛻×𝐸 =−
𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝑡
𝛻×𝐸 =− Maxwell-Faraday
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐷
𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝑗Ԧ +
1 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑡
𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑗Ԧ + 2 Maxwell-Ampere
𝑐 𝜕𝑡

Magnetism : Introduction 18
Particular cases

Ampère’s Theorem Flux theorem magnetic flux (in Weber (Wb))

Magnetic induction has

conservative flux

Consequence: B lines are closed ; no sources or

Consequence : flux of B through a surface only depends on
sink of magnetic fields
the contour delimiting the surface

Démonstration with Stokes theorem Démonstration with Green Ostrogradski theorem

ර 𝑉. 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = ඵ 𝛻 × 𝑉 𝑑𝑆 ඾ 𝐴Ԧ 𝑑𝑆 = ම 𝛻. 𝐴Ԧ 𝑑𝑉
𝑆 𝑉
𝛤 𝑆

Magnetism : Introduction 19
Calculating a field distribution

✓ Use symmetry consideration to

– Reduce the number of variables
– Extract the direction of the field
✓ Then use the previous laws to quantify the field in some particular
positions

A symetry plane 𝑃 of the charge/current distribution is

• symmetry plane of 𝐸 → ∀ 𝑀 ∈ 𝑃, 𝐸 is included in 𝑃
• antisymmetry plane of 𝐵 → ∀ 𝑀 ∈ 𝑃, 𝐵 is orthogonal to 𝑃

Magnetism : Introduction 20
Simple cases
solenoid

Rotational and translational symetry

𝐵 = 𝐵(𝑟, 𝑧)
Antisymetry /every plane 𝑃 such as 𝑂, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑃
𝐵 = 𝐵𝑟 𝑟, 𝑧 𝑢𝑟 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑟, 𝑧 𝑢𝑧

Field along the axis for 𝑧 ≫ 𝑅 In the case of infinite solenoid

𝜇0 𝐼 2 3 𝜇0 𝐼𝑁
𝐵 𝑟 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑅 /𝑧 𝑢𝑧 𝐵= inside and 0 outside
2 𝑙

Magnetism : Introduction 21
 Magnetic dipole Electrostatic dipole

𝒎 = 𝑰. 𝑺 Magnetic moment (𝑨. 𝒎𝟐 )

𝜇0 𝜇0 𝒑 = 𝒒. 𝒅
𝐵= 3𝑚. 𝑢 𝑢 − 𝑚 = 2𝑚. cos 𝜃 𝑢𝑟 + 𝑚. sin 𝜃 u𝜃 1
4𝜋𝑟 3 4𝜋𝑟 3 𝐸= [ 3𝑝.
Ԧ 𝑢 𝑢 − 𝑝]
Ԧ
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3

Magnetism : Introduction 22
Magnetic dipole (current loop) Magnetic dipole (virtual “magnetic charges”)

+𝒒𝒎

−𝒒𝒎

𝒎 = 𝑰. 𝑺 𝒎 = 𝜹. 𝒒𝒎
Magnetic moment (𝑨. 𝒎𝟐 ) Magnetic moment (𝑨. 𝒎𝟐 )

Magnetism : Introduction 23
Amperian vs Coulombian approach

Amperian approach Examples:

Coulombian approach
+ ++
+
- -
+ +- +
- +- + - + -
current loop - - -
+ ++ +
j
m
- - --
cube of magnetic matter
Magnetism : Introduction 24
Magnetic dipole (moment) in an external magnetic field

▪ Energy : 𝑬𝒎 = −𝒎. 𝑩
▪ Magnetic torque 𝜞 = 𝒎 × 𝑩
▪ Magnetic force 𝑭𝒎 = 𝒎. 𝛁 𝑩

→ Align along the field

→ Drifts towards higher fields

Magnetism : Introduction 25
From magnetic moment to magnetization

At long distance, many systems can be approximated as simple dipoles

But what happens at short distance and random shape objects ?

field?

