Biology - Notes

Class Combined & Coordinated Sciences

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Teacher Dr. Anushree Mekal

Cells and Organisms

Characteristics of living organisms

MRS GREN

Movement

All organisms are able to move to some extent

Respiration

All organisms break down glucose and other substances inside their
cells, to release that they can use

Sensitivity

All organisms pick up information about changes in their

environment, and react to these changes

Growth

All organisms begin small and get larger, by the growth of their cells
and by adding new cells to their bodies

Increase in size or dry mass

Reproduction

Organisms are able to make new organisms of the same species as

themselves

Excretion

Biology - Notes 1
 Organisms remove the metabolic wastes from their body

Nutrition

Organisms take substances from their environment and use them to

provide energy or materials to make new cells

Cell Structure

Cells

The smallest units from which all organisms are made

All cells are made from existing cell

New cell is made when a grown one divides

Types of organisms

Multicellular

Made of more than one cell

Unicellular

Made up of a single cell

Microscopes

Image Size (I)

Image you see after it is magnified

Actual / Real Size (A)

The actual size of the subject, without magnification

Magnification

The scale factor by which the actual size is magnified

Formula

I = AM

Cell Organelles (Parts of a cell)

Cell membrane

Found in all cells

Thin layer of protein and fat

Controls what goes in and out of the cell (partially permeable)

Biology - Notes 2
 Separates the contents of the cell from its surroundings

Pressed tight against cell wall

Cell wall

Found only in plant cells

Tough layer outside the cell membrane, usually made up of cellulose

(polysaccharide)

Cellulose - Polymer

Glucose - Monomer

Fully permeable

Fibres which criss-cross over one another

Maintains the cell’s shape (supports the cell)

Prevents the cell from bursting if it absorbs water and swells up

(turgidity)

Cytoplasm

Found in all cells

Clear jelly that fills up the cell

Nearly all water

Contains substances dissolved in it

Metabolic reaction take place in the cytoplasm

Metabolic reactions are the chemical reactions that take place in

living organisms

Large Vacuole

Found only in plant cells

Fluid-filled

Contains cell sap

Has it’s own membrane

When full, presses outwards on the cell, helping to keep it’s shape

Vesicles

Biology - Notes 3
 Found only in animal cells

Animal cell version of vacuole

Contains solutions

Nucleus

Found in all cells

Contains genetic material

Chromosomes (