Avionics Systems

NIGERIAN COLLEGE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY, ZARIA
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE ENGINEERING SCHOOL
AVIONICS
SYSTEM
FOR
A&P
ISS 1. REV: 1. JANUARY, 2015
NIGERIAN COLLEGE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY, ZARIA AME SCHOOL
AVIONICS SYSTEM
AVIONICS SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
Basic radio can be divided into two parts; Radio communication and Radio Navigations. Given
the nature of aircraft, it is very necessary to have communication (exchange of information) from
and to the aircraft.
It will also be necessary to note here that not only should there be communication; the
communication must be promptly available. This aspect of aircraft engineering is not only a
requirement for adequate safety of the aircraft; it gives the flight crew of the aircraft in flight
very natural feel.
The exchange of information to and from the aircraft is normally between flight crew and ATC
crew, between flight crew and rescue team and between flight crew and Company. The
exchange of information within the aircraft is between flight crew and cabin crew, flight crew
and passengers, and between cabin crew and passengers.
The exchange of information could be in time of distress or time of safe flight. It is worthy to
note here that with adequate communication a distress aircraft can be render help timely and
adequately. Also with adequate communication accidents can be avoided
Generally speaking, with very adequate communication aircraft safety is very well enhanced.
The part of radio which deals with exchange of information is called communication.
Communication could be long range, or short range.
Some aircraft have facilities for all the various communication system while others may not have
facilities for all of them. It is however dependent on the sophistication of a said aircraft.
The other part of the radio is Navigation. This deals with the aircraft determining its position
and finding positions of interest. Like the automobile on ground will use road map and sign post
to determine their positions and position of interest, the aircraft use Radio Navigation to find its
ways in the air. There are various Navigation aids, they include;
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
VHF Omni Range (VOR)
Radio Altimeter
Instrument Loading System (ILS)
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
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Inertial Navigation System (INS)
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Ground Proximity wiring System (GPWS)
Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)
Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)
Standby Instruments
However, whether communication or Navigation both depend on certain equipment to function.

These equipment function(s) depend basically and largely on the radiation of electro-magnetic
waves (EM) waves. It is therefore necessary to understand EM waves before continuing in study
of Radio Communication and Navigation of an Aircraft.
FUNDAMENTALS OF EM WAVE (RADIO WAVES)
Electromagnetic waves popularly known as EM waves consists of oscillating Electric and

magnetic field which are at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation.
Electromagnetic waves are consequent to electromagnetic radiation. The radiation results when
alternating current at radio frequencies is applied to an aerial (antenna).
When electrical current flows in a aerial it establishes a magnetic field. This field follows the
changing nature of the current. It is not possible for radiation to be achieved at low frequencies.
This is because magnetic field will collapse within the aerial before field of opposite direction is
established. However, with high frequency say 9000Hz and above, magnetic field will not
collapse instead will separate and energy will be propagated away from the aerial.
E Min
E max

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Tx Rx
E E Key
Tx = Transmitter
H H Rx = Receiver
H = Magnetic field
E = Electric field
FIG. 1
PROPERTIES OF EM WAVES
1. Radio waves travel at the speed of light in a vacuum.
Speed of light (c) = 300,000,000M/S or 3 X 108 M/S
c=v=f. OR 300 X 106 M/S
c=f where b speed of light, f frequency and f wave length
There is minor variation in speed of EM waves with changes in medium.
2. EM waves are made up of electric field and magnetic field
3. Both fields of EM waves vary sinusoidally and are of same phase and frequency.
4. The fields are at 900 to each other and to the direction of propagation.

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5. The plane of polarization refers to the Electric field direction.
POLARIZATION
This is a phenomenon use to describe the plane of propagation relative to another plane in a
system. Here polarization is used to describe the nature of direction of propagation.
The plane of polarization for Radio waves follows the electrical field which is parallel to the
aerial. Therefore polarization follows the attitude of the aerial or antenna. Hence if an aerial lies
horizontally, the EM wave from such aerial is polarized horizontally. If vertical, the EM wave
from such aerial is polarized vertically.
FREQUENCY AND WAVE LENGTH RELATIONSHIP
The distance occupied in space by one cycle is called the wavelength (ʎ) – lambda
The number of cycle in one second period is frequency. The interval of time occupied by one (1)
cycle is called the period. For an EM wave the time interval is normally very short. The unit is
therefore micro seconds.
The relationship is given thus
V = fʎ
Where V = speed of EM wave
f = frequency
ʎ = wavelength
PHASE ANGLE AND PHASE DIFFERENCE
Phase Difference: Two waves, forms are said to be in phase when they pass corresponding point
of a cycle at the same time, otherwise there is a phase difference.