Magnetism : Introduction 26
From magnetic moment to magnetization

if the distance is of the same range as object dimensions, field not equivalent to that produced by a single dipole

decomposition in elementary dipoles carying a magnetic moment 𝒅𝒎

Magnetization
𝒅𝒎
𝑴= (en 𝐴. 𝑚−1 )
𝒅𝑽
Local property
dV

 given by vector field 𝑀(𝑟)

Magnetic state of a macroscopic object Ԧ

Magnetism : Introduction 27
Induction (𝑩) and magnetic field (𝑯)

Ampère : magnetic induction (𝐵) Coulomb : magnetic field (𝐻)

Magnetization(𝑀)

𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 (𝑯 + 𝑴)

𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 𝑯 in vacuum
𝑩and 𝑯 different in matter

𝐵 has continuous/closed field 𝐻 has non continuous field lines (sources

lines (no sink/source) and sinks → magnetic charges)
Magnetism : Introduction 28
Induction (𝑩) and magnetic field (𝑯)

Ampère : magnetic induction (𝐵) Coulomb : magnetic field (𝐻)

+++
𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 (𝑯 + 𝑴)

𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 𝑯 in vacuum
𝑩and 𝑯 different in matter

---

𝐵 has continuous/closed field 𝐻 has non continuous field lines (sources

lines (no sink/source) and sinks → magnetic charges)
Magnetism : Introduction 29
Induction (𝑩) and magnetic field (𝑯)

Ampère : magnetic induction (𝐵) Coulomb : magnetic field (𝐻)

inside : demagnetizing field 𝐻𝑑

outside : stray field

𝐵 has continuous/closed field 𝐻 has non continuous field lines (sources

lines (no sink/source) and sinks → magnetic charges)
Magnetism : Introduction 30
Induction (𝑩) and magnetic field (𝑯)

𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 𝑯 in vacuum
𝑩and 𝑯 different in matter
Ampère : magnetic induction (𝑩) Coulomb : magnetic field (𝑯)

𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 (𝑯 + 𝑴ቁ
𝐵 = 𝑩𝟎 + 𝑩𝒎 𝐻 = 𝑯 𝟎 + 𝑯𝒎

From electrical From From electrical From

currents magnetization currents magnetization

𝑩𝒎 = 𝝁𝟎 𝑴 + 𝝁𝟎 𝑯𝒎 𝐻𝑚 ∶ field created by magnetization called magnetostatic (=dipolar) field

inside magnetized matter it is called demagnetizing field, notation 𝐻𝑑
outside magnetized matter it is called stray field

Magnetism : Introduction 31
 Induction (𝑩) and magnetic field (𝑯)
Ampère : magnetic induction (𝑩) Coulomb : magnetic field (𝑯)
𝐵 = 𝑩𝟎 + 𝑩 𝒎 𝐻 = 𝑯 𝟎 + 𝑯𝒎
𝑗0 free current densities 𝑗0 free current densities
𝑗𝑚 , 𝑗𝑚𝑠 bound current densities (due to magnetization) 𝜌𝑚 , 𝜎𝑚 charge densities (due to magnetization)

Units of 𝑗0 , 𝑗𝑚 : 𝐴. 𝑚−2 volumic current Units of 𝜌𝑚 : 𝐴. 𝑚−2 volumic magnetic charges

Unit of 𝑗𝑚𝑠 : 𝐴. 𝑚−1 surfacic current Unit of 𝜎𝑚 : 𝐴. 𝑚−1 surfacic magnetic charges

𝑗𝑚𝑠 = 𝑀 × 𝑛 𝜎𝑚 = 𝑀. 𝑛
𝑀 𝑀
𝑗𝑚 = 𝛻 × 𝑀 𝜌𝑚 = 𝛻. 𝑀
=0 if 𝑀 uniform =0 if 𝑀 uniform

𝑛 outward unit vector normal to the surface

Magnetism : Introduction 32
 Induction (𝑩) and magnetic field (𝑯)
We only consider magnetization as source of 𝐵 and 𝐻 (no “real”conduction currents)
Ampère : magnetic induction (𝑩) Coulomb : magnetic field (𝑯) Electric field (E)
Solenoidal field conservative field conservative field
𝛻×𝐸 =0
𝛻 × 𝐵𝑚 = 𝜇0 𝑗𝑚 𝛻 × 𝐻𝑚 = 0 𝜌
𝛻. 𝐵 = 0 𝛻. 𝐻𝑚 = 𝜌𝑚 𝛻. 𝐸 =
𝜀0

𝛻. Bm = 0 so 𝐵𝑚 can be written as 𝐵𝑚 = 𝛻 × 𝐴Ԧ 𝛻 × 𝐻𝑚 = 0 𝛻 × 𝐻𝑚 = 0
With 𝐴Ԧ vector potential (in T.m) so 𝐻𝑚 can be written as 𝐻𝑚 = −𝛻𝑉𝑚 so 𝐸 can be written as 𝐸 = −𝛻𝑉
𝐴Ԧ is not uniquely defined With 𝑉𝑚 Coulombian potential (in A) With 𝑉 Coulombian potential (in V)
→ Coulomb Gauge 𝛻. 𝐴Ԧ = 0 1 𝜌
1 𝜌𝑚 𝑉= ම 𝑑𝑉
𝜇0 𝑗𝑚 𝑉𝑚 = ම 𝑑𝑉 4𝜋 𝑟
A= ම 𝑑𝑉 4𝜋 𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
4𝜋 𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 Poisson’s equation𝛥 𝑉 + 𝜌 = 0
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
Poisson’s equation Δ𝐴Ԧ + 𝜇0 𝑗𝑚 = 0 Poisson’s equation𝛥𝑉𝑚 + 𝜌𝑚 = 0

