Acknowledgment

We are highly thankful to all the teachers and parents who

helped us to complete this project successfully. We
express our extreme gratitude to Mrs. Shani ma’am for
helping us complete the project and for guiding us in every
step of our research. We are also thankful to maam for the
informative resources she gave us and the necessary
guidelines for the successful completion of the project.
Last, but not the least, thanking almighty God and our
parents for their blessings which is our inspiration
throughout.

1
 Index

S.No. Contents Page No.

1. Topic 1
2. Certificate 2
3. Acknowledgement 3
4. Index 4
5. Experiments of Faraday and Henry 5
6. Faradays Laws of Induction 7
7. Lenz’s Law 8
8. Inductance 10
9. Mutual Induction 11
10. Mutual Inductance 12
11. Self-Induction and Self Inductance 14

12. Energy stored in an Inductor 16

13. Inductors in Series and Parallel 17
14. Some Numerical Based on Inductance 19
15. Working Model of EMI 20
16. Applications of EMI 22
17. Bibliography 24

2
 Experiments by Faraday and Henry
Experiment 1

In this experiment, Faraday connected a coil to a galvanometer, as shown in the figure

above. A bar magnet was pushed towards the coil, such that the north pole is pointing
towards the coil. As the bar magnet is shifted, the pointer in the galvanometer gets
deflected, thus indicating the presence of current in the coil under consideration. It is
observed that when the bar magnet is stationary, the pointer shows no deflection and
the motion lasts only till the magnet is in motion. Here, the direction of the deflection of
the pointer depends upon the direction of motion of the bar magnet. Also, when the
south pole of the bar magnet is moved towards or away from the coil, the deflections in
the galvanometer are opposite to that observed with the north-pole for similar
movements. Apart from this, the deflection of the pointer is larger or smaller depending
upon the speed with which it is pulled towards or away from the coil. The same effect is
observed when instead of the bar magnet, the coil is moved and the magnet is held
stationary. This shows that only the relative motion between the magnet and the coil are
responsible for the generation of current in the coil.

EXPERIMENT 2

3
In the second experiment, Faraday replaced the bar magnet by a second current-
carrying coil that was connected to a battery. Here, the current in the coil due to the
connected battery produced a steady magnetic field, which made the system analogous
to the previous one. As we move the second coil towards the primary coil, the pointer in
the galvanometer undergoes deflection, which indicates the presence of the electric
current in the first coil. Similar to the above case, here too, the direction of the deflection
of the pointer depends upon the direction of motion of the secondary coil towards or
away from the primary coil. Also, the magnitude of deflection depends upon the speed
with which the coil is moved. All these results show that the system in the second case
is analogous to the system in the first experiment.

Experiment 3

From the above two experiments, it was concluded by Faraday that the relative motion
between the magnet and the coil resulted in the generation of current in the primary coil.
But another experiment conducted by Faraday proved that the relative motion between
the coils was not really necessary for the current in the primary to be generated. In this
experiment, he placed two stationary coils and connected one of them to the
galvanometer and the other to a battery, through a push-button. As the button was
pressed, the galvanometer in the other coil showed a deflection, indicating the presence
of current in that coil. Also, the deflection in the pointer was temporary and if pressed
continuously, the pointer showed no deflection and when the key was released, the
deflection occurred in the opposite direction.

4
 Faradays laws of Induction
I. Frist Law
Whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked with a circuit
changes an emf is induced in the circuit, the induced emf last so
long as change in magnetic flux continues.

II. Second Law

The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the
time rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit.

For N turns:

The negative sign indicates the direction of ε and hence the direction
of the direction of current in a closed loop.

5
 Lenz’s Law
The polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current
which opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it.

The North-pole of a bar magnet is being pushed towards the closed coil. As the North-
pole of the bar magnet moves towards the coil, the magnetic flux through the coil
increases. Hence current is induced in the coil in such a direction that it opposes the
increase in flux. This is possible only if the current in the coil is in a counter-clockwise
direction with respect to an observer situated on the side of the magnet. Note that
magnetic moment associated with this current has North polarity towards the North-pole
of the approaching magnet.

Similarly, if the North pole of the magnet is being withdrawn from the coil, the magnetic
flux through the coil will decrease. To counter this decrease in magnetic flux, the
induced current in the coil flows in clockwise direction and its South pole faces the
receding North-pole of the bar magnet. This would result in an attractive force which
opposes the motion of the magnet and the corresponding decrease in flux.