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Phase angle: The time difference between two alternating waveforms is measured in terms of
phase angle. A complete cycle encompasses a phase angle of 360.
FREQUENCY BAND
Electromagnetic waves (Radio wave) are consequent to electromagnetic radiations. These waves
depending on some factors are of various frequencies. In the electromagnetic spectrum there are
various range of frequencies. Radio frequencies occupy the lowest part of the EM spectrum.
The Radio frequencies themselves are separated into arbitrary sub-bands. This is because at the
particular properties of different frequencies. Radio frequency Bands are as below:
Audio frequency 20HZ - 20KHZ between 15 – 15, KM
V.Low Frequency 10KHZ - 10 – 30KM
Low frequency 30KHZ - 1 – 10KM
MF - 300KHZ - 100m – 1 KM
HF - 3MH - 30MHZ 100 – 100cm
VHF - 30MHz - 1m - 10m
UHF - 300MHz - 3GHz - 10cm–100m
SHF - 3GHz - 30GHz 1cm -10cm
EHF - 30GHz - 300Hz 1mm-1cm.
For communication of any sort, any of the bands above will be adequate. However for aircraft
the Band of frequency HF, VHF & UHF is used. The band of frequencies for aircraft Radio
communication is therefore 3MHz – 3GHz. Depending on what equipment, design or purpose,
for aircraft either of the HF, VHF or UHF is used for communication
PROPAGATION OF RADIO WAVES
Propagation refers to a way of causing Radio waves to be transmitted or more away from source
to a probable desired place. Radio wave can travel through a medium or in a vacuum. However,
depending on what is desired and therefore frequency in use, there are various modes of
propagating Radio waves. The types of waves follow the mode of propagation. There are
1. Ground or surface wave
2. Sky wave

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3. Space wave
GROUND OR SURFACE WAVE
This type of wave follows the curvature of the earth surface as its tracks. It is supported by the
surface of the earth. Surface wave is mostly used for low frequencies. (Between 20KHz &
2MHz).
It has the advantage of not being affected by seasonal and diurnal variations. Its disadvantage is
the inability to beam energy effectively. Also propagation by this mode requires powerful
transmitter and large aerials, this makes it relatively expensive.
SPACE WAVE
For this type, the Radio wave is propagated directly, from one point to another in a straight line.
For frequencies of about 50MHz and above, propagating using ground wave will result in
excessive loss of energy. This implies that the wave will be attenuated. This is because they will
be absorbed by the earth. However, if the wave is reflected, then space will consists of reflected
and direct wave. The space wave has the disadvantage of being interrupted by anything between
or in the line of propagation.
SKY WAVES
Here the wave is propagated into the sky to be reflected. In its destination it will be received as
reflected wave. It is affected by seasonal and diurnal variations.

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MODULATION
In aircraft Radio communication, what is required most of the time is exchange of information
from and to the aircraft or within the aircraft. This is basically speech which frequency is within
the audio frequency. Audio frequency is ranges from 20Hz and 20KHz and speech typically in
between 300Hz and 3400Hz. This type of frequency is too small to be radiated or transmitted.
The minimum frequency required for an aerial to be able to radiate electromagnetic energy is
about 9000Hz and above. It does mean that to be able to transmit and exchange information,
some techniques must be employed. The technique in Radio communication is to put the audio
frequency on another that has the required frequency and transmit it as the said message. This
technique is known as modulation.
Modulation is therefore defined as a technique employed when a signal of one frequency is

superimposed on another signal of a higher frequency for the purpose of transmission.
The signal of lower frequency which is superimposed on the signal with higher frequency is
normally the one that contains the desired message or intelligence, while the one with higher
frequency that is to carry that of smaller frequency is known as the carrier wave having carrier
frequency.
Carrier frequency therefore refers to the frequency of carrier wave. The combination of the
message signal and the carrier signal is known as modulated signal.
CARRIER WAVE OR SIGNAL
This is an electromagnetic (EM) wave. It normally consists of electric field and magnetic field. It
is also known as the Radio waves. Radio waves as there are often called do not have any
practical use unless modulated. After modulation, we are able to use radio wave to send or carry
our information as required.

