Electrical Current 1-18

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ELECTRICAL CURRENT AND RESISTANCE XII PHYSICS
ELECTRICAL CURRENT AND RESISTANCE
ELECTRICAL CURRENT
Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge with respect to time. A charge passes through a given cross-
sectional area in a short time .The average electric current through the area
during this time is given by ̅
Instantaneous current
If the current is steady, i.e., it does not change with time
CONVENTIONAL DIRECTION.
The direction of the flow of positive charge is assumed to be the direction of electric
current. If the flow of charge is due to the motion of negatively charged particles, then
the direction of the current is taken opposite to the direction of the flow of negative
charge
TYPES OF CURRENT.
The electric current can be classified into the following categories:
1. Steady Current: If the magnitude of the current does not change with time, it
is called a steady current. A graph plotted between and T will be a straight
line parallel to the time axis. It is represented by line A.
2. Varying Current: If the magnitude of the current changes with time, it is

called varying current. See lines B and C.
3. Alternating Current: The current whose magnitude changes continuously

with time and direction changes periodically, is called alternating current.
Such a current is represented by a sine curve or cosine curve.
Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187

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Illustration. 1 In a Bohr model of hydrogen atom, the electron is pictured to rotate in a circular orbit of radius
5 at a speed of 2.2 m/s. What is the current associated with the electron motion?
Solutions. Let us consider the area of cross-section as shown by the dotted circle.
If we consider a time T (of one complete revolution of electron), the charge passing through
the cross-section will be e
I ……. (i)
The time period …….. (ii)
From eqns. (i) and (ii) I
EXERCISE 1.
1. What is the electric current flowing in a wire when equal number of protons and electrons flow through the
wire per second in the same direction?
2. What is the electric current flowing through a cross-sectional area where 0.1 C of positive charge flows in one
direction and 0.1 C of negative charge flows in the opposite direction in one
second?
3. Find the line for (a) steady current (b) variable current and (c) alternating
current from the graph.
4. Calculate the amount of charge flown in 2 seconds through a wire in which a variable current I = 2t is flowing
in the wire. The current is measured in ampere.
OHM’S LAW
The electric current flowing through a conductor is proportional to the potential difference across the conductor
provided the physical conditions like temperature, mechanical strain, etc., are kept constant.
If we plot a graph between voltage (V) and current (I) we get a straight line and slope of
graph gives the value of resistance (R),
RESISTANCE
The resistance of a conductor may be defined as the ratio of the potential difference
across the conductor to the current through it.
The SI unit of resistance is volt ( ) and is also called ohm denoted by
Definition of 1 ohm: The resistance of a conductor is said to be one ohm if one ampere
current flowing through it produces a potential difference of one volt across its ends.

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CONDUCTANCE
The inverse of resistance is called conductance. It is denoted by G,
The unit of conductance is ampere per volt called mho. It is also called Siemens and is denoted by S.
RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY
The resistance of a material depends on the nature of a substance as well as on its shape and size. It can be proved
experimentally that resistance of a uniform conductor depends on the following two factors:
1. It is directly proportional to the length of conductor
2. It is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section of the conductor
Or
Where the constant of proportionality called resistivity, depends neither on the length nor on the
cross-sectional area of the conductor. It is the property of the material. It also depends on the physical conditions such
as temperature and pressure.
If
That is, the resistivity of a material is numerically equal to the resistance of a conductor of that material having length
1 m and of area of cross-section 1 .
UNIT OF RESISTIVITY
Unit of
( )
CONDUCTIVITY
The inverse of resistivity is called conductivity. It is denoted by
Thus
Unit of conductivity is ( ) or Siemens per metre.

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Illustration 2. A wire of resistance 5 is drawn out so that its length is increased to twice its original length.
Calculate its new resistance
Solution. Let l be the length and r be the radius of the wire. If is the resistivity of its material then
R =
Let r’ be the new radius of the wire when its length becomes l’ = 2l. Since the volume of the wire must
remain the same
( )
Let be the new resistance of the wire. Then
Illustration 3. A wire has a resistance of 32 . It is melted and drawn into a wire of half of its original length.
Calculate the resistance of the new wire. What is the percentage change in resistance?
Solution.
Also
( )
( )
EXERCISE 2.
1. A wire of resistivity is stretched to double its length. What will be its new (a) resistivity and (b) resistance ?
2. Resistance is a property of an object but resistivity is a property of a material. True or False.
3. Two aluminium conductors are. When same potential difference is applied across their ends, in which one
current will be higher?
4. From the following data, suggest which material would you use for
(a) Transmission of electric power (b) electrical switches (c) heater element.
Material Manganin (alloy) Copper Hard Rubber
48 – – –
5. How does the resistance of an ohmic conductor depend on the applied voltage?

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Drift velocity of Electrons
We may define drift velocity as the average velocity of the free electrons with which they get drifted towards the
positive terminal under the influence of the electric field.
Let there be a conductor of length across which a potential difference V is applied then the electric field across the
conductor is, E =
If e is the charge and m the mass of electron, force on each electron, ⃗ ⃗⃗ (opposite to the electric field)
Acceleration on each electron,
…………. (1)
The time elapsed since an electron has suffered it’s last collision is called relaxation time ( ).
At any instant the velocity of an electron
Where thermal velocity
Thus we may write
Taking the average velocity of n electrons,
( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ) ( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ) ( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ )
⃗
( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ) ( )
⃗
The first expression represents the average thermal velocity of electrons which is zero.
⃗ ⃗ …………. (2)
Where is the average relaxation time
Putting ‘a’ from Eq. (1) in Eq.(2),
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ as ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ are in opposite direction

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( )
This is the expression for drift velocity of an electron in a metallic conductor.

Thus drift velocity depends upon:
(i) Potential difference (directly) across the conductor.

(ii) Length of the conductor (inversely).
(iii) Relaxation time (directly). As relaxation time decreases with increase in temperature, the drift velocity
also decreases with increase in temperature.
Relation between current and Drift Velocity

Let us consider a wire of length l and area of cross – section A connected to a potential difference V.
The free electrons flow opposite to the direction of electric field ⃗⃗ , with a drift velocity
Let n = number of electrons per unit volume.
Volume of wire = Al.
So the number of electrons contained in the wire = n Al.
The charge on the electron is e. Therefore, the total charge contained in length is given by q = n (A )e
Time taken by the electrons to cover the length is given by
t=
Current I = =
Illustration 4. The number density of free electrons in a copper conductor is 8.5 . How long does an
electron take to drift from one end of a wire 3.0 m long to its other end? The area of cross-section of the wire is
2.0 and it is carrying a current of 3.0 A. N.C.E.R.T
Solution.
We know that
But

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Mobility ( ):
Mobility is defined as the magnitude of drift velocity per unit electric field
=
We know that
=
Current Density.
The current density at any point is defined as the quantity of charge passing per second through a unit area taken
perpendicular to the direction of the flow of charge at that point. It is vector quantity.
⃗
The current density ⃗ can be expressed in terms of the drift velocity of charge carriers.
⃗ = ⃗ ⃗
Nature of Electrical Resistance

Consider a conductor having length l and area of cross- section A. Let n = number of electrons per unit volume in the
conductor, if an electric Field ⃗⃗ is applied across the two ends of a conductor, then drift velocity of electrons is given
by
=
The current flowing through the conductor due to drift of electrons
( )=
If V is potential difference across the two ends of a conductor then
Using the value of E
But according to Ohm’s law, = R, the resistance of the conductor
( )
Comparing with R = we find that resistivity of the material of a conductor is given by
( )

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Relation Between J, And E

We know n Ae
n Ae ( )=
Current per unit area is current density.
We find . J
Illustration 5. The electron drift speed is estimated to be only a few mm for currents in the range of a few
amperes? How then is current established almost the instant a circuit is closed?
Solution. Electric field established throughout the circuit, almost instantly (with the speed of light) causing at every
point a local electron drift. Establishment of a current does not have to wait for electrons from one end of the
conductor travelling to the other end. However, it does take a little while for the current to reach its steady value.
Illustration 6. The electron drift arises due to the force experienced by electrons in the electric field inside the
conductor. But force should cause acceleration. Why then do the electrons acquire a steady average drift speed.
Solution. Each ‘free’ electron does accelerate. Increasing its drift speed until it collides with a positive ion of the
metal. It losses its drift speed after collision but starts to accelerate and increases its drift speed again only to suffer a
collision again and so on. On the average therefore, electrons acquire only a drift speed.
Illustration 7. If the electron drift speed is so small, and the electron’s charge is small, how can we still obtain large
amounts of current in a conductor?
solution. Simple because the electron number density is enormous, .
Illustration 8. When electrons drift in a metal from lower to higher potential, does it mean that all the ‘free’ electrons
of the metal are moving in the same direction?
Solution. By no means. The drift velocity is superposed over the large random velocities of electrons.
Illustration 9. Are the paths of electrons straight lines between successive collision (with the positive ions of the
metal) in the (i) absence of electric field, (ii) presence of electric fields?
Solution. In the absence of electric field, the paths are straight lines, in the presence of electric field, the paths are in
general, curved,
Exercise 3.
1. The free electrons in a copper wire are moving from A to B as shown in
Fig. (i) Depict the direction of
(a) Current (b) electric field (c) current density (d) drift velocity.
Is A at high potential with respect to B?