Magnetism : Introduction 33
Induction (𝑩) and magnetic field (𝑯)
We only consider magnetization as source of 𝐵 and 𝐻 (no “real”conduction currents)
Ampère : magnetic induction (𝑩) Coulomb : magnetic field (𝑯)
Solenoidal field conservative field

𝛻 × 𝐵𝑚 = 𝜇0 𝑗𝑚 Spatial variation of 𝑴 𝛻 × 𝐻𝑚 = 0
𝛻. 𝐵 = 0 +interfaces 𝛻. 𝐻𝑚 = 𝜌𝑚

𝜇0 𝑗𝑚 1 𝜌𝑚
A= ම 𝑑𝑉 Currents Mag. charges 𝑉𝑚 = ම 𝑑𝑉
4𝜋 𝑟 (volume or (volume or 4𝜋 𝑟
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
surface) surface)
+ take boundaries into account + take boundaries into account
𝜇0 𝑗𝑚 𝜇0 𝑗𝑚 𝑠 1 𝜌𝑚 1 𝜎𝑚
Ԧ
𝐴= ම 𝑑𝑉 + ඵ 𝑑𝑆 𝑉𝑚 = ම 𝑑𝑉 + ඵ 𝑑𝑆
4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟
𝑉\𝑆 𝑆 𝑉\𝑆 𝑆

V : volume of magnetic matter ,

S: surface V\S volume without the boundary
Magnetism : Introduction 34
 How to calculate Induction (𝑩) and magnetic field (𝑯)

Ampère : magnetic induction (𝑩) Coulomb : magnetic field (𝑯)

Solenoidal field conservative field

𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝑗0 + 𝑗𝑚 + 𝑗𝑚𝑠 ) Surfacic current 𝒋𝒎𝒔 = 𝑴 × 𝒏 𝛻 × 𝐻𝑚 = 0 Surfacic charges 𝝈𝒎 = 𝑴 ⋅ 𝒏

𝛻. 𝐵 = 0 Volumic current 𝒋𝒎 = 𝛁 × 𝑴 𝛻. 𝐻𝑚 = 𝜌𝑚 Volumic charges 𝝆𝒎 = −𝜵 ⋅ 𝑴

𝜇0 𝑗 1 𝜌𝑚
A= ‫𝑟 𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑠׮‬ 𝑑𝑉 with 𝐵 = 𝛻 × 𝐴Ԧ and 𝛻. 𝐴Ԧ = 0 𝑉𝑚 =
4𝜋
‫׮‬𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑟
𝑑𝑉 with 𝐻𝑚 = −𝛻𝑉𝑚
4𝜋
vector potential scalar potential
𝜇0 Ԧ 𝑟Ԧ
𝐼 𝑑𝑙∧ 1 𝜌𝑚 𝑟Ԧ
→ Biot and Savart : 𝐵 = ‫ 𝑟 𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑠׮‬3 → direct integral: 𝐻𝑚 = ‫׮‬𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑟 3
𝑑𝑉
4𝜋 4𝜋

Ԧ = 𝜇0 ‫𝑗 ׭‬Ԧ ⋅ 𝑑𝑆
→ Ampère’s theorem: ය 𝐵 ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 Ԧ → Gauss’s theorem: Φ = ල 𝐻𝑚 ⋅ 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = ‫𝑉𝑑 𝑚𝜌 𝑉׮‬
𝛤 𝑆 𝑆

→ Poisson’s equation 𝛥𝐴Ԧ + 𝜇0 𝑗Ԧ = 0 → Poisson’s equation: 𝛥𝑉𝑚 + 𝜌𝑚 = 0

Magnetism : Introduction 35
Demagnetizing field 𝑯𝒅
Inside magnetic material

Magnetism : Introduction 36
Demagnetizing field 𝑯𝒅

Magnetism : Introduction 37
Demagnetizing field 𝑯𝒅

Sphere : 𝑛𝑥 = 𝑛𝑦 = 𝑛𝑧 = 1/3 Cylinder : 𝑛𝑥 = 𝑛𝑦 = 1/2 and 𝑛𝑧 = 0

Thin film : 𝑛𝑥 = 𝑛𝑦 = 0 and 𝑛𝑧 = 1 Torus : 𝑛𝜃 = 0

Magnetism : Introduction 38
 Linear magnetism

Magnetic behaviour of a material that is linear, isotrope, homogeneous (LIH)