6
 Inductance
Inductance is the tendency of an electrical conductor to oppose a change in the electric
current flowing through it. L is used to represent the inductance, and Henry is the SI unit
of inductance. 1 Henry is defined as the amount of inductance required to produce an
emf of 1 volt in a conductor when the current change in the conductor is at the rate of 1
Ampere per second.

Factors Affecting Inductance

Following factors affect the inductance in a circuit:
❖ Number of Wire Turns in the Coil: Inductance is greater when the number of
turns of wire in the coil is greater. More coils of wires indicate a greater amount of
magnetic field force for a given amount of coil current.
❖ Coil Area: Inductance is proportional to the coil area. Greater the coil area, the
greater the inductance. Greater coil area presents less opposition to the
formation of magnetic field flux for a given amount of field force
❖ Core Material: The greater the magnetic permeability of the core to which the coil
is wrapped around, the greater the inductance.
❖ Coil Length: The longer the coil’s length, the lesser the inductance. The shorter
the coil’s length, the greater the inductance.

Types of Inductance
1. Mutual Inductance(M)
2. Self-Inductance(L)

7
 Mutual Induction
When two coils are brought in proximity to each other, the magnetic field in one of the
coils tends to link with the other. This further leads to the generation of voltage in the
second coil. This property of first coil which affects or changes the current and voltage
in a second coil is called mutual induction.

Consider two coils 1 and 2. A battery and a tapping key are connected to the coil 1,
called the primary coil. A galvanometer is connected to the coil 2, called the secondary
coil.
Now, if a current is allowed to flow in the primary coil 1 by pressing the tapping key,
then the galvanometer in the secondary coil 2 will give deflection. If the circuit is
disconnected by releasing the key, then also the galvanometer will show deflection. But
this deflection is in the opposite direction to the previous one.
If the tapping key is pressed, the current in the circuit starts increasing from zero to a
fixed value. Due to this change of current the magnetic flux in the secondary coil
changes: consequently, according to Faraday’s Law, induced electromotive force is
produced in the secondary coil. As a result, current flows in the secondary coil. Due to
this current, the galvanometer shows deflection. Now, if the tapping key is released,
then the circuit becomes disconnected and current in the circuit falls from the constant
value to zero. During this time magnetic flux in the secondary coil changes which
creates electromotive force. The direction of this electromotive force is opposite to the
previous one, so, also the direction of the current. As a result, the galvanometer gives
deflection in the opposite direction.

8
 Mutual Inductance – M
Φ∝I
Φ = MI
∅
M= : M is Mutual Inductance
𝐼
S.I. unit is henry (H)
Mutual Inductance is 1 Henry when 1 Wb magnetic flux is produced in a coil due to 1 a
current passing through the neighboring coil.
1h = 1Wb𝐴−1
𝑑∅ 𝑑𝑀𝐼 𝑑𝐼
ε = - =- =-M
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜺
M= 𝒅𝑰
𝒅𝒕
Consider Fig. which shows two long co-axial solenoids each of length

9
We now
So, we can say that M21=M12=M
This shows equality for long co-axial solenoids.
If a medium of relative permeability μr had been present, the mutual inductance would
be
M =μrμ0n1n2π r12l
The mutual inductance of a pair of coils, solenoids, etc., depends on their separation as
well as their relative orientation.

10
 Self-Induction and Inductance
Self-induction is a phenomenon by which a changing electric current produces an
induced emf across the coil itself. It is a property of a current-carrying coil that resists or
opposes changes in the current flowing through it. When the current changes, the coil
generates an opposing voltage (emf) within itself. Self-inductance is the property of the
current-carrying coil that resists or opposes the change of current flowing through it.
This occurs mainly due to the self-induced emf produced in the coil itself. In simple
terms, we can say that self-inductance is a phenomenon where there is the induction of
a voltage in a current-carrying wire.
The self-induced emf present in the coil will resist the rise of current when the current
increases, and it also resists the fall of current if the current decreases. In essence, the
direction of the induced emf is opposite to the applied voltage if the current is
increasing, and the direction of the induced emf is in the same direction as the applied
voltage if the current is falling. The above property of the coil exists only for the
changing current, which is the alternating current and not for the direct or steady
current. Self-inductance is always opposing the changing current and is measured in
Henry (SI unit). Induced current always opposes the change in current in the circuit,
whether the change in the current is an increase or a decrease one. Self-inductance is a
type of electromagnetic induction.