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DEMODULATION
This is the technique or process employed in obtaining or extracting extending the relevant
message from a modulated signal. This is term to decoding.
Types of Modulation
There are various types of modulation. The types are;
1. Amplitude Modulated (AM)
2. Frequency Modulated (FM)
3. Pulse Modulated
AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)
This is a type of modulation where the carrier wave after modulation will be changing in
amplitude following the amplitude of the message or audio signal, the frequency of the Radio
wave being constant.
Amplitude modulation therefore is a method which entails varying amplitude, but constant
frequency. The modulated signal will have varying amplitude the frequency being constant.
The amplitude variation follows the amplitude of the message signal. As the amplitude of the
message signal goes positive. The amplitude of the carrier wave increases. As the amplitude of
the message wave goes negative the carrier wave amplitude decrease. See figure.
FIG. 4

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BAND WIDTH
Sequel to the above, the modulation envelop consists of three separate components viz
1. The basic frequency
2. The sum of the carrier modulation frequency
3. The difference between carrier and modulation frequency
The difference between the carrier frequency and the modulating or massage frequency is the
LOWER SIDE BAND of the frequency band while the sum of the carrier frequency and the
modulating frequency is the UPPER SIDE BAND.
The range of frequencies coverEd by between the lower side band and the upper side band to
known as the BANDWIDTH.
Normally a range of frequency will be generated during modulation at the input point of the
modulation or message signal. These frequencies will alternate between the lower and the upper
side band.
FIG. 5
When transmission of massage or signal is accomplished using either lower sideband or the
upper sideband, the process to known as single sideband transmission. The SSB is achievable
and is used in HF radio is the aircraft. It has the advantage of power saving in transmission. It
also has the advantage of reduced fading.
Its disadvantage is that it requires specialized receivers and consequently can be expansive. It
also requires precise tuning and good stability for distortion free reception.
FREQUENCY MODULATION
In this type of modulation the frequency of the modulated wave or signal varies while the
amplitude remains constant.
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As the modulating or massage signal goes positive the frequency of the modulated signal
increases while as message signal goes negative, the frequency of the modulated signal decrease.
Frequency modulation is therefore a modulation method which entails variation of the frequency
of modulated signal but constant amplitude. See figure.
FIG. 6
Because of the changing frequency, the frequency modulation has wide bandwidth and for this
reasons, it is not suitable for aeronautical use.
Frequency modulation has the advantage of no intrusive noise.
PULSE MODULATION
This method of modulation involves converting the speech or text to digital format and thereafter
transmits the energy in pulse form. The pulse width should be of few micro seconds or less.
However this method is associated with RADAR. The pulse modulation has the advantage of
excellent noise rejection characteristics.

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TRANSDUCERS
This is the term used to describe any device that is able to change one form of energy to another.
An example is changing sound energy to electrical or electrical energy to sound energy. It could
also be changing electrical signal to electromagnetic or electromagnetic to electrical. Examples
of such devices include microphone, loudspeaker, aerial, etc.
These listed transducers are commonly used in aircraft radio communication.
MICROPHONE:
This is a transducer that changes sound energy to electrical energy. Its principle of operation is
based on electromagnetic induction. This operation is achieved by having a coil wound on a
diaphragm (speech coil) placed in a magnetic field. As sound wave pressures on the diaphragm it
vibrates (moves) is the magnetic field and voltage (electrical) is induced in the speech coil. The
induce voltage which is normally ac is collected from the coil and processed to meet its
particular purpose. The microphone is normally an input device in radio communication.
LOUDSPEAKER
This is also a transducer but it changes electrical energy to sound energy. It can be said to be
direct opposite to the microphone. Its principle is also based on electromagnetic induction. Here
the electrical signal which is varying is allowed into a coil in the magnetic field. Consequently
the coil will vibrate or move and thus result in sound energy. The loudspeaker is normally the
output device in radio communication.
AERIAL
This is also a transducer. It changes electrical energy to electromagnetic or electromagnetic to

electrical. The principle of operation is also base in electromagnetic induction.
When varying or oscillating electromagnetic signal falls on an aerial it induces voltage and the
aerial which is detected and processed. Again with varying electric signal and sufficient energy
induced into an aerial, the aerial will radiate electromagnetic energy.
This is used in transmission and reception of radio communication signals. The aerial is normally
the output of a transmitter while in the receiver the aerial is the input device.
AERIAL
A metallic rod or wire for sending and receiving radio waves or microwaves. As it relates to
aircraft, radio waves are paramount here. Like is stated above aerial is a transducer which
changes electrical signals to electromagnetic or vice versa. It has been observed that the best is

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the one that resonates at half wavelength. An aerial of this type is able to radiate adequate and
consequent signal.
These are basically three types of aerial namely:-
1. Hertz
2. Marconi
3. Loop aerial
HERTZ AERIAL
This type of aerial resonates at half (1/2) wavelength. It is most of the time a theoretical aerial.
However, because aerials are most efficient when the resonates as half wavelength aerials are
designed with the intent of meeting this as much as possible. The dipole is a form of a Hertz
aerial.
MARCONI AERIAL
This type resonates at quarter wave length. This is the type commonly used and the aircraft.
Also, there is a compromise between length and efficiency. However Marconi aerials are of
quarter wavelength conductor and a reflector which could be term the rest of the quarter
wavelength making the half for efficiency.
LOOP AERIAL
This refers to aerial is in loop form. It is made into loop to improve its efficiency. However, this
aerial is more sensitive following the ends. This implies that its reception is best on either side’s
perpendicular and nearer a transmitting aerial

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TRANSMITTERS
Following our studies so far, there is need to have a way of generating Radio frequency waves
and mix them with a said massage wave and cause them to reach a desired destination and to
meet a required purpose. For the functional operation of Airborne Radio, Radio frequency
waves (em waves) are required to achieve wireless operation necessary for aircraft
communication and Navigations.
Transmitter is a system used to generate, amplify, modulate and propagate Radio and message
waves at certain frequency into space for specific reason. It is made up of various stages to
enable it achieve its aim.
The principle of operation is based on the generation and propagation of em (Radio) waves of
high energy to meet the purpose of being a carrier frequency. The transmitter is the system that
generates carrier wave required to carrying massage(s) to their destination. The transmitter is
also responsible for modulating message signals unto the carrier wave and finally amplify the
combined signal for the purpose of high energy, required for wireless propagation of waves.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A BASIC TRANSMITTER
FIG. 7
MASTER OSCILLATOR:
This is the source of Radio frequency energy. Radio waves are generated by the master
oscillator. This is done by converting electrical signal into Radio frequency waves. This energy
generated in this stage determines the final frequency. This implies that in the master Oscillator,
generated Radio frequency wave must have sufficient energy as required for Radio frequency
otherwise, it will not achieved the purpose of a carrier wave.

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Buffer Amplifier:
The Buffer amplifier cleans amplifier and deliver Radio frequency energy at great power under
control to the transmitter system. This amplifier removes unwanted signal and amplify the
wanted ones which is deliver to the frequency multiplier.
Frequency Multiplier
This stage is responsible for generating the harmonies of the input Radio frequency (RF). This is
to ensure that the RF in the transmitter is greater than that in master oscillator. Generally, the
output frequency of the transmitter is expected to be more than the frequency of any one stage.
Driver Amplifier
Amplification is done in this stage to enable provision of sufficient power for the input stage of
the output stage (Power Amp).
Power Amplifier
Amplification in this stage is to ensure provision of sufficient output power. This power is
required for overcoming transmission losses. This is the input of the output stage (Aerial).
Aerial (Antenna)
The aerial serves that purpose of a transducer. It converts the electrical energy to
electromagnetic energy. The aerial is the final stage (output) of the transmitter. It lets the Radio
frequency into space.

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RECEIVERS.
Sequel to the study of transmitter, it is possible to propagate required Radio frequency and
massage waves into space. These propagated waves carrying message is desired to reach a
destination for a purpose. One of such purpose is that the message must be received and its
demand being met with.
The propagated waves by the transmitter are modulated signals and required some special ways
of receiving and being able to interpret the message.
The system which is able to receive, convert Radio frequency waves to electrical signal,
demodulates and amplifier these signal for the purpose of obtaining the intelligence contained in
the modulated signal is known and referred to as a receiver.
Basic Requirements of a Receiver
The receiver has certain basic requirements that must be met with. These basic requirement can
be group as
1. Selection
This is the ability of the receiver to selectively receive the required signal and rejected or allow
to attenuate all unwanted signals.
2. Amplification
At the point of receiving the signals they are normally of small amplitude. This will not give the
required output. Consequently the signal must be amplified to be able to obtain useful output.
3. Demodulation
The received signals are normally at Radio frequency. This contains the message or
intelligence desired. There must therefore be away of extracting the intelligence from the
carrier wave (demodulating). A receiver must have appropriate method of demodulation.
These basic requirements form the basis of the block diagram of Reception process below;

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FIG. 8
Types of Receivers
Receiver can be Tuned Radio Frequency OrSuperheterodyne receiver.
Tuned Radio Frequency Receiver (TRF)
This receiver operation is based on one frequency. This implies that except that said signal
frequency in selected (tuned) there will not be reception by this system. Below is the block
diagram of a TRF receiver.
FIG. 9
The Radio frequency amplifiers (RF amps) are responsible for selection of the required
frequency at high gain.
The selected signal is demodulated or detected by demodulator (demod). This signal is then
amplified by the audio frequency amp (AF amp) for the output at the speaker. The TRF is used
in aircraft Instrument landing system (ILS)
Disadvantages
1. Low and uneven sensitivity
2. Poor selectivity
3. Instability (a tendency to oscillate

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Superheterodyne Receivers
This is developed to check the short comings of the TRF. This is achieved by amplifying at
fixed frequency and converting all the input to this fixed frequency. With this, the
superheterodyne has the advantages of
1. Better amplification
2. Better sentivity and selectivity
3. There is no instability.
Below is the block diagram of superheterodyne receiver
FIG. 10 SUPERHET RECEIVER BSD
The local oscillator generates signals of different frequency from the incoming frequency. The
difference in frequency is the intermediate frequency IF.
The exchange mixer (fixed frequency) combines the incoming and the local oscillator frequency
to obtain the intermediate frequency. All other stages function as stated for the TRF.

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FM RECEIVER
FIG. 11 FM RECEIVER WITHOUT AFC
The limiter stage can be said to be a frequency controller. It functions to ensure that there is not
over frequency resulting from the IF and also that the desired frequency is maintain. The
discriminator furthers selects what frequency is good enough for the output. All other stages are
as explained earlier.

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AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATION
Communication in carrier aircraft is ideally expected to be uninterrupted. Communication is

exchange of information. This is required between aircraft and ATC agencies, company
operators, outstation agency or rescue team. To ensure smooth communication, other than
generally good quality of aircraft systems, the devices and communication systems of the aircraft
must be of very good quality. This is ensured by Aeronautic Radio incorporated (ARINC).
Communication does not only satisfy the exchange of information required for an aircraft
operation, it gives confidence to the flight crew and hence safety. Imagine the flight crew not
being able to communicate with the ground when need be. Recently information is being
digitalized. This is achievable in the aircraft using ARINC devices or equipment. The digitalizes
devices are smaller and lighter. They are presently preferred because of weight saving.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
In the aircraft, they are two types of communication; viz long and short range communication.
LONG RANGE COMMUNICATION.
Once a range is more than 200 mile from land, it is considered to be long range. Long range
communication goes upto 4000kms. The equipment used in the aircraft for long communication,
is the HF transceiver. This equipment is normally duplicated in aircraft, one for the ATC and
other is for company (operators) purpose.
The frequency range of operation of the HF transceivers is 2MHz to 30MHz. The transmission
mode is the Amplitude Modulated (AM) utilizing single side band, the upper side board (USB).
The power output of the HF is about 400W on voice peaks, given voice ranges upto 200 nautical
meters when in good condition.

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FIG 12: TYPICAL HF RADIO PANEL
SELECTIVE CALLING (SELCAL) SYSTEM
This system allows calling to be selective. It implies that it is possible to select and call a
particular airplane alerting only the pilot. This is achievable using code which required turned
frequency for operation. The codes are known as Selcal code. This code is normally 4-letter
code. There are about 10,920 combinations from where the 4-letter code can be obtained.
These codes are assigned only to air carriers. They are not used by ATC. The Selcal is operative
in both HF and VHF.
In the air carrier, the pilot is visibly and audibly alerted by the Selcal. The visual alert is by
flashing light, while the audio alert is by two tone chime.
The Selcal has the advantage of relieving the pilot from continuously monitoring of the
communication channels.
SHORT RANGE COMMUNICATION.
The range from land of short range communication goes upto 450kms. The band of frequency of
operation is VHF band and use VHF equipment for it to function in the aircraft. The VHF device
used for short range communication has the VHF controller available to flight crew. There could
be as many as three VHF transceivers in a said airplane. The frequency range is typically
118MHz to 137 MHz.
The type of transmission is the Amplitude Modulated (AM). The output power is about 25watts.
The range is upto 220 to 250 nautical miles at jet arising levels.

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FIG. 13
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION (SATCOM)
This type of communication has the advantage of not being affected by nature, say oceans or
unpopulated areas as with HF and VHF communications. By this the satellite communication is
able is overcome the deficiencies of HF and VHF communication.
An internationally owned cooperative namely international Maritime satellite organisation

(Immarsat) maintains a number of geostationary satellite in orbit. These satellite, other than some
other functions, are able to provide operational services and passenger telephone facilities to
aeronautical users.
The satellite communication has the disadvantage if not being able to cover poplar areas.
However more areas are cover with high flying. 20 to 30 may be gain with high flying.
INTERPHONE AND PASSENGER ADDRESS SYSTEM
This includes both announcements and inflight entertainment. The extent and composition
depends on sophistication and size of aircraft
However, there is an order of priority. This implies the one which information is of the greatest
importance at a given time.
The order is thus:-
Flight crew

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Cabin crew
Pre-recorded
Boarding Music
All public address audio broadcast over speaker takes priority.
COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER (CVR)
This is also radio equipment and a communication device. It is designed and used in cockpit to
record audio information between flight and any other and within flight crew in the cockpit.
The CVR is one of the favorite media Black Box. The true colour is day glow orange and
normally housed in the most survivable part of the aircraft. Most of the it is housed in the tail
section which is often considered as the most survivable section of the aircraft.
The CVR is designed to survive high impact, extremely high temperature and long time
immersion in sea water.
The international requirement is that the last 30minutes of flight deck communication (internal or
external) and ambient noise will be retained in an endless magnetic tape.
There are facilities for listening to the recorded information. These facilities are not everywhere.
It is necessary to take the CVR to a dedicated workshop to be able obtain the information therein.
The tape is a 4-track one. Tracks 2 and 3 has the best integrity, the recording unto the tape is by
an area microphone mounted on the top center of the instrument deck. The erasing method of the
CVR is the bulk type erasing. However it must be noted that certain conditions must be met
before the bulk head can operate.
The other media favorite blade box is the flight data recorder. It is treated in advanced Radio.

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RADIO NAVIGATION
The earlier part of air transport aeroplane depends majorly on morse code to obtain what was
then known as Radio beam for navigation. This system required only low frequency receiver
and well trained ear. This made it difficult as the safety of the aeroplane was threatened (which
human ear is termed well trained)
Moreover, it is well known that aeroplane could be really useful as a means of transportation if it
could fly from point to point even when ground is not visible. This is possible by Radio
navigation. Consequently, other than determining position, Radio navigation is means of
establishing electronic path through the sky.
Requirements for an Electronic Navigation System
(1) The system (both airborne and ground equipment) must be highly sensitive
(2) The system must be simple to use
(3) The system must allow maximum utilization of available airspace.
Non Directional Beacons (NDB)
These refer to low/medium frequency transmitter placed throughout the world for the purpose of
aeronautics. They are placed to aid navigation of aircrafts in flight. They operate within an
assigned frequency band. The band extends from 190KHz to 1750KHz. However, practically,
the band in use is 200KHz to 400KHz.
The power level of NDBs ranges from few watts to kilowatts depending on range of a said
Beacon.
It should be noted that the performance of the Beacon is the same for Day and for night.
However, it is not the same oversea and overland.
During the Day ranges of transmission is up to 430miles over the sea and 330 mile over the land
During the night, it is 160 miles and 125 miles over the sea and over the land respectively. It is
worthy of note that when NDBs are used or installed in the extended Runway center line to aid
final approach, it is referred to as LOCATAR.
AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER (ADF)
Its action is automatic direction finding. This direction finding is achieved by intersection of two
bearings resulting from Non Directional Beacons. The ADF is said to be a means of a

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determinethe bearing of two Radio transmitters in a known position or the surface of the earth.
The Radio transmitters are the resulting transmission from the NDB’s.
The frequency of operation of the ADF is 200 KHz to 1600KHz. It has two AERIALS VIZ
LOOP AND SENSE AERIAL. The two aerials are used to improve further the efficiency of the
ADF. The aerials are however used selectively one at a time.
The ADF information is displayed in the aircraft on the Remote Bearing indicator (RBI). This
display information is consequent to the loop antenna of ADF only. The loop aerial is
responsible for definite direction information.
How to Use the ADF
The ADF information relates to the nose of the aircraft. With the nose of the aircraft in the
desired direction the KDF indicator will read zero.
To use the system therefore, the desire station is first selected. The desired station is identified
by its call signal. Thereafter turn the aircraft until the indicator read zero suggesting the aircraft
is in the desired direction.
VHF Omni Range (VOR)
This is a navigation aid considered to be the worldwide standard short range navigation aid. The
frequency of operation of the VOR is 108MHz to 117.95MHz. They are generally two types of
VOR, viz conventional VOR (CVOR) and Doppler VOR (DVOR). These VORS are generally
compactable. However, the following explanation applies to CVOR.
The principle of operation of the VOR is based on the use of two signals, REFERENCE SIGNAL
AND BEARING SIGNAL. This is achievable by using two different types of modulation for the
signals. A 30Hz frequency modulated signal is used as the reference signal while a 30Hz
amplitude modulated signal is used as the bearing signal. The reference signal does not vary, but
the bearing signal varies at the different bearings. See diagram.
The frequency modulated signal and the amplitude modulated signal are made to be in phase at
the magnetic north; bearing 000. At other bearing the phase difference equivalent to angular
displacements from the magnetic north (000 bearing) is measured. Thus a bearing is determined.
In the east, south and west, the bearing signal will have phase difference of 900; 1800 and 2700
respectively which implies magnetic bearing of 090, 180 and 270 radials respectively. These
magnetic bearing are referred to as RADIALS.

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FIG. 14
The VOR information is displayed on Radio magnetic indicator (RMI) and Horizontal Situation
Indicator (HSF).
How TO Use the VOR
This system has a selector dedicated to it known as omni Range Bearing selector (OBS). OBS is
a means of operating and using the VOR. Each indication of the VOR shows how far away or
towards the VOR clockwise from the magnetic north. The VOR indicator is not affected by
aircraft heading.
Instrument Landing System (ILS)
This is the term used to describe Radio guidance systems used to achieve safe Landing during
poor visibility and low cloud conditions. This guidance system includes
1. Localizer
2. Glided slope.

AVIONICS SYSTEM
Localizer;
This is a system which beams out its signals horizontally about the runway using lobe principle.
This beaming and consequently, radiation pattern is such that the course is 100 either side of the
Runway centre time. It is able to cover a distance about 25 nautical miles.
For this system, two overlapping beams are radiated from one transmitter. The area of common
overlapping defines the extended centre lime of the Runway. The system operates based on
measurement of modulation depth difference between two frequencies. These frequencies refer
to the frequencies of the overlapping lobe. The frequency is normal modulated 150Hz and 90Hz.
The lobe with 150Hz frequency in normally to the right of the Runway centre line with the 90Hz
lobe is to the left.
The localizer is located at the upper end of the Runway. It transmits in the frequency range of
108MHz and 111.95MHz in the VHF band. See Figure below.
FIG. 15: Runway Plan view illustrating localizer Principles
Glide Slope
This again is a system which beams out its signals vertically off the Runway using lobe
principles. Also for this system two overlapping lobes are radiated from one transmitter. The
overlapping area defines the preferred glide path. It operates based on the measurement of
modulation difference between two frequencies. Again these frequencies are 90Hz and 150Hz.
These are the modulated frequencies of the upper and the lower lopes respectively radiated
vertically by the glide slope system.

AVIONICS SYSTEM
It operates in the UHF frequency band and it is paired with VHF localizer. Once the localizer is
tuned, the glide slope tunes automatically and at same time with localizer. Glide slope transmitter
is located near the threshold of the Runway.
It covers a distance of about 10 nautical miles from the Runway threshold (touch down point)
and brings an aircraft to an approach angle between 20 to 40 but typically 3 degrees.
It is worthy of note here that in preference Localizer is normally captured before glide slop see
figure below.
FIG. 16: SIDE ELEVATION OF RUNWAY APPROACH PATH
Marker Beacon
This system is used in association with the instrument landing system to indicate distance from
the threshold of a Runway. It radiates signal vertically and it is meant to cover the localized
main beam. It is transmitted at a frequency of 75MHz.
The very popular installation includes outer and middle markers.
The receiver of the marker beacon signal in the aircraft is a tuned frequency Receiver. See figure
.

AVIONICS SYSTEM
FIG. 17: MARKER BEACONS
The system other than audio alert has also visual alert facility. The visual are lamps with colour
making. There are thus
(1) Outer, Blue light is illuminated
(2) Middle, amber light is illuminated
(3) Inner, while light is illuminated.
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
While VOR provides track guidance to aircrafts destination, Distance Measuring Equipment is a
means of determining and possibly fixing the aircraft position along track. With distance
measuring equipment, it is possible to determine the distance a said aircraft is toward a runway.
The DME is a form of secondary Radar. Its frequency band is 960MHZ to 1215MHZ in the
UHF band. Its signals are normally vertically polarized. The range the DME covers varies with
the height of the aircraft. The DME information is displayed in the aircraft on a DME indicator.
The DME is located most of the time in the same site with VOR. Selection of VOR
automatically selects it.
Generally, the VOR and the DME are known as the two approved short range Navigation aid for
the world’s airways.

AVIONICS SYSTEM
RADAR
Originally, RADAR was developed to detect hostile aircrafts in airspace. This detection was
achieved by transmitting RF energy and receiving the reflected energy. By this action range is
also determined. This implies that RADAR detects and gives Range suggesting the name
RADIO DETECTION AND RANGING.
There are two types of Radar;
(1) Primary RADAR
(2) Secondary RADAR
Primary RADAR
This is the type of transceiver which transmits and receives either continues or short pulse Radio
frequency (RF) energy relying on reflected energy for confirmation of functionality and result.
Examples of primary RADAR includes weather Radar, Doppler VOR and Radio altimeter.
Secondary RADAR
This is also a transceiver which detection is by means of stimulated/response relying on replies

for confirmation of functionality and result. All secondary Radar are pulse system. Examples
are ATS transponder, modex transponder, TCAS, DME etc. TCAS = Traffic Collision and
Avoidance System
The range of frequency is 3KHz to 300GHz. Airborn Radar equipment operates on frequency
band of 1GHz to 15GHz and is known as centimetricRADAR. Recent development of RADAR
is employing widely pulse modulated techniques.
Requirements of A pulse modulated RADAR system
A RADAR installation must be able to detect targets, at distances and provide information on
their Ranges, bearing and height. To be able to achieve these, RADAR installation must have
the following units functioning as stated below:
1. Transmitter
This must be able to produce and transmit short – duration pulses.
2. Aerial system
This is must be able to produce narrow beam of RF energy having the capability of
being used for scanning

AVIONICS SYSTEM
3. Sensitive Receiver:
This must be capable of receiving and amplifying very weak signal
4. An Indicator:
This must be able to display information explicitly.
Factors Affecting RADAR
1. External Noise:
This results from motors, generator, and other transmitters. etc.
2. Reflection from unwanted object;
This refers to any disturbance other than the desired target. However, atmospheric
distance has little or no effect on the RADAR system
3. Target Characteristic:
This refers to target material, shape and size. Depending on the material signal may be
absorbed or reflected. Shape also affects reflection. Depending on shape reflected signal may
not return to the desired place. The amount of reflection is dependent on size of target.
Weather Radar (WXR)
This Radar is a primary RADAR. It is put on aircraft to check weather and anticipate turbulence.
It suffices therefore to say that the weather RADAR purpose and function is to detect and display
the conditions involving cells and rainfall gradients in such a way as to allow the pilot to asses
the probability of turbulence associated with such condition.
This system as good as it is, requires some level of skill and experience to be able to anticipate
turbulence correctly. However, there are three things which must be displayed to facilitate
anticipation. They are:
(1) Range
(2) Bearing
(3) Signal Intensity
Other feature which makes operation easier and friendly are;
(1) Contour

AVIONICS SYSTEM
(2) Range selector
(3) Range and Bearing markers
(4) Antenna tilt
(5) Antenna Stabilization.
Weather RADAR can be display either on real time bases or non real time.
When display is on the plan position indicator, (PPI) it is normally real time.
When display is on TV, it is not real time. Information is first sent to memory before the
relevant display.
It suffices to state that the weather radar can be display on either
(1) Plan position indicator or
(2) TV display.


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NIGERIAN COLLEGE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY, ZARIA

AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE ENGINEERING SCHOOL

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

VHF Omni Range (VOR)

Instrument Loading System (ILS)

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

ISSUE: 1 REV:1 PAGE 2 2015

Inertial Navigation System (INS)

Global Positioning System (GPS)

Ground Proximity wiring System (GPWS)

Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)

Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)

However, whether communication or Navigation both depend on certain equipment to function.

FUNDAMENTALS OF EM WAVE (RADIO WAVES)

Electromagnetic waves popularly known as EM waves consists of oscillating Electric and

ISSUE: 1 REV:1 PAGE 3 2015

1. Radio waves travel at the speed of light in a vacuum.

Speed of light (c) = 300,000,000M/S or 3 X 108 M/S

c=v=f. OR 300 X 106 M/S

c=f where b speed of light, f frequency and f wave length

There is minor variation in speed of EM waves with changes in medium.

2. EM waves are made up of electric field and magnetic field

ISSUE: 1 REV:1 PAGE 4 2015

5. The plane of polarization refers to the Electric field direction.

FREQUENCY AND WAVE LENGTH RELATIONSHIP

The relationship is given thus

Where V = speed of EM wave

PHASE ANGLE AND PHASE DIFFERENCE

ISSUE: 1 REV:1 PAGE 5 2015

Audio frequency 20HZ - 20KHZ between 15 – 15, KM

V.Low Frequency 10KHZ - 10 – 30KM

Low frequency 30KHZ - 1 – 10KM

HF - 3MH - 30MHZ 100 – 100cm

VHF - 30MHz - 1m - 10m

UHF - 300MHz - 3GHz - 10cm–100m

SHF - 3GHz - 30GHz 1cm -10cm

EHF - 30GHz - 300Hz 1mm-1cm.

PROPAGATION OF RADIO WAVES

1. Ground or surface wave

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GROUND OR SURFACE WAVE

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Modulation is therefore defined as a technique employed when a signal of one frequency is

CARRIER WAVE OR SIGNAL

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There are various types of modulation. The types are;

1. Amplitude Modulated (AM)

2. Frequency Modulated (FM)

AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)

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1. The basic frequency

2. The sum of the carrier modulation frequency

3. The difference between carrier and modulation frequency

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Frequency modulation has the advantage of no intrusive noise.

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These listed transducers are commonly used in aircraft radio communication.

This is also a transducer. It changes electrical energy to electromagnetic or electromagnetic to

ISSUE: 1 REV:1 PAGE 122015

These are basically three types of aerial namely:-

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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A BASIC TRANSMITTER

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