Low permeability
𝑩
𝑀=𝜒𝐻 m<<m0

𝜒 magnetic susceptibility (no unit) 𝝁

𝐵 = 𝜇0 (1 + 𝜒)𝐻 𝑴 𝑯
= 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐻 = 𝜇𝐻 𝝌

magnetic permability 𝜇 = 𝜇0 (1 + 𝜒)

relative permability 𝜇𝑟 = 𝜇/𝜇0 (1 + 𝜒)

induction lines

Magnetism : Introduction 39
Linear magnetism

Demagnetizing field correction in LIH materials

𝜒
In most experiments, one does not measure 𝑀(𝐻) but 𝑀(𝐻0 ) 𝑀= 𝐻0
1 + 𝑁𝜒
𝐻𝑑 = −𝑁𝑀 with 𝑀 = 𝜒𝐻 = 𝜒 𝐻0 + 𝐻𝑑 = 𝜒(𝐻0 − 𝑁𝑀)

𝜒 cannot be measured if
the demagnetizing field
is large

Measurement in an ellipsoidal sample

Magnetism : Introduction 40
 Field and interfaces

▪ What happens to field lines at- interfaces

𝐵1 𝑦 = 𝐵2𝑦 (normal component)
𝐻1𝑥 = 𝐻2𝑥 (tangential component)
𝐻1𝑥 𝐻2𝑥 tan 𝜃1 tan 𝜃2
=𝜇 → =
𝜇1 𝐻1𝑦 2 𝐻2𝑦 𝜇1 𝜇2

Example air/high permeability material

tan 𝜃𝑚 = 𝜇𝑟 tan(𝜃𝑎𝑖𝑟 )
𝜇𝑟 ≫ 1
𝜋 At interfaces, field lines tend to be
𝜃𝑚 →
2 • tangential to the surface in high 𝜇𝑟 materials
൞ 𝑜𝑟 • Or perpendicular to the surface in air gaps
𝜃𝑚 = 𝜃𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 0

Magnetism : Introduction 41
Applications : magnetic circuits

Coil+ Magnetically soft steel

Magnetism : Introduction 42
Magnetic circuits

Magnetism : Introduction 43
 Magnetic circuits
1 p F = BS
R=
U nI mS p: mean
perimeter
S: section of
Magnetic circuits with high m tore
materials: analogy with Electric circuit Magnetic circuit
electric circuits Current density j : div j = 0 Induction B : divB = 0
Electric current I =jS Magnetic flux =
Current source I Magnet of flux 
𝛁. 𝐁 = 𝟎, 𝝁 ≫ 𝝁𝟎 Electric field E : j = s E Magnetic field H : B = m H
→ magnetic flux Electromotrice Force U magnétomotrice force U : coils nI
conductors Electric resistance : R = U / I Magnetic reluctance R = nI/

1 L Conductor
Resistance R = 1L
 S S Reluctance R=
mS
L
Magnetism : Introduction 44
 Magnetic units (always prefer SI units !!!)

Magnetic induction, density of Volumic Susceptibility : c

magnetic flux: B Magnetization: M
CGS : c dimensionless
CGS : B in Gauss (G) 𝐵 = 𝐻 + 4𝜋𝑀 SI : c dimensionless CGS : M in emu/cm3
SI: B in Tesla (T) ccgs = (1/4) cSI SI: M in Ampère per meter (A.m-1)
1 T=10 4 G 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝐻 + 𝑀ቁ 1 A/m=10-3 emu/cm3
Bcgs(G) = 10 4 BSI (T) Mcgs (emu/cm3 ) = 10 -3 MSI (A.m-1)
Permeability : m
CGS : m dimensionless
SI: m in Henry per meter (H/m) Magnetic Moment: m
Magnetic field: H 410-7H/m=1 (cgs) CGS : m in emu
mcgs = 410-7 mSI (H/m) SI: m in Ampère m2 (A.m2)
CGS : H in Oersted (Oe)
1 Am2=10 3 emu
SI: H in Ampère per meter (A.m-1) mcgs (emu) = 10 -3 mSI (Am2)
1 A.m-1= 4  10 -3 Oe
Hcgs (Oe) = 4  10 -3 HSI (A.m-1)

Magnetism : Introduction 45