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2. The Fig. (ii) shows a steady current I flowing in a copper wire.

Which quantity changes from section aa’ to bb’?
(a) Current (b) Current density (c) drift velocity (d) electric field.
3. A copper wire is carrying a current. Is it charged?
4. A voltage V is applied across an aluminium wire of length l and radius r. What would happen to the drift
velocity
(a) When length is doubled
(b) When radius is doubled
(c) When potential difference is doubled?
5. A current flowing through a copper wire is passed through another copper wire of same length but of double
the radius of the first one. How would the drift velocity of free electric charge?
6. The electron drift speed is estimated to be only a few mm for currents in the range of a few amperes. How
then is current established almost the instant a circuit is closed?
7. The electron drift arises due to the force experienced by electrons in the electric field inside the conductor.
But force should cause acceleration. Why do the electrons acquire a steady average drift speed?
8. If the drift speed is so small, and the electron’s charge is small, how can we still obtain large amounts of
currents in a conductor?
9. When electrons drift in a metal from lower to higher potential, does it mean that all the free electrons of the
metal are moving in the same direction?
10. Are the paths of electrons straight lines between successive collisions (with the positive ions of the metals) in
the (i) absence of electric field (ii) presence of electric field?
LIMITATIONS OF OHM’S LAW

(a) V ceases to be proportional to I (Fig.)
(b) The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V. In other words, if I is
the current for a certain V, then reversing the direction of V keeping its
magnitude fixed, does not produce a current of the same magnitude as I in the
opposite direction (Fig). This happens, for example, in a diode .

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(c) The relation between V and I is not unique, i.e., there is more than one
value of V for the same current I (Fig). A material exhibiting such
behavior is GaAs.
Effect of Temperature on Resistance

When the temperature of a metal conductor is increased, the ions or atoms of the metal begin to vibrate with greater
amplitudes. As a result, collision becomes more effective and frequent. This reduces the relaxation time Hence the
value of the resistance R increase with the rise of temperature.
( )
( )
Thus the temperature coefficient of resistance is defined as the increase in resistance per unit
original resistance per degree rise of temperature.
Unite of = or
RESISTIVITY OF VARIOUS MATERIALS’

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Metals have resistivities in the range of to . Insulators have resistivity times greater then
metal or more. Semiconductors have resistivities in between conductor and insulator. Resistivities of semiconductor
decrease with a rise in temperature. Their resistivity is affected by presence of small amount of impurities.
Commercially produced resistors for domestic as well as laboratory use are of two major types.
1. Wire bound resistors

2. Carbon resistors
Wire bound resistors are made by winding wires of an alloy i.e., magnanin, constantan nichrome etc. These wires are
chosen because their resistivities are relatively insensitive to temperature. These resistances are in the range of a
fraction of an ohm to a few hundred ohm.
Resistors of range higher than wire bound resistors are mostly made of carbon. Carbon resistors are small compact
and less expensive, so are used widely electronic circuits. Their resistances are measured from their colour code.
Resistor Colour Codes
A carbon resistor has a set of coaxial coloured rings in them, whose significance are listed in above table.
First two bands formed : First two significant figures of the resistance in ohm.
Third band : Decimal multiplier as shown in table.
Last band : Tolerance or possible variation in percentage as per the indicated value. For Gold ±5%. For silver
±10% and No colour ±20%.
Example : Find the resistance of following carbon resistor.
Solution. First two bands = Red and Red
So, first two significant figures of the resistance = 22

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Third band = Red
So decimal multiplier =
Last band = silver
So tolerance = ±10%
( )
Question. Find the resistance of the following carbon resistor.
Variation of Resistivity with Temperature

We know that resistivity of a material
This equation show that depends upon n (number of free electrons per unit volume in the material) and relaxation
time In most metals, n does not change with temperature but when we increase the temperature, the amplitude of
vibration increases. As a result, the collision of free electrons with ions / atoms becomes more effective and frequent.
Hence, the relaxation time decreases and resistivity of the conductor increases with increase in temperature.
= [1 + (T - ]
= =
( )
(a) Conductor: The value of is positive in case of conductors. Therefore their

resistivity increases with increase in temperature.

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(b) In case of alloy such as manganin, the resistivity is very large and is nearly
independent of temperature similarly nichrome (an alloy of nickel and chromium)
and constantan have high resistivity and weak temperature dependence. Due to the
properties of (a) high resistivity and (b) low temperature coefficient of resistance,
these alloys are used in making standard resistance coils.
(C) In the case of insulators, the resistivity increases nearly exponentially as

temperature decreases. The resistivity of an insulator becomes very large at low
temperature as T 0, the resistivity approaches to infinity.
Reason for above behavior
….. (i)
thus depends inversely both on the number n of free electrons per unit volume and on the average time between
collisions. As we increase temperature, average speed of the electrons. Increases resulting in more frequent collisions.
The average time of collisions , thus decreases with temperature.
In a metal. n is not dependent on temperature to any appreciable extent and thus the decrease in the value of with
rise in temperature causes to increase
For insulators and semiconductors. However, n increases with temperature. This increase more than compensates any
decrease in in equation (i) so that for such materials, decreases with temperature.
Illustration 10. An electric toaster uses nichrome for its heating element. When a negligibly small current passes
through it, its resistance at room temperature (27.0 0C) is found to be 75.3 . When the toaster is connected to a 230 V
supply, the current settles, after a few seconds, to a steady value of 2.68 A. What is the steady temperature of the
nichrome element? The temperature coefficient of resistance of nichrome average over the temperature range
0 -1
involved, is 1.70 C .
Solution. Here
0
C -1.
We know that

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85.8 ( )
0
C
Illustration 11. The resistance of the platinum wire of a platinum resistance thermometer at the ice point is 5 and at
steam point is 5.23 when the thermometer is inserted in a hot bath. The resistance of the platinum wire is 5.795
calculate the temperature of the bath.
Solution.
Now ( )
Illustration 12. A negligibly small current is passed through a wire of length 15 m and uniform cross-section
, and its resistance is measured to be . What is the resistivity of the material at the temperature of
the experiment? N.C.E.R.T
Solution. Here and
Resistivity ..
Illustration 13. A silver wire has a resistance of 2.1 at , and a resistance of 2.7 at 100 . Determine the
temperature coefficient of resistivity of silver. N.C.E.R.T
Solution. Here , and
From the relation ( ) , we have
Temperature coefficient of resistivity of silver
( ) ( )
Illustration 14. At room temperature ( ) the resistance of a heating element is 100 . What is the temperature
of the element if the resistance is found to be 117 , given that the temperature coefficient of the material of the
resistor is ? N.C.E.R.T
Solution. Here , and
( )
( )

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Illustration 15. A heating element using nichrome connected to a 230 V supply draws an initial current of 3.2 A
which settles after a few seconds to a steady value of 2.8 A. What is the steady temperature of the heating element if
the room temperature is ? Temperature coefficient of resistance of nichrome averaged over the temperature
range involved is . N.C.E.R.T
Solution. Here and at , current
Again at a steady temperature of the heating element, cement
Moreover temperature coefficient of resistance
Using the relation ( ) , we have
( )
Exercise 4.
1. Two wires, one of copper and the other of manganin, have equal lengths and equal resistances, which wire
is thicker?
2. Is the temperature coefficient of resistance always positive?
3. Why is manganin chosen for making standard resistor?
4. What is the effect of rise in temperature on electrical conductivity of a
(i) Metal (ii) semiconductors?
5. V – I graph for a metallic wire at two different temperatures and is.
which one of the two temperatures is higher and why?
6. If the temperature of a good conductor decreases, how does the relaxation time
of electrons in the conductor change?
Grouping of Resistances
Replacing a combination of resistances by an equivalent resistance is called grouping of resistances. It is divided into
following two types:
(a) Resistance in series
When a number of conductors are joined end to end so that the same current flows though each, the conductors are
said to be connected in series.

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Consider three resistors and connected in series across a

potential difference V.
Current through the resistances.

Potential drop across
Total potential drop across the combination
Equivalent series resistance.
Therefore, V + +
According to Ohm’s law
= = = and V =
= + +
If resistances ….. are connected in series then the equivalent resistance is

= + + …. +
(i) To get the maximum resistance, resistances must be connected in series.

(ii) In series is same, therefore. V , potential divided in direct proportion
to resistance, i.e.
: : = : :
In case of two resistances in series
and + V
(iii) If one of resistance gets open, the current in the whole circuit will be
Zero and the circuit will not work.
(iv) If n identical resistors are connected in series then

nR

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Illustration 16. (a) Three resistors and are combined in series. What is the total resistance of the
combination?
(b) If the combination is connected to a battery of emf 12 V and negligible internal resistance, obtain the potential
drop across each resistor. N.C.E.R.T
Solution. (a) Here and
Total resistance in series combination
(b) As , hence current
Potential drop across the three resistors are respectively.
and .
(a) Resistances in Parallel
Consider Resistance are connected in parallel between two points A and B across a potential
difference V. (a).The current at A, Divided into three branches as and Therefore,
= + +
Potential difference across each resistance is same, hence,
= , = , =
If is equivalent resistance, then
= + +
In resistance …. Are connected in parallel then
= + + …… + ……
If = = ………. = R, then
= + + …….. + =

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Illustration 17. There is no resistance between P and A; P and B. Therefore,

we can join P, A and B. Similarly there is no resistance between D and Q, and
C and Q. Therefore, we can join C, Q and D
Solution.
Applying Ohm’s law
Illustration 18. (a). Given n resistors each of resistance R, how will you combine them to get the
(i) maximum (ii) minimum effective resistance? What is the ratio of the maximum to minimum resistance?
(b). Given the resistances of 1 , 2 , 3 how will you combine them to get an equivalent resistance of
(i) (11/3) (ii) (11/5) , (iii) 6 (iv) (6/11) ?
(c). Determine the equivalent resistance of networks shown in Fig. given below
Solution. (a). (i) For maximum resistance, all the resistors should be joined in series. .
(ii) For minimum resistance, all the resistors should be joined in parallel.
Ratio .

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(b).
(c).
(ii). All resistances are in series. Therefore, the equivalent resistance = 5R
Illustration 19. (a) Three resistors 2 , 4 and 5 are combined in parallel. What is the total resistance of the
combination?
(b) If the combination is connected to a battery of emf 20 V and negligible internal resistance, determine the current
through each resistor, and the total current from the battery. N.C.E.R.T
Solution. (a) Here and
In parallel combination resultant resistance R is given by
(b) Here and
Current through the three resistors are respectively

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And
Total current drawn from the battery
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Illustration 20. Determine the current drawn from a 12 V supply with internal resistance 0.5 by the infinite net
work shown in Fig. Each resistor has 1 resistance. N.C.E.R.T
Solution. The infinite network consists of number of resistance elementary units. Let x be the equivalent resistance of
the infinite ladder. Then adding one more elementary resistance unit with the infinite ladder will not affect the total
resistance of the infinite ladder. The combination, therefore, can be made equivalent to as shown in Fig. Here, x is the
equivalent resistance of the given infinite network.
Thus, the total resistance
√
Which gives √
As √ is not possible, hence √

The current drawn from the 12 V supply having internal resistance of 0.5 ,
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Illustration 21. (a) Given n resistors each of resistance R, how will you combine them to get the (i) maximum
(ii) minimum effective resistance? What is the ratio of the maximum to minimum resistance? N.C.E.R.T
(b) Given the resistances of , how will we combine them to get an equivalent resistance of
(i) ( ) , (ii) ( ) , (iii) (iv) ( ) ?
(c) Determine the equivalent resistance of network shown in Fig. (i) and (ii)

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Solution. (a) (i) To get the maximum effective resistance , the resistance have to be joined in series. Then
(ii) For minimum resistance, the resistance have to be joined in parallel. Then,
( )
(b) (i) By connecting parallel combination of 2 and 1 in series with 3 , we have
Total resistance
( )
(ii) By connecting parallel combination of 2 and 3 in series with 1 , we have
Total resistance
( )
(iii) By connecting all the three resistances in series
Total resistance
(iv) By connecting all resistances in parallel
Total resistance
(c) (i) The circuit contains four identical elements joined in series. One such element is shown in Fig. and has
two branches, having resistance of 2 (i.e., 1 + 1 ) and 4 (i.e., 2 ) respectively, joined in parallel.
Resistance of the element
For whole series net equivalent resistance
(ii) The combination shown has five resistances all joined in series. The total resistance is, true, 5R.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 5.

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1. A student obtains resistances of 3, 4, 12 and 16 ohms using only two metallic resistance wires either separately
or joined together. What is the value of resistance of each of these wires?
2. A uniform wire of resistance 20 is cut into two equal parts. These parts are now connected in parallel. What
will be the resistance of the combination?
3. graphs for parallel and series combination of two resistors are. Which graph shows
parallel combination? Justify your answer.
4. A set on n identical resistors, each of resistance R ohm, when connected in series have an
effective resistance X ohm and when the resistors are connected in parallel their effective
resistance is Y ohm. Find the relation between R, X and Y.
5. Is possible to have the resistance of a conductor precisely zero? If yes, under what condition is this possible? If
no, why not?
6. What are non-ohmic conductors? Give examples.
7. A 4 Ω resistor is bent in the form of a circle. What is the effective resistance between the ends of diameter?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Internal Resistance of A Cell And Circuit Equation
The opposition offered by the electrolyte of the cell to the flow of electric current through it is called the
internal resistance of the cell. It is generally denoted by r. The value of internal resistance for a freshly prepared cell
is low. However, as the cell is used more and more, its internal resistance goes on increasing
The internal resistance of a cell depends upon the following factors:
(i) Larger the separation between the electrodes of the cell, more the length of the electrolyte through which current
has to flow and consequently a higher value of internal resistance.
(ii) Greater the conductivity of the electrolyte, lesser is the internal resistance of the cell.
So, the internal resistance depends upon the nature of the electrolyte.
(iii) The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the common area of the electrodes dipping in the
electrolyte.
(iv) The internal resistance of a cell also depends upon the nature of the electrodes.
Relationship between E.M.F terminal p.d and Internal resistance
(1) When the cell is discharging
E,r
I V = Terminal p.d
– E = Emf of cell

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r = Internal resistance
(2) When the Cell is charging
E,r
I V = Terminal p.d
E = Emf of cell
Comparison of EMF And Potential, Difference

1. The difference of potentials between the two terminals of a cell in an open circuit i.e., when no current is drawn
from the cell is known as the electromotive force (emf) of the cell. On the other hand, the potential difference is
the difference of potentials between any two points in a closed circuit
2. The emf is independent of the resistance of the circuit. However, the potential difference between any two
points of a circuit is proportional to the resistance between those two points.
3. The term ‘emf’ is used only for the source of emf. The potential difference’ is measured between any two points
of the electric circuit.
4. The emf is greater than the potential difference between any two points of a circuit. However, when the cell is
being charged, the potential difference between its two terminals is Larger than the emf of the cell.
Illustration 22. A battery of emf 10 V and internal resistance 3 is connected to a resistor. If the current in the circuit
is 0.5 A, what is the resistance of the resistor? What is the terminal voltage of the battery when the circuit is closed?
N.C.E.R.T
Solution. Here and
As ( )
, hence external resistance – –
And the terminal voltage of battery .
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Illustration 23. A storage battery of emf 8.0 V and internal resistance 0.5 is being charged by a 120 d.c. supply
using a series resistor of 15.5 . What is the terminal voltage of the battery during charging? What is the purpose of
having a series resistor in the charging circuit? N.C.E.R.T
Solution. Here and external supply voltage .
If the charging current be I, then during charging net effective emf ( )

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( )
Terminal voltage of the battery during charging
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Grouping Of Cells
(a) Cell in Series
Cells are said to be joined in series if the negative terminal of one cell is joined to
the positive terminal of the second, and the negative of the second to the positive
of the third and so on.
(a) Shows two cells of emfs and and internal resistances and
connected in series such that the negative terminal of is connected to the
positive terminal of Let be the current following through the cells.
The potential difference between A and B is
-
Similarly, the potential difference between B and C is
-
The potential difference between A and C is
+ - + -
( )– ( ) …… (i)
If we replace the two cells between points A and C by a single cell of emf and internal resistance and if the
same current flows through it then
……. (ii)
() ( )
+ and +
Special cases
(i) If n cells of emfs , ….. , and internal resistance …..,
Are connected in series with negative terminal of each cell connected to

the positive terminal of the other cell then the combination can be

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replaced by a single cell of emf

+ + …. + And internal resistance
+ + …… +
(ii) If n identical cells (E, r ) in series combination are connected to an external resistance R then on
applying Ohm’s law we get
nE= (R + nr)
(iii) If two cells are connected such that the negative terminal of the first cell is connected to the negative terminal
of the second cell then the equivalent emf
= - (if ) And
equivalent resistance
This means that the combination of cells is to be replaced by a single cell then the emf of the single cell should
be - and internal resistance +
(iv) When n identical cells of emf E are connected in series such that only one cell is connected in reversed
polarity, the net emf obtained by the combination is nE - 2E.
(v) When R >> nr, the maximum current can be drawn from the series arrangement of cells.
(b) Cells in Parallel

Cells are said to be to be joined in parallel if all the positive poles of the cells are joined to one point and all the
negative poles are joined to another point. (Fig) shows two cells of emfs and and internal resistance and
connected in parallel. The current through cell of emf is and that though the cell of emf is
Therefore, = + ………. (i)
The potential difference between B and C through cell is
…….. (ii)
The potential difference between B and C through cell is
V= = ……. (iii)
= +
=( ) ( )
On rearranging

26
V= …….. (iv)
If the combination is to be replaced by a single cell of emf and internal resistance then
……….. (v)
On comparing eqns. (iv) and (v), we get
= and =
Special cases
(i) If m cells of emfs ……., and internal resistance ……. are connected in parallel with the
positive terminal of cell connected to a point and the negative terminals to another point, the combination can be
replaced by a single cell of emf and internal resistance such that
= + + ……… +
And = + + …….. +
(ii) If two cells are connected such that the negative terminal of first is connected to the positive terminal of the
second and the positive terminal of the first to the negative terminal of the second then the equivalent emf and
resistance is
and =
(iii) If external resistance is very less as compared to the internal resistance of

cells, the maximum current can be drawn by parallel arrangement of cells.
(c) (Mixed Grouping of cells)

In mixed grouping, the cells are joined both in series and parallel. Suppose m rows, each having n cells connected
in series are connected in parallel. Total number of cells in the
combination = mn.
The emf of combination is the same as the total emf of one row,
i.e. = nE.
Total internal resistance of one row = nr. Since m such rows are
connected in parallel.
Total internal resistance of the combination =
If R = external resistance

27
Then current = =
The current in the circuit will be maximum when the denominator (mR +nr) is minimum.
The above equation can be written as
=
(√ √ ) √
Since the term √ is constant, the current will be maximum when (√ √ ) is minimum.
But the minimum value of the square of a quantity is zero. Therefore, for the current to be maximum
(√ √ ) =0
nr mR
As is the total internal resistance, therefore, this arrangement will give maximum current when
the total internal resistance of the battery as a whole is equal to the external resistance.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Illustration 24. Four cells of identical emf E and internal resistance r are connected in series to a variable resistor.
The graph shows the variation of terminal voltage of the combination with the current output:
(a) What is the emf of each cell used?

(b) Calculate the internal resistance of each cell.
(c) For what current from the cells does the maximum power dissipation occur in the
circuit?
Solution.
(a) We know that V 4E – I (4r)
From the graph we get

&
4E 5.6
E 1.4 V,
(b) When I = 2 A, V
We know that V 4E – I (4r)
0 4 1.4 - 8 r
r 0.7
(c) We know that the power dissipation is maximum when the internal resistance of the combination is equal to
the external resistance. If external resistance is R than

28
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Illustration 25. A battery of emf 10 V and internal resistance 3 is connected to a resistor. If the current in the circuit
is 0.5 A, what is the resistance of the resistor? What is the terminal voltage of the battery, when the circuit is closed?
Solution. Here
Applying Ohm’s law, ( )
The terminal potential difference V
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Illustration 26. (a). Six lead-acid type of secondary cells each of emf 2.0 V and internal resistance 0.015 are joined
in series to provide a supply to a resistance of 8.5 . What are the current drawn from the supply and its terminal
voltage?
(b). A secondary cell after long use has an emf of 1.9 V and a large internal resistance of 380 . What maximum
current can be drawn from the cell? Could the cell drive the starting motor of a car?
Solution. (a). The total potential difference generated by the six cell is
The total internal resistance of six cells is
Applying Ohm’s law V = I (R + r)
( )
Terminal voltage, V

29
(b) .
The cell cannot drive the starting motor of a car as it requires a large current of around 100 A for a few seconds.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Illustration 27. (a). A steady current flows in a metallic conductor of non-uniform cross-section. Which of these
quantities is constant along the conductor: current, current density, electric field, drift speed?
(b). In Ohm’s law universally applicable for all conducting elements?
(c). A low voltage supply from which one needs high current must have very low internal resistance. Why?
(d). A high tension (HT)supply of, say, 6 kV must have a very large internal resistance. Why?
Solution. (a). Only current, because the remaining physical quantities depend on the area of cross-section.
(b). Ohm’s law is not universally applicable. For example, it fails in the devices like vacuum diode, semiconductor
diode/triode.
(c). We know that the maximum current which can be drawn from a source is where E = emf of the cell and r =
internal resistance. Clearly, to obtain high value of current, r should be least.
(d). A high tension supply must have a very large internal resistance. This is because large internal resistance act as a
safety device in case of short-circuiting (accidental). Large resistance does not let current to exceed safety limit.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
EXERCISE 6
1. What is the emf and resistance of equivalent cell in the following two cases:
2. State the condition in which terminal voltage across a cell is

(d) Equal to its emf
(e) Greater than its emf
(f) Less than its emf.
3. When the resistance connected in series with a cell is exactly halved, the current is not exactly doubled. Why?
4. A cell of emf 4V and internal resistance 0.1 is connected to a 3.9 external resistance. What is the potential
difference across the terminals of the cell?

30
5. n identical cells of emf E each are connected in series such that the equivalent emf of the combination is nE. Now
if the connectivity of one cell is reversed, what is the equivalent emf of the combination? What is the charge in
the total internal resistance?
6. What do you mean by electromotive force? State its SI unit.
7. A cell of emf ‘E’ and internal resistance ‘r’ is connected across a variable resistor R. Plot a graph showing the
variation of terminal potential V with resistance R. Predict from the graph the condition under Which V becomes
equal to E.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Kirchhoff’s Laws
(i) First law – (Junction rule)

The sum of the currents entering the junction must be equal to the sum of
the currents leaving it.
It is based on the principle of conservation of electric charge.
+ = + +
(ii) Second law - voltage rule (loop rule)

The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop
involving resistors and cells in the loop must be zero.
It is based on the principle of conservation of energy.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Illustration 28. Determine the current in each branch of the network shown in Fig. N.C.E.R.T
Solution. As per Kirchhoff’s first law let the distribution of current in various branches
is as shown in Fig.
Now applying Kirchhoff’s second law to mesh ABDA, we have
( )
…… (i)
Again for mesh BDCB, we have
( ) ( )
…… (ii)

31
And for mesh ABCEA, we have
( )
…… (ii)
Solving these three equation, we find that
and
Hence, electric current in branch AB, , in branch AD, ( ) , in branch BD,
, in branch BC, ( ) , in branch DC, ( ) and the total current drawn from
battery .
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Wheatstone Bridge
Wheatstone bridge is a very accurate and precise method of determining an unknown resistance. Its basic circuit
consists of four resistors P, Q, R and S joined together so as to form a
quadrilateral ABCD. The opposite points A and C are joined together through
a cell E and a key . Whereas the point B and D are joined through a
sensitive galvanometer and key . Let G be the resistance of the
galvanometer
Distribution of current: When the key is pressed, a current flows in the

circuit. Applying loop rule to mesh a, we get
( )
On applying loop rule to mesh b, we get
( ) ( )
The value of R is so adjusted that the points B and D are at the same potential so that the current through the
galvanometer is zero. In this position the bridge is said to be balanced.
When
( )R
and ( )
Dividing one by the other

32
Metre Bridge (Slide Wire Bridge)

Principle: It is based on the principle of balanced Wheatstone
bridge.
Construction:
(i). Three metallic strips with gaps, two of which are L-shaped
(ii). Wire of length 1 m and uniform cross-sectional area clamped

between the ends of two L-shaped metallic strips.
(iii). The material of the wire is constantan or manganin.
(iv). The end points where the wire is clamped are connected to a cell through a key.
(v). One end of galvanometer is connected to the metallic strip midway between the 2 gaps and the others end is
connected to a jockey.
Working.
A jockey is made to slide on the metre bridge wire till a point C on the bridge wire which corresponds to a null
point is obtained.
At balance Point
Let AC = l cm CB = 100 - l cm.
As is based on principle of balanced wheat stone bridge
( )
( )
Or
Knowing the balancing length l and known resistance R. one can find the unknown resistance X.
Illustration 29. Find the value of unknown resistance X and the current drawn by the circuit from the battery , if no
current flows through the galvanometer Fig. Assume the resistance per unit length of the wire AB to be 0.01 /cm.
Solution. Here

33
By Ohm’s law .
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Illustration 30. (a) In a metre bridge [Fig], the balance point is found to be at 39.5 cm from the end A, when the
resistor Y is of 12.5 Determine the resistance of X. Why are the connection between resistors in a Wheatstone or
metre bridge made of thick copper strips? N.C.E.R.T
(b) Determine the balance point of the bridge above if X and Y are interchanged.
(c) What happens if the galvanometer and cell are interchanged at the balance point of the bridge? Would the
galvanometer show any current?
Solution. (a) Here length
( )
Hence ( )
Connections are made of thick copper strips so that their resistance may be extremely small and negligible,
because these resistance are not accounted for in the formula of metre bridge.
(b) Let on interchanging X and Y, the new balance point is obtained at then
( )
or ( )
(c) At the balance point of the bridge if the galvanometer and cell are interchanged, it makes no effect on
balance condition and the galvanometer will not show any deflection.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Illustration 31. Fig. shows a metre bridge consisting of two resistors X and Y
together in parallel with a metre long constant wire of uniform cross-section.
With the help of movable constant D, one can change the ratio of the resistances
of the two segments of the wire, until a sensitive galvanometer G connected
between B and D shows no deflection. The null point is found at a distance of

34
33.7 cm. The resistor Y is shunted by a resistance of 12 and the null point is found to shift by a distance of 18.2 cm.
Determine the resistances X and Y.
Solution. According to the condition of balanced Wheatstone Bridge
Resistance Y’ is due to a parallel combination of resistance Y and resistance

of 12 . Therefore,
i.e., Y’ is less than Y, therefore, the null point will shift towards C
Solving the above equations, we get Y = 13.47 and X = 6.85 .
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Potentiometer
It is an extremely sensitive and precise device to compare emf’s of cells, to
measure small potential difference and to measure internal resistance of a cell.
Construction
It is basically a long piece of uniform wire, sometimes a few meters in length
across which a standard cell is connected. In actual design, the wire is sometimes
cut in several pieces placed side by side and connected at the ends by thick metal
strip.
Principle
For a constant current flowing through the potentiometer wire of uniform cross section, the fall in potential is directly
proportional to the length.
APPLICATION OF POTENTIOMETER
1. Determination of internal resistance of a cell :
The cell of emf whose internal resistance r is to be measured is

connected to the circuit along with a resistance box (RB) as shown in Fig.
With open, balance is obtained at length (i.e., ), then
…….. (i)
With closed, the cell sends current through the resistance box of resistance R. Now its terminal potential
difference balances at length ( ).

35
…….. (ii)
Also V = Terminal potential Difference
()
( )
( ) ……. (iii)
2. Comparison of emf of two cells of emf and :
1,2, 3 represent the contact points of two way key. When 1 and 3 are
connected the galvanometer G is connected to . At point at distance
from A the galvanometer has no deflection. Applying Kirchhoff’s loop
rule to A13G
……. (i)
Similarly, if another emf is balanced against (i.e., ) then

Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to A23G , ……. (ii)
From equation (i) & (ii), we get
If one of the cells is chosen as a standard known emf cell, then emf of other can be very easily calculated
potentiometer has the advantage that it draws no current from the voltage source being measured.
Sensitivity of a Potentiometer
The smaller the potential difference that can be measured with a potentiometer, more is the sensitivity of the
potentiometer.
A potentiometer can be made more sensitive by decreasing the value of potential gradient K
This in turn can be obtained by
(a) Increasing the length of the potentiometer wire.

(b) By increasing the resistance of the rheostat.
Reason for No null point

(i) When the emf of the driver cell is smaller than emf of the cell which is to be balanced.
(ii) When the positive terminals of the driver cell and the cell to be balanced are not connected to the zero end
of the potentiometer wire.

36
Illustration 32. In a potentiometer arrangement, a cell of emf 1.25 V gives a balance point at 35.0 cm length of the
wire. If the cell is replaced by another cell and the balance point shift to 63.0 cm, what is the emf of the second cell?
Solution. Given
Now,
Illustration. 33. In a potentiometer, a standard cell of emf 5V and of negligible resistance maintains a steady current
through the potentiometer wire of length 5m. Two primary cells of emfs are joined in series with (i) same
polarity (ii) opposite polarity. The combination is connected through a galvanometer and a jockey to a potentiometer.
The balancing lengths in the two cases are found to be 350 cm and 50 cm respectively.
(i) Draw the necessary circuit diagram.
(ii) Find the value of emfs of the two cells.
Solution. (i). See Fig.
(ii). ( )
Potential gradient
……….. (i)
Let
( )
……… (ii)
Adding eqns. (i) and (ii)
Putting this value in eqn. (i) we get
Illustration 34. Figure given below shows a potentiometer with a cell of 2.0 V and internal resistance 0.40
maintaining a potential drop across the resistor wire AB. A standard cell which
maintains a constant emf of 1.02 V (for very moderate currents up to a few m
A)gives a balance point at 67.3 cm length of the wire. To ensure very low current
drawn from the standard cell, a very high resistance of 600 k is put in series with
it, which is shorted close to the balance point. The standard cell is then replaced by

37
a cell of unknown emf and the balance point found similarly, turns out to be at 82.3 cm length of the wire.
(a) What is the value ?

(b) What purpose does the high resistance of 600 k have?
(c) Is the balance point affected by this high resistance?
(d) Is the balance point affected by the internal resistance of the driver cell?
(e) Would the method work in the above situation if the driver cell of the potentiometer had an emf of 1.0 V instead of
2.0 V?
(f) Would the circuit work well for determining an extremely small emf, say of the order of a few mV (such as the
typical emf of a thermocouple)? If not, how will you modify the circuit?
Solution. (a).
(b). The high resistance helps to keep the initial current low when null point is being located. This saves the standard
cell from damage.
(c). The high resistance does not affect the balance point because there is no flow of current through the standard cell
branch.
(d). The internal resistance of driver cell affects the current through the potentiometer wire. Since the potential
gradient is changed, therefore, balance point must be affected.
(e). No, it is necessary that emf of the driver cell is more than the emf of the cells, i.e., if is greater than emf of the
cell of the potentiometer wire, there will be no balance point on the wire AB.
(f). The circuit as it is, would be unsuitable because the balance point for a small emf will be very close to the end A
and percentage error in the measurement will be large. The circuit is modified by putting a suitable resistance R in
series with the wire AB so that potential drop across AB is only slightly greater than the emf to be measured.
The the balance point will be at larger length of the wire and the percentage error will be much smaller.
Illustration 35. In a potentiometer arrangement, a cell of emf 1.25 V gives a balance point at 35.0 cm length of the
wire. If the cell is replaced by another cell and the balance point shifts to 63.0 cm, what is the emf of the second cell?
N.C.E.R.T
Solution. Here and
If emf of the second cell be then
Illustration 36. Fig. shows a potentiometer with a cell of 2.0 V and internal
resistance 0.40 maintaining a potential drop across the resistor wire AB. A standard
cell which maintains a constant emf of 1.02 V (for very moderate currents up to a
few mA) gives a balance point at 67.3 cm length of the wire. To ensure very low

38
currents drawn from the standard cell, a very high resistance of 600 k is put in series with it, which shorted close to
the balance point. The standard cell is then replaced by a cell of unknown emf and the balance point found similarly,
turns out to be at 82.3 cm length of the wire.
N.C.E.R.T
(d) Is the balance point affected by the interval resistance of the driver cell?
(e) Would the method work in the above situation if the driver cell of the potentiometer had an emf of 1.0 V
instead of 2.0 V?
(f) Would the circuit work well for determining an extremely small emf, say of the order of a few mV (such
as the typical emf of a thermo-couple)? If not, how will you modify the circuit?
Solution.
(a) In a potentiometer and in present problem with standard cell of emf ,
and with a cell of unknown emf , the null point is obtained at 82.3 cm.
Hence, we have
(b) The high resistance of 600 k reduces the current through the galvanometer when the jockey contact is far
away from the balance point. The galvanometer is thus protected from the damage likely to be caused by
the high current.
(c) There is no effect of this high resistance on the balance point.
(d) There is no effect of the internal resistance of the driver cell on the balance point.
(e) In case, the driving emf is smaller than the emf to be measured, balance point cannot be found.
(f) In such a case, the balance point will be very close to the end giving a very large percentage error in
measurement of . If a resistance is placed in series with the wire AB such that potential drop across AB is
only slightly larger than the emf to be measured, the balance point will be found on a larger length and the
percentage error will be very small.
Illustration 37. Fig. shows a potentiometer circuit for comparison of two resistances. The balance point with a
standard resistor is found to be 58.3 cm, while that with the unknown resistance X is 68.5 cm.
Determine the value of X. What might you do if you failed to find a balance point with the given cell of emf

39
N.C.E.R.T
Solution. Let k be the potential gradient along the wire AB,
then, ratio
Here and
or
If we fail to get a balance point, it simply means that potential drop across X is more than the potential drop
across whole length of wire AB. The obvious thing to do is to reduce the current in the outside circuit, so that
potential drop across R and X is reduced. This can be done by using a series resistor with .
Illustration 38. Fig. shows a 2.0 V potentiometer used for the determination of internal resistance of a 1.5 V cell. The
balance point of the cell in open circuit is 76.3 cm. When a resistor of 9.5 is used in the external circuit of the cell,
the balance point shifts to 64.8 cm length of the potentiometer wire. Determine the internal resistance of the cell.
N.C.E.R.T
Solution. Here balancing length of potentiometer wire in open circuit of given cell .
The balancing length in closed circuit

And external resistance joined with cell
Internal resistance of the given cell .
TEST PAPER
1. Define the term ‘temperature coefficient of resistivity’. Show graphically the variation of resistivity with
temperature for nichrome.
2. The voltage-current graphs for two resistors of the same material and same radii with length
and are shown in Fig. If state with reason, which of these graphs represent
change for .
3. Establish a relation between current and drift velocity.
4. Derive an expression for the current density of a conductor in terms of the drift speed of electrons.

40
5. Briefly explain how the drift velocity of electrons in metallic conductor varies, when (i) the temperature of the
conductor is increased, and (ii) applied potential difference is decreased keeping temperature constant.
6. Explain how does the resistivity of a conductor depend upon (i) number density n of free electrons, and (ii)
relaxation time .
7. What is mobility of electrons? How is it related with the conductivity?
8. The sequence of coloured bands in two carbon resistors and is (i) brown, green, blue and
(ii) orange, black, green. Find the ratio of their resistances.
9. Two wires X, Y have the same resistivity, but their cross-sectional areas are in the ratio 2: 3 and lengths in the
ratio 1:2. They are first connected in series and then in parallel to a d.c. source. Find out the ratio of the drift
speeds of the electrons in the two wires for the cases.
10. Calculate the equivalent resistance of the resistance network between the points A and B as shown in Fig. when
switch S is closed.
11. Explain, with the help of graph, the variation of conductivity with temperature for a metallic conductor.
12. Two wires of same length and same material but different cross-sectional areas are in series in which wire drift
velocity is more
13. Two wires of same length and same material but different cross-sectional areas in parallel in which wire drift
velocity is more
14. When the current i is flowing through a conductor, the drift velocity is v. If 2i current is flowed through the same
metal but having double the area of cross-section, then the drift velocity will be.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
15. In hydrogen atom, the electron makes revolutions per second around the nucleus in an orbit of radius
m. It is equivalent to a current nearly
(a) (b) (c) (d)
16. If and m respectively represent the electron density, relaxation time and mass of the electron, then the
resistance of a wire of length I and area of cross-section A will be.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
17. The electron with charge ( ) moves in an orbit of radius m with a speed of
around an atom. The equivalent current is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
18. A wire of radius r has resistance R. If it is stretched to a wire of radius r/2, then the resistance of the wire
becomes.
(a) (b) (c) (d) zero

41
19. The current-voltage graphs for a given metallic wire at two different temperatures and ( ) would be
20. In the figure a carbon resistor has bands of different colours on its body as mentioned in the figures. The value of
the resistance is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
TEST PAPER
1. The temperature (T) dependence of resistivity ( ) of a semiconductor is represented by

42
2. The current in the given circuit is
(a) 0.3 A
(b) 0.4 A
(c) 0.1 A
(d) 0.2 A
3. Three resistances 5 Ω, 5 Ω and 6 Ω are connected as shown in figure. If the point S divides the resistance 6 Ω into
two equal halves, the resistance between points P and S is
(a) 11 Ω (b) 8 Ω
(c) 6 Ω (d) 10 Ω
4. Consider the following two statements.

A. Kirchhoff’s junction law follows from the conservation of charge.
B. Kirchhoff’s loop law follows from the conservation of energy.
Which of the following is correct?
(a) Both (A) and (B) are wrong

(b) (A) is correct and (B) are wrong
(c) (A) is wrong and (B) is correct
(d) Both (A) and (B) are correct.
5. When a resistance is connected across the terminals of a cell, the current is . When the resistance is changed
to the current is . The internal resistance of the cell is
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
6. Nichrome or Manganin is widely used in wire bound standard resistors because of their
(a) Temperature independent resistivity.

(b) Very weakly temperature dependent resistivity.
(c) Strong dependence of resistivity with temperature.
(d) Mechanical strength.
7. Seven resistances are connected as shown in the given figure. The equivalent resistance between A and B is
8. The potential difference across the terminals of a battery is 50 V when 11 A current is drawn and 60 V when 1 A
current is drawn. The emf and the internal resistance of the battery are
(a) 62 V, 2 (b) 63 V, 1

43
(c) 61 V, 1 (d) 64 V, 2
9. See the electrical circuit shown in this figure. Which of the following equations is
a correct equation for it.
(a) ( ) (b)
(c) ( ) (d) ( )
10. Two cells each of same emf e but of internal remittances and are connected in series through an external
resistance R. If the potential difference between the ends of the first cells is zero, what will be the value of R in
terms of and
(a) (b) (c) (d)
11. Calculate the current through each ideal battery in Fig. Assume that
, , , and . (b)
Calculate .
12. Two batteries having the same emf but different internal resistance and
( ) are connected in series to an external resistance R. (a)
Find the value of R that makes the potential difference zero between the
terminals of one battery. (b) Which battery is it?
PRACTICE SHEET
3. (a) In a metre bridge [Fig.], the balance point is found to be at 39.5
cm from the end A, when the resistor Y is of 12.5 . Determine the
resistance of X. Why are the connections between resistors in a
wheatstone or meter bridge made of thick copper strips?
(a) Determine the balance point of the bridge above. If X and Y are
interchanged.
(b) What happens if the galvanometer and cell are interchanged at the balance point of the bridge? Wound the
galvanometer show any current.
4. In a potentiometer arrangment, a cell of emf 1.25 V gives a balance point at 35.0 cm length of the wire. If the cell
is replaced by another cell and the balance point shift to 63.0 cm, what is the emf of the second cell?

44
5. Figure shows a potentiometer with cell of 2.0 V and internal resistance 0.40 maintaining a potential drop across
the resistor wire AB. A standard cell which maintains a constant emf of 1.02 V (for very moderate current upto a
few mA) gives a balance point at 67.3 cm length of the wire. To ensure very
low currents drawn from the standard cell, a very high resistance of 600 k is
put in series with it, which is shorted close to the balance point. The standard
cell is then replaced by a cell of unknown emf and the balance point found
similarly, turns out to be at 82.3 cm length of the wire.
(d) Is the balance point affected by the internal resistance of the driver cell?
(e) Would the method work in the above situation if the driver cell of the
potentiometer had an emf of 1.0V instead of 2.0V?
(f) Would the circuit work well for determining an extremly small emf, say of the order of a few mV (such as the
typical emf of a thermo-couple)? If not, how will you modify the circuit?
6. Figure shows a 2.0 V potentiometer used for the determination of internal

resistance of a 1.5 V cell. The balance point of the cell in open circuit is 76.3
cm. When a resistor of 9.5 is used in the external circuit of the cell, the
balance point shifts to 64.8 cm length of the potentiometer wire. Determine
the internal resitance of the cell.
7. The variation of potential difference V with length l in

case of two potentiometers X and Y is as shown in the given diagram. (Fig). Which one
of these two will you prefer for comparing emfs of two
cells and why?
8. Two primary cells of emf and ( ) are connected to the

potentiometer wire AB as shown in the Fig. If the balancing lengths for the
two combinations of the cells are 250 cm and 400 cm, find the ratio of and
.
CHECKPOINT 1: The figures here shows a proton of a circuit. What are the magnitude and direction of
the current i in the lower right-hand wire?
CHECKPOINT 2: The figure here shows conduction electrons moving leftward through a wire. Are the
following leftward or rightward:
(a) The current i, (b) the current density ⃗⃗, (c) the electric field ⃗⃗⃗⃗ in the wire?

45
CHECKPOINT 3: The figure here/shows three cylindrical copper conductors along with their face areas
and lengths. Rank them according to the current through them, greatest first, when the same potential
difference V is placed across their lengths.
CHECKPOINT 4: The following tables gives the current i (in amperes) through two devices for several
values of potential difference V (in volts). From these data, determine which devices does not obey Ohm’s
law.
CHECKPOINT 5: A potential difference V is connected across a devices with resistance R, causing current
i through the device. Rank the following variations according to the change in the rate at which electric
energy is converted to thermal energy due to the resistance, greatest change first: (a) V is doubled with R
unchanged, (b) i is doubled with R unchanged (c) R is doubled with V unchanged, (d) R is doubled with i
unchanged.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Internal Resistance of a cell by a Potentiometer

Set up the circuit. The cell whose internal resistance is to be determined can be shunted by the resistance S,
Key is closed and is open. Jockey ‘J’ is moved on the potentiometer wire to get a balance pt (zero
deflection in Galvanometer)
Let the distance of balance pt from p be .
……. (1)
potential gradient
Now is also closed

Jockey J is moved again on the potentiometer wire to get the
new balance pt.
Let distance of balance pt be .

If V is the potential difference across the terminals of the cell when shunted by the resistance S, we have
V= …………(2)
Applying Kirchhoff’s law in the loop in which S and E are present, we get
46
as
…………. (3)
Using eqn. (1) , (2) and (3) we get r
( )
Experimental Arrangement for comparing emfs with a Potentiometer

Key is closed and is open. Jockey ‘J’ is moved on the
potentiometer wire to get a balance pt (zero deflection in
Galvanometer)
Let the distance of balance pt from p be .
……. (1) potential gradient

Now is closed and is open. Jockey J is moved again on the
potentiometer wire to get the new balance pt.
Let distance of balance pt be .
……….. (2)
Divide eqn. 1 by eqn. 2 we get
EXERCISE 1 ANSWER
9. Zero. Because net charge flowing is zero.

10.
11. (a) A (b) B (c) C
12. * +
EXERCISE II ANSWER
1. (a) The resistivity remains the same as it depends on the material and hot on its dimensions.
(b) Let be the resistance, length and area of cross-section of the stretched wire.
The volume remains the same. Therefore,

47
The new resistance

( ) .
2. True.
3. According to Ohm’s law,
For same V and
Current in case (1) is higher.

4. (a) Copper because the resistivey is least.
(b). Hard rubber because the resistivity is large.
(c) Manganin.
5. The resistance does not depend on the applied voltage (provided, the temperature remains constant).
EXERCISE III ANSWER
1. (a) B to A (b) B to A (c) B to A (c) A to B

No, A is at lower potential with respect to B.
2. Current density, drift velocity, electric field.
3. No, a current carrying wire does not posses any charge. This is because the number of charge carriers
entering the wire per second is equal to the number of charge carriers the wire per second.
4. ( ). (For constant V)
(a) When length is doubled, drift velocity becomes half.
(b) When radius is doubled, there will be no effect on the drift velocity.
(c) When potential difference is doubled, the drift velocity becomes twice
5. ( )
. For constant I, .
When r is doubled, becomes one fourth.
6. When a circuit is closed, an electric field is established instantaneously throughout the circuit. All the
free electrons start moving instantaneously opposite to the direction of field. Therefore, the current is
established almost the instant the circuit is closed. It is not that a current starts from the positive end and
reaches the negative and after some item.
7. The force acting on free electrons due to the electric field accelerates the electron. Due to this the drift
speed of electron increases. In its way, the electron collides with the positive ion of the metal and loses
its speed. It again starts accelerating under the influence of electric field, gains speed, collides with the
positive ion and loses its speed. This process continous. We then calculate the average speed and say that
the electron has acquired a steady average drift speed.
8. For large amounts of currents, large amount of charge should pass through the given cross-section of the
conductor per unit time. We know that charge . Though the charge is small in magnitude, the
number of free electrons is enormous. The charge density of metal is of the order of .
9. An electron in a metal posses two kinds of velocity. One is due to the electric field and the other is
thermal velocity. The thermal velocity has random direction. Therefore, all the free electrons cannot
have the same direction.
10. (i) In the absence of electric field, the paths of electrons between successive collisions are straight line.
(ii). In the presence of electric field, the path of electrons between successive collisions is generally
curved.
EXERCISE IV ANSWER

48
1. We know that
For same R and
Now the resistivity of manganin is greater than copper. Therefore, the manganin wire should be thicker
than copper.
2. No, for semiconductors and insulators, it is negative.
3. Manganin is chosen as standard resistor because
(a) Its resistivity ( ) is high.
(b) Its thermal cofficient of resistance is low.
4. With rise in temperature:
(a) The electrical conductivity of metals decreases.
(b) The electrical conductivity of semiconductor increases.
5. For a given value of V, the current is less for temperature . This shows that resistance is more at
temperature (Fig.). As it is a case of a metallic wire, the resistance increases with temperature,
6. We know that . When temperature decreases, the resistivity of a good conductor decrease. This
happens because increases.
EXERCISE V ANSWER
1. The resistances are of 4 and 12 . When joined in series, the equivalent resistance is 16 . When
joined in parallel, the equivalent resistance is
2. When the wire is cut into two equal parts, the resistance of each part is 10 . When the two parts are
connected in parallel the equivalent resistance is
.
3. We know that . The slope of the lines gives the resistance. The slope of line
B is greater showing that the resistance of B is greater i.e., in series combination
(Fig.)
4. and
5. Yes. When the temperature is below critical temperature, the conductor becomes a superconductor and
its resistance is precisely zero.
6. Non-ohmic conductors do not obey Ohm’s law, i.e., the graph between V and I is not straight line
passing through the origin. Example-diodes, triodes.
7. This arrangement becomes 2 resistors connected in parallel. The equivalent resistance is .
EXERCISE VI ANSWER
1. (a) Where and

(b). ( ) and .
2. (a) When no current flows through the cell [Fig. (a)]

49
(b). When current flows from positive terminal of the cell to the negative terminal inside the cell
(charging of cell) [Fig. (b)]
(c). When current flows from negative terminal of a cell to the positive
terminal inside the cell (discharging of cell) [Fig. (c)]
3.
When R is reduced to half, I is not reduced to half because of the presence of
internal resistance r.
4.
Potential difference across the terminal
Alternatively, potential difference across the terminal
5. Equivalent emf
The total internal resistance remains uncharged.
6. Electromotive force is the terminal potential difference of the cell when no current flows through it. Its
SI unit is volt.
7. When a cell of emf E and internal resistance r is connected across a variable resistor R, the terminal
potential V is given as
…. (i)
But …. (ii)
From eqns. (i) and (ii) * + * +
( )
( )
The graph V and R is shown in Fig. from the graph it is clear that V will
be equal to E when R = ∞.
EXERCISE VII ANSWER
1. When a voltmeter is used to measure potential difference, its finite resistance causes it to draw a current
from the circuit. Hence, the potential difference which was to be measured is changed due to the
presence of the instrument itself. Potentiometer is an instrument which allows the measurement of
potential difference without drawing current from the circuit and gives accurrate reading.
2. The potential drop in the potentiometer wire is less than the emf of the driver cell. Therefore, the emf of
the cell to be measured should be less than the emf of the driver cell, otherwise null point will not be
obtained.
3. When the length of the potentiometer wire is more, the potential drop per unit length decreases and
therefore, the sensivity increases. The potentiometer can now measure smaller potential differences
accurately.
4. The Wheatstone bridge is most sensitive when all the four resistance are equal.
5. (a) Blanced Wheatstone bridge
(b). ( )
When is kept constant,
6. For a given value of is more for Y. Therefore, sensitivity of potentiometer
Y is high. The choice is, therefore, Y (Fig.)
7.

50
Long Unsolved Questions
1. A 10m long wire AB of uniform area of cross-section and 20 resistances

is used as a potentiometer wire. This wire is connected in series with a
battery of 5 V and a resistors of 480 An unknown emf is balanced at 600
cm of the wire calculate
(ii) The potential gradient for the potentiometer wire
(iii) The value of unknown emf E.
2. The length of a potentiometer wire is 600 cm and it carries a current of
40mA. For a cell of emf 2V and internal resistance 10 , null point is found to be 500 cm. If a voltmeter
is connected across the cell, the balancing length is decreased by 10 cm.
Find (i) the resistance of whole wire (ii) reading of voltmeter (iii)
resistance of voltmeter.
1. Shows experimental set-up of a metre bridge.
When the two unknown resistances X and Y are inserted, the null point D
is obtained 40 cm from end A. When a resistance of 10 is connected in
series with X, the null point shifts by 10 cm. Find the position of the
null point when 10 resistance is instead connected in series with
resistance Y. Determine the resistance X and Y.
(a) The network is a simple series and parallel combination of resistors. First the two 4 resistors in
parallel are equivalent to a resistors .
In the same way, the 12 and 6 resistors in parallel are equivalent to a
resistor of
( ) ( )
The equivalent resistance R of the network is obtained by combining these
resistors ( ) with 1 in series, that is,
(b) The total current I in the circuit is

( )
Consider the resistors between A and B. If is the current in one of the 4
resistors and the current in the other,
that is, which is otherwise obvious from the symmetry of the two arms. But .
Thus,
that is, current in each 4 resistor is 1 A. Current in 1 resistor between B and C would be 2 A.

51
Now, consider the resistances between C and D. If is the current in the 12 resistor And
Electro Motive Force (EMF), Potential Difference (PD) And Internal Resistance of A Cell
Consider a circuit
E = EMF of cell
V = reading of voltmeter.
I = current in circuit (reading of ammeter)
r = internal resistance of cell.
A cell of emf E connected to a resistor If r = internal resistance of cell, then by Ohm’s law
R tough an ammeter and key in series
E = (R + r)
E= R+
V= = potential difference across R
V+ r=E
But
V=E-( )
VR + Vr = ER + Er – Er
Vr = ER - VR
= ( )
TEST PHYSICS (xii)

1. Why is Wheatstone bridge method suitable for comparing the resistances of the same order of
magnitude?
2. Name the device used to measure internal resistance of a cell.
3. Why do we prefer a potentiometer with a longer bridge wire?
4. The circuit shows the use of a potentiometer to measure the internal resistance of a cell. When the
key is open how does the balance point

52
Change if the current from the driver cell decreases due to increase in value of Rh? When the key K is
closed, how does the balance point change if R is increased, keeping the current from the driver cell
constant?
5. The variation of potential difference V with length l in the case of two potentiometers X and Y is as
which one of these has lower sensitivity?
6. In the circuit AB is a resistance wire of uniform cross-section in which a potential gradient of 0.01 V
exists.
(i) If the galvanometer G shows zero deflection, what is the emf of the cell used?
(ii) If the internal resistance of the driver cell increases on some account, how will it change the balance
point in the experiment?
7. Two cells of emf and ( > ) are connected as
When a potentiometer is connected between A and B, the balancing length of the potentiometer wire
is 300 cm. On connecting the same potentiometer between A and C the balancing
length is 100 cm. Calculate the ratio of and
8. AB is 1m long uniform wire of 10 resistance. The other data are as shown in the circuit diagram
calculate
(i) Potential gradient along AB.
(ii) Length AO of the wire when the galvanometer shows no deflection

53
9. In a metre bridge shown in the null point is found at a distance of 33.7cm from A. If now a resistance
of 12 W is connected in parallel to S, the null point occurs at 51.9 cm Determine the value of R and
S.
10. Calculate the current drawn from the battery in the given network.
11. For the networks shows in (a) , (b) and (c) , what is effective resistance between the points A and B?
12. A wire of 15 resistance is gradually stretched to double its original length. It is then cut into equal
parts. These parts are then connected in parallel across a 3 V battery. Find the current drawn from
the battery
Let there be a conductor of length across which a potential difference V is applied then the electric field
across the conductor is, E =
If e is the charge and m the mass of electron, force on each electron, ⃗ ⃗⃗ (opposite to the electric
field)
Acceleration on each electron,

54
…………. (1)
The time elapsed since an electron has suffered it’s last collision is called relaxation time ( ). It is of the
order of s.
At any instant the velocity of an electron
Where thermal velocity
Thus we may write
Taking the average velocity of n electrons,
( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ) ( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ) ( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ )

⃗
( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ) ( )
⃗
The first expression represents the average thermal velocity of electrons which is zero.
⃗ ⃗ …………. (2)
Where is the average relaxation time
Putting ‘a’ from Eq. (1) in Eq.(2),

⃗⃗
⃗
( )
This is the expression for drift velocity of an electron in a metallic conductor.

Thus drift velocity depends upon:
(iv) Potential difference (directly) across the conductor.
(v) Length of the conductor (inversely).
(vi) Relaxation time (directly). As relaxation time decreases with increase in temperature, the drift
velocity also decreases with increase in temperature.
Illustration 17. A storage battery of emf 8.0 V and internal resistance 0.5 is being charged by a 120 V
d.c. supply using a series resistor of 15.5 . What is the terminal voltage of the battery during
charging? What is the purpose of having a series resistor in the charging circuit.
(vii) Solution. E = 8.0 volt, r = 0.5 ,

(viii) R = 15.5
(ix) ( )
(x) ( )

55
(xi) I= A
Terminal voltage V = E + Ir
(xii) The series resistor limits the current from the external d.c. supply. In the absence, the current may
be dangerously high.

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1

ELECTRICAL CURRENT AND RESISTANCE XII PHYSICS

ELECTRICAL CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

during this time is given by ̅

If the current is steady, i.e., it does not change with time

The electric current can be classified into the following categories:

2. Varying Current: If the magnitude of the current changes with time, it is

3. Alternating Current: The current whose magnitude changes continuously

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187

The time period …….. (ii)

From eqns. (i) and (ii) I

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187

The inverse of resistance is called conductance. It is denoted by G,

RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY

1. It is directly proportional to the length of conductor

2. It is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section of the conductor

Unit of conductivity is ( ) or Siemens per metre.

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187

Let be the new resistance of the wire. Then

2. Resistance is a property of an object but resistivity is a property of a material. True or False.

Material Manganin (alloy) Copper Hard Rubber

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187

Drift velocity of Electrons

Where thermal velocity

Thus we may write

Taking the average velocity of n electrons,

Where is the average relaxation time

Putting ‘a’ from Eq. (1) in Eq.(2),

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ as ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ are in opposite direction

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187

This is the expression for drift velocity of an electron in a metallic conductor.

(i) Potential difference (directly) across the conductor.

Relation between current and Drift Velocity

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187

Nature of Electrical Resistance

The current flowing through the conductor due to drift of electrons

If V is potential difference across the two ends of a conductor then

Using the value of E

But according to Ohm’s law, = R, the resistance of the conductor

Comparing with R = we find that resistivity of the material of a conductor is given by

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187

Relation Between J, And E

Current per unit area is current density.

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187

2. The Fig. (ii) shows a steady current I flowing in a copper wire.

3. A copper wire is carrying a current. Is it charged?

LIMITATIONS OF OHM’S LAW

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187

Effect of Temperature on Resistance

RESISTIVITY OF VARIOUS MATERIALS’

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187

1. Wire bound resistors

Resistor Colour Codes

Third band : Decimal multiplier as shown in table.

Example : Find the resistance of following carbon resistor.

Solution. First two bands = Red and Red

So, first two significant figures of the resistance = 22

Concept Classes 3/5 East Punjabi Bagh, 9811741187

Third band = Red

Last band = silver

Question. Find the resistance of the following carbon resistor.

Variation of Resistivity with Temperature

(a) Conductor: The value of is positive in case of conductors. Therefore their