Steps involved in writing research report

(a) Logical analysis of It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the development of a subject. There are two ways in
the subject-matter which to develop a subject logically and chronologically. The logical development is made on the basis of
mental connections and associations between the one thing and another by means of analysis. Logical
treatment often consists in developing the material from the simple possible to the most complex
structures. Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence. The
directions for doing or making something usually follow the chronological order.

(b) Preparation of the It is the next step in writing the research report “Outlines are the framework upon which long written works
final outline; are constructed. They are an aid to the logical organization of the material and a reminder of the points to
be stressed in the report.”

(c) Preparation of the This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the preparation of the final outline. Such a step is of
rough draft; utmost importance for the researcher now sits to write down what he has done in the context of his
research study. He will write down the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his study
along with various limitations faced by him, the technique of analysis adopted by him, the broad findings
and generalizations and the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem concerned.

(d) Rewriting and This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal writing. Usually this step requires more time than
polishing; the writing of the rough draft. The careful revision makes the difference between a mediocre and a good
piece of writing. While rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for weaknesses in logical
development or presentation. The researcher should also “see whether or not the material, as it is
presented, has unity and cohesion; does the report stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite pattern,
like a marble arch? Or does it resemble an old wall of moldering cement and loose brick.” In addition, the
researcher should give due attention to the fact that in his rough draft he has been consistent or not. He
should check the mechanics of writing-grammar, spelling and usage.

(e) Preparation of the Next in order comes the task of the preparation of the final bibliography. The bibliography, which is
final bibliography; and generally appended to the research report, is a list of books and journal articles the researcher has
consulted. The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically. The most commonly used formats for
writing a bibliography/reference in business research is identified are the Harvard and American
Psychological Association (APA). Consult either of the guidelines consistently throughout your study. Do not
mix one type of style with another ones

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(f) Writing the final This constitutes the last step. The final draft should be written in a concise and objective style and in simple
draft. language, avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems”, “there may be”, and the like ones. While writing
the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon. Illustrations and
examples based on common experiences must be incorporated in the final draft as they happen to be most
effective in communicating the research findings to others. A research report should not be dull but must
enthuse people and maintain interest and must show originality. It must be remembered that every report
should be an attempt to solve some intellectual problem and must contribute to the solution of a problem
and must add to the knowledge of both the researcher and the reader.

different type of research

 Based on Application:
 From the point of view of
application, there are two
broad categories of research:
• Pure research and
• Applied research.
 Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are
intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical
application at the present time or in the future.
 The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the
existing body of research methods.
 Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions; for policy formulation,
administration and understanding of a phenomenon.
 It can be exploratory, but is usually descriptive. It is almost always done on the basis of
basic research.

. Based on Objectives:  Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem,

 From the viewpoint of phenomenon, service or program, or provides information about, say, living condition
objectives, a research can be of a community, or describes attitudes towards an issue.
classified as  Correlational research: attempts to discover or establish the existence of a
 Descriptive relationship between two or more aspects of a situation
 Correlational  Explanatory research: attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between
 Explanatory two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
 Exploratory  Exploratory research: is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to
investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study (feasibility
study / pilot study).
 In practice most studies are a combination of the above categories.

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Based on Inquiry Mode:
 From the process adopted to
find answer to research
questions – the two
approaches are:
 Structured approach
 unstructured approach
 Structured approach: is usually classified as quantitative research.
 Here everything that forms the research process- objectives, design, sample,
and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents- is predetermined.
 It is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or
phenomenon by quantifying the variation.
 e.g. How many people have a particular problem? How many people hold a
particular attitude?
 Unstructured approach: is usually classified as qualitative research.
 This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process.
 It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or
phenomenon without quantifying it.
 Main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or
attitude.
 E.g. Description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of events,
an account of different opinions different people have about an issue,
description of working condition in a particular industry.
 Both approaches have their place in research. Both have their strengths and
weaknesses.
 In many studies you may combine both qualitative and quantitative
approaches.

Components of research proposal

Title page  The title should be in the smallest possible number of words that adequately reflect the contents of
the study
 Should almost never contain abbreviations
Summary/Abstract  Is a concise summary of the material presented in the proposal.
Introduction/  This provides background information for the research proposal
background  HOOK your readers at the beginning by including statements that motivates your reader to read the
rest
 State the critical issues and the clear motivation for investigating the problem
 Include the rationale & justification
Statement of the  This refers to the research issue.
problem  The issue that motivated a need for the study

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  Statement of the problem encapsulates the question you are trying to answer.
 Think on the motivation & position yourself in the literature
Literature review  It is a synthesis of the work of others specifically tailored to your own analysis
 Review the relevant theories
 the methods used by others to arrive at conclusion
 be selective and critical to identify their limitation
 relate to your own questions and show where you stand and what you contribute
 Describe, summarize, evaluate, clarify and/or integrate into your own framework
Objective/aim of the  The objectives summarizes what is to be achieved by the study.
study  are closely related to problem statement
 Objectives should be simple
 specific (not vague)
 stated in advance (not after the research is done),
 Objectives are commonly classified into general objectives and specific objectives
 Both objectives are logically connected to each other
 The specific objectives are smaller portions of the general objectives
 General objective
 General statements specifying the desired outcomes of the proposed project
 Specific objectives
 Specific operational statements summarizing the proposed activities
 Detailed specific aims of the research project,
 Make sure that objectives are clearly phrased in operational terms, specifying exactly what you are
going to do,
 Are feasible;
 Avoid long list of objectives
 Should focus on specific issues, not directed to solve all the problems of the world.

Questions and/or  Hypotheses and questions are linked to the speculative proposition of the problem statement
Hypotheses  Hypothesis is subject to test, i.e., to confirmation or rejection on empirical grounds
 The term question implies an interrogative statement that can be answered by data
 Questions are most often used in qualitative inquiry
 Their use in quantitative inquiry is also quite prominent.
 Hypotheses are typically used only in quantitative inquiry
 Hypotheses give structure and direction to research,

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  can only be formulated after the researcher has gained enough knowledge of the problem
 Hypotheses are tentative the formulated problem
 The research problem may not have to consist of one hypothesis only.

Methodology  This is the heart of your proposal

 It details how exactly you are going to achieve your stated research objectives
 Usually thin in many proposals-weakness
 The core components of this section are:
 The conceptual or theoretical framework
 The Empirical framework (model)
 Method of data collection and analysis
The theoretical framework:
 This provides a framework of where your work stand in the theoretical literature
The Empirical framework:
 Specification of the statistical model for your analysis: May be Alternative Models!
 It depends on the nature of your research
 The method of data collection
 This refers to detail description of your survey design which include:
 Your study area & Unit of analysis (agents
 The sampling frame & sampling method
 Your sample size
 Specification of survey instruments such as questionnaires, interviews, focused groups, key
informants, & observations

 The proposal should describe in detail the general research plan

 Description of study area & participants
 Determination of sample size (if any)
 Description of selection process (sampling method)
 Methods of data collection- survey instrument
 Data analysis methods
Work plan & budget Work plan
 Shows the implementation schedule of different activity components of the proposal
 In the work plan:
 List the tasks to be performed at each stage

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  Indicate when the tasks will be performed
 Indicate time required to accomplish the various aspects of the study
Budget and funding
 You may need to approach a funding agency for your research project
 Estimate the financial requirement of your research project
 Be realistic, not to appear careless
 Budget items need to be explicitly stated
 Provide brief description & justification of the budget
 The major cost items include:
 Personnel cost: Enumerators, drivers, survey supervisors, data entry clerk
 Transportation & travel: field work etc
 Stationary and duplication: various
 Computation and communication: Postage, telephone, e-mail charges, computer rental
 Literature acquisition: Books, documents

References  For all references cited in the proposal provide a reference list at the end
 Do not include those that are not directly cited
 Follow appropriate standard referencing styles for:
- journal papers
- books
- internet reference
 You may also include annex at the end for some relevant extra things: e.g. your CV (if necessary)

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1. Formulating the research
problem;
The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with those
having some expertise in the matter.
2. Extensive literature survey;
3. Developing the hypothesis;
4. Preparing the research
design;
5. Determining sample design;
Steps in research process (7 pts)
 There are two types of research problems.
- Those which relate to states of nature and
- Those which relate to relationships between variables.
 The researcher must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he
would like to inquire into.
 The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first
step in a scientific enquiry.
 Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down.
 It is compulsory for a research worker to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the
necessary Committee or the Research Board for approval.
 The researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem.
 Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped
depending on the nature of the problem.
 A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.
 After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis or hypotheses.
 Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences.
 The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to
keep him on the right track.
 The researcher will be required to prepare a research design.
 State the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted.
 The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding
maximal information.
 The function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
 All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a universe or population.
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6. Collecting the data;
It becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate.
7. Execution of the project;
8. Analysis of data;
9. Hypothesis testing;
 A complete enumeration of all the items in the population is known as a census inquiry.
 It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of
chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true.
 This type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy.
 We select only a few items from the universe for our study purposes.
 The items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample.
 The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the
sample design.
 In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually
collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.
 In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate.
 Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process.
 The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time.
 If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily
machine-processed.
 In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded.
 After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them.
 The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and
then drawing statistical inferences.
 Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are
transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted.
 Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding.
 Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form
of tables.
 After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses,
if any, he had formulated earlier.
 Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question
which should be answered while testing hypotheses.
 Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.
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10. Generalizations and
interpretation, and
11. Preparation of the report
or presentation of the results,
i.e., formal write-up of
conclusions reached.
Types of research design and their characteristics (6 pts)
(1) research design in case of
exploratory research studies;
(2) research design in case of
descriptive and diagnostic
research studies, and
 The real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations.
 If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the
basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation.
 The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may
lead to further researches.
 Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him.
 Writing of report must be done with great care.
 Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main
purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of
developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in
such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. Generally, the following three methods
in the context of research design for such studies are talked about:
 the survey of concerning literature;
 the experience survey and
 the analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples
Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristics
of a particular individual, or of a group, whereas diagnostic research studies determine the frequency
with which something occurs or its association with something else. The studies concerning whether
certain variables are associated are examples of diagnostic research studies. As against this, studies
concerned with specific predictions, with narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual,
group or situation are all examples of descriptive research studies. Most of the social research comes
under this category. From the point of view of the research design, the descriptive as well as
diagnostic studies share common requirements and as such we may group together these two types
of research studies.
 The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the
following:
 Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being
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 made?)
 Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be
adopted?)
 Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
 Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period
should the data be related?)
 Processing and analyzing the data.

(3) research design in case of
hypothesis-testing research
studies.
Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as experimental studies) are those where the
researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between variables. Such studies require
procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability but will permit drawing inferences
about causality. Usually experiments meet this requirement. Hence, when we talk of research design
in such studies, we often mean the design of experiments.

different types of sampling techniques (6 pt)

Non-probability  Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for estimating the
sampling: probability that each item in the population has of being included in the sample. Non-probability
sampling is also known by different names such as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and
judgment sampling. In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the
researcher; his choice concerning the items remains supreme. In other words, under non-probability
sampling the organizers of the inquiry purposively choose the particular units of the universe for
constituting a sample on the basis that the small mass that they so select out of a huge one will be typical
or representative of the whole. For instance, if economic conditions of people living in a state are to be
studied a few towns and villages may be purposively selected for intensive study on the principle that
they can be representative of the entire state.
.
Convenience  Non-probability samples that are unrestricted are called convenience samples. In this method samples
Sampling : are drowning at the convenience of the researcher or interviewer, often as the study is being conducted.
The assumption underlines this method are that the defined target population is homogenous, and the
individuals interviewed are similar to the overall target population with regard to the characteristics
being studied.
Advantage

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  It is the cheapest and simplest method.
 It does not require list of population.
 It does not require any statistical experience.
Disadvantage
 It is highly biased because of researcher subjectivity.
 It is least reliable method.
 The finding cannot be generalized.
Purposive  A non-probability sample that conforms to certain criteria is called purposive sampling. There are two
Sampling: major types within this type of sampling:
 Judgmental sampling and
 Quota sampling.
Judgmental Sampling:
 Also known as purposive sampling is the extension of convenience sampling. It means deliberately
selection of sample units that confirm in to some predetermined criteria. This involves the selection of a
group from the population on the basis of available information thought or judgment. It is to be
representative of the total population. The judgmental is appropriate when a limited number or category
of people have the information that is sought.
 ble.
Advantages
 Knowledge of the investigator can be best used in this technique of sampling.
 This technique of sampling is also economical.
Disadvantages
 It does not ensure representativeness of the sample.
 Require prior extensive information about the population.
 Inability to make generalization concerning total population.
 Inferential statistics cannot be used for the observations of this sampling, so generalization is not
possible.
 Quota Sampling:
 This is a procedure that restricts the selection of the sample by controlling the number of respondents by
one or more criterion. This is often used to improve representativeness of the study. The logic behind
quota sampling is that certain relevant characteristics describe the dimensions of the population.
 This method involves selection of respective participant according to pre specified quotas regarding
demographic character, specific attitude or specific behavior. The population is classified into several
categories: on the basis of judgmental or assumption or the previous knowledge, the proportion of

11
 population falling into each category is decided. There after a quota of cases to be drawn is fixed and the
observer is allowed to sample as he likes.
 Quota sampling also becomes a necessity when a subset of the population is underrepresented in the
organization; for example, minority groups, foremen, and so on. In other words, quota sampling ensures
that all the subgroups in the population are adequately represented in the sample.
Advantages
 It is an improvement over the judgmental sampling.
 It is an easy sampling technique.
 It is most frequently used in social surveys.
Disadvantages
 It is not a representative sample.
 It is not free from error.
 It has the influence of regional geographical and social factors.
Snowball Sampling  This is a special type of non-probability sampling where respondents are difficult to identify (who to ask
: for and what criteria they should have in terms of possessions: rich, poor, homeless, etc.), and are best
located. Perhaps, it can only be used when the target sample members are involved in some kind of
network with others who share the characteristic of interest. A small number of the samples initially
selected by the researcher are then asked to nominate a group who would be prepared to be
interviewed for the research; these in turn nominate others, and so forth. Reduced sample sizes and
costs are a clear advantage in snowball sampling. However, bias is likely to enter into the study because a
person who is known to someone has a higher probability of being similar to the first person.
Probability  Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample. It
sampling: is, so to say, a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole group not
deliberately but by some mechanical process. Here it is blind chance alone that determines whether one
item or the other is selected. The results obtained from probability or random sampling can be assured in
terms of probability i.e., we can measure the errors of estimation or the significance of results obtained
from a random sample, and this fact brings out the superiority of random sampling design over the
deliberate sampling design. Random sampling ensures the law of Statistical Regularity which states that if
on an average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the same composition and
characteristics as the universe.
Simple Random  A simple random sample is one in which each element of the population has an equal and independent
Sampling chance of being included in the sample i.e. a sample selected by randomization method is known as
simple-random sample and this technique is simple random-sampling. Randomization is a method and is
done by using a number of techniques as:

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  Tossing a coin.
 Throwing a dice.
 Lottery method.
 Blind folded method.
 By using random table of ‘Tippett’s Table’.
 Advantages:
 It requires a minimum knowledge of population.
 It is free from subjectivity and free from personal error.
 It provides appropriate data for our purpose.
 The observations of the sample can be used for inferential purpose.
 Disadvantages:
 The representativeness of a sample cannot be ensured by this method.
 This method does not use the knowledge about the population.
 The inferential accuracy of the finding depends upon the size of the sample.
Systematic  Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling. This method requires the complete
Sampling information about the population. There should be a list of information of all the individuals of the
population in any systematic way. Now we decide the size of the sample.
 Let sample size = n and population size = N
 Now we select each N/nth individual from the list and thus we have the desired size of sample which is
known as systematic sample. Thus in Systematic sampling only the first unit is selected randomly the
remaining units of sample are selected at fixed intervals.
 Advantages
 This is a simple method of selecting a sample.
 It reduces the field cost.
 Inferential statistics may be used.
 Sample may be comprehensive and representative of population.
 Observations of the sample may be used for drawing conclusions and generalizations.
 Disadvantages
 This is not free from error, since there is subjectivity due to different ways of systematic list by different
individuals. Knowledge of population is essential.
 Information of each individual is essential.
 This method can’t ensure the representativeness.
 There is a risk in drawing conclusions from the observations of the sample.

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Stratified Sampling  When a population from which a sample is to be selected does not comprise a homogeneous group,
stratified sampling technique is generally employed for obtaining a representative sample. Under
stratified sampling, the population is divided into many sub-populations in such a manner that they are
individually more homogeneous than the rest of the total population. Then, items are selected from each
stratum to form a sample. As each stratum is more homogeneous than the remaining total population,
the researcher is able to obtain a more precise estimate for each stratum and by estimating each of the
component parts more accurately; he/she is able to obtain a better estimate of the whole.
 Stratified sampling may be of three types:
 Disproportionate sampling: means that the size of the sample in each unit is not proportionate to the
size of the unit but depends upon considerations involving personal judgment and convenience. This
method of sampling is more effective for comparing strata which have different error possibilities. It is
less efficient for determining population characteristics.
 Proportionate sampling: refers to the selection from each sampling unit of a sample that is
proportionate to the size of the unit. Advantages of this procedure include representativeness with
respect to variables used as the basis of classifying categories and increased chances of being able to
make comparisons between strata. Lack of information on proportion of the population in each category
and faulty classification may be listed as disadvantages of this method.
 Optimum allocation: stratified sampling is representative as well as comprehensive than other stratified
samples. It refers to selecting units from each stratum should be in proportion to the corresponding
stratum the population. Thus sample obtained is known as optimum allocation stratified sample.
Advantages
 It is enhance the representative of the population.
 It is an objective method of sampling.
 Observations can be used for inferential purpose.
Disadvantages
 It requires prior knowledge of the composition of the population
 It is costly and time-consuming method.

Cluster Sampling  The population divided in to sub populations which are called clusters. Sub populations (clusters) ideally
would have heterogeneity among the members within each group are chosen for study in cluster
sampling. Cluster samples offer more heterogeneity within groups and more homogeneity among groups
the reverse of what we find in stratified random sampling, where there is homogeneity within each
group and heterogeneity across groups.
 The unit costs of cluster sampling are much lower than those of other probability sampling designs.

14
 Advantages
 It may be a good representative of the population.
 It is an easy method.
 It is an economical method.
 It is practicable and highly applicable in education.
 Observations can be used for inferential purpose.
Disadvantages
 Cluster sampling is not free from error.
 It is not comprehensive.

Multiple or Double  Generally, this is not a new method but only a new application of the samplings we discussed above. This
or Repetitive is most frequently used for establishing the reliability of a sample. When employing a mailed
Sampling questionnaire, double sampling is sometimes used to obtain a ‘more representative sample. This is done
because some randomly selected subjects who are sent questionnaires may not return them. Obviously,
the missing data will bias the result of the study, if the people who fail to reply the’ query differ in some
fundamental way from the others in respect to the phenomena being studied. To eliminate this bias, a
second sample may be drawn at random from the non-respondents and the people interviewed to
obtain the desired information. Thus, this technique is also known as repeated or multiple sampling.
 This double sampling technique enables one to check on the reliability of the information obtained from
the first sample. Thus, double sampling, wherein one sample is analyzed, and information obtained is
used to draw the next sample to examine the problem further.
 Advantages
 This sampling procedure leads to the inferences of free determine precision based on a number of
observations.
 This technique of sampling reduces the error.
 This method maintains the procedure of the finding evaluate the reliability of the sample.
 Disadvantages
 This technique of sampling cannot be used for a large sample. It is applicable only for small sample.
 This technique is time consuming, costly, and requires more competition.
 It’s planning and administration is more complicated.

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