In this case, flux linkage through a coil of N turns is proportional to the current through
the coil and is expressed as
NΦB ∝ I
NΦB = LI
where constant of proportionality L is called self-inductance of the coil. It is also called
the coefficient of self-induction of the coil.
When the current is varied, the flux linked with the coil also changes and an emf is
induced in the coil. The induced emf is given by

11
 −𝑑𝑁∅𝐵
∈=
𝑑𝑡
−𝐿𝑑𝐼
∈=
𝑑𝑡
Consider a long solenoid of cross sectional area A and length l, having n turns per unit
length. The magnetic field due to a current I flowing in the solenoid is B=𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
The total flux linked with the solenoid is
N∅𝐵 = (𝑛𝑙)(𝜇0 𝑛𝐼)(𝐴)
=𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙𝐼
where nl is the total number of turns. Thus, the self-inductance is,
𝑁∅
L= 𝐵
𝐼
L=µ0n2Al
If we fill the inside of the solenoid with a material of relative permeability μ r.
L=µrµ0n2Al

12
 Energy stored in an Inductor
When a current passes through an inductor, an emf is induced in it. This back emf
opposes the flow of current through the inductor. So, in order to establish a current in
the inductor, work has to be done against this emf by the voltage source.
Consider a time interval dt.
During this period, work done, dW, is given by
𝑑𝑖
dW = Pdt = –Eidt =𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝑥𝑑𝑡=Lidt
To find the total work done, the above expression must be integrated.
𝑖
W = ∫0 𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝑖 = ½ LI2
Therefore, energy stored in an inductor is given by the equation,
U = ½ LI2
Since B=µ0nI and L=µ0n2Al for a solenoid
𝐵 2
U= ½ (µ0n2Al)(𝜇 𝑛)
0
𝟏
U=𝟐𝝁 B2Al
𝟎
Magnetic energy per unit volume is
u=U/V
𝑩𝟐
u= 𝟐𝝁
𝟎
This is similar to the electrical potential energy stored in capacitor.
In both the cases energy stored in unit area is always proportional to the square of the
field strengths.

13
 Inductors in Series and Parallel
Series:
When the inductors are chained together in a straight line or when they are connected
end to end, then the inductors are said to be in a series connection. Inductors are
connected in series, their effective inductance increases. Inductors in series are
somewhat similar to the capacitors in parallel. In order to get the total inductance, it is
we only have to add every inductance. That is, when inductors are connected in series,
the total inductance is the sum of all inductance.
Consider the connection below:

Here, three inductors are connected in series. In this case, the current flowing through
each inductor is the same, while the voltage across each inductor is different. This
voltage depends upon the inductance value. By using Kirchoff’s voltage law, the total
voltage drop is the sum of the voltage drop across each inductor. That is,
VT = V1 + V2 +V3
We know that the voltage across an inductor is given by the equation
V = L di / dt
So, here we can write,
LTotal dl / dt = L1 x dl1 / dt + L2 x dl2 / dt + L3 x dl3 / dt
But
I = I1 = I2 = I3
Therefore,
L dl / dt = L1 x dl / dt + L2 x dl / dt + L3 x dl / dt
LTotal = L1 + L2 + L3

Parallel:
If two terminals of an inductor are connected to two terminals of another inductor, then
the inductors are said to be parallel. When inductors are connected in parallel form,
their effective inductance decreases. Inductors in parallel are somewhat similar to the
capacitors in series.

14
Consider the example below:

Here, the current flowing through each inductor will be different. This current depends
upon the inductance value. However, the voltage across each conductor will be the
same. By using Kirchoff’s Current law, the total current is the sum of the current through
each branch.
IT = I1 + I2 +I3
We know that the voltage across an inductor is given by the equation
V = L di / dt
We can write,
vAB = LTotal x dlt / dt
VAB = LTotal x d (I1 + I2 + I3) / dt
We can further write it as
vAB = LTotal x dl1 / dt + LTotal x dl2 / dt + LTotal x dl3 / dt
That is,
vAB = LTotal (V / L1 + V / L2 + V / L3)
Since voltage are equal, we can simplify the equation as,
1 / LTotal = 1 / L1 + 1 / L2 + 1 / L3

15
 Some Numericals based on Inductance
Ques 1: A coil has a growth of current 0 to 0.2mA in 2msec. Find the inductance of coil
if it is connected to a 100V supply.
A: I1-I2 = 0.2Ma = dI
T2-T1 = 2msec = dt
𝜖 = 100𝑉
𝜖
L= 𝑑𝐼
𝑑𝑡
100
= 0.2×10−3
2×10−3
=1000H
Ques 2: A long solenoid with 15 turns per cm has a small loop of area 2 cm2 placed
inside the solenoid normal to its axis. If the current carrying by the soleniod changes
steadily from 2.0A to 4.0A in 0.1 s, what is the induced emf in the loop while the current
is changing?
A: n = 15/10-2 = 1500
A = 2 x (10-2)2 = 2 x 10-4
dI = 4 – 2 = 2A
t = 0.1sec
B = µ0nI
∅ = BA
𝑑∅ 𝑑𝐵𝐴 𝑑𝜇0 𝑛𝐼𝐴
∈ = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
= µ0nA𝑑𝑡
= 4π x 10-7 x 1500 x 2 x 10-4 x 2/10-1
=7.536 x 10-6 V

16
 WORKING MODEL OF EMI

Primary
Coil

A.C.Source for
Primary Coil
Switch

Secondary
Coil
Bulb

17
Materials Required
Long copper wire, an A.C.Supply, bulb, switch, battery
Contruction:
i. Frist take a copper wire and create around 40 turns for the primary coil as shown
above.
ii. Similarly take another 40 turns of wire for the secondary coil as shown above.
iii. Remove the plastic insulation from the two ends of the secondary coil and
connect it to the bulb by soldering.
iv. Now connect the A.C. Supply to the Switch.
v. Then remove the plastic insulation from the two ends of the primary coil and
connect it to the A.C. Supply.
Demonstration:
i. Frist on the switch and move the secondary coil towards the primary coil in such
a way that primary coil and the secondary coil are parallel to each other.
ii. Notice the observations
iii. Now move the secondary coil towards the primary coil in such a way that primary
coil and the secondary coil are perpendicular to each other.
iv. Notice the observations.
Observations:
i. Initially we notice that when the secondary coil is kept near the primary coil in a
parallel manner the bulb starts glowing.
ii. As the secondary coil approach the primary coil the intensity of the bulb starts to
increase. At the nearest point the bulb glows the maximum.
iii. Now when the secondary coil is kept near the primary coil in a perpendicular
manner the bulb does not glow.
iv. Even at the closest point the bulb does not glow.

Inference:
i. The bulb initially glows when the coils were kept in a parallel manner because
there is a change in the number of flux lines passing through the secondary coil
as the current in primary coil in varying due to A.C. supply.
∅ = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃 here cos 𝜃 is varying so ∅ is varying
ii. But the same bulb does not glow when it is kept perpendicular with each other.
This is due to no change in number of flux lines passing through secondary coil.
Even though the current is varying the flux lines cannot pass through the surface
as it is perpendicular to magnetic field produced by primary coil.
∅ = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 90 = 0

18
 Applications of EMI
1. Electric Generator

An electric generator works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. It converts

mechanical energy into electrical energy by moving a conductor within a magnetic
field. This movement induces a voltage difference, causing electric charges to flow,
thus generating electric current.

2. Electrical Transformers
A transformer is an electrical device that operates on the principle of electromagnetic
induction. It consists of two or more coils, known as the primary and secondary
windings, which are wound around a common iron core. When an alternating current
is applied to the primary coil, it creates a changing magnetic field in the core. This
changing magnetic field induces a voltage in the secondary coil. The ratio of turns in
the primary and secondary coils determines the change in voltage.

19
3. Magnetic Flow Meter
A magnetic flow meter, also known as a mag meter, operates based
on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction. When a conductive
medium passes through a magnetic field, a voltage is generated. This
voltage is proportional to the velocity of the medium, the density of
the magnetic field, and the length of the conductor. The meter
measures this voltage, which is then converted into a flow
measurement.

20
 Bibliography
1. https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/leph106
2. https://byjus.com/physics/experiment-faraday-henry/
3. https://byjus.com/physics/lenzs-law/
4. https://byjus.com/physics/induction/
5. https://byjus.com/jee/mutual-inductance/
6. https://qsstudy.com/explanation-mutual-induction/
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction
8. https://byjus.com/jee/self-inductance/
9. https://eduinput.com/what-is-self-induction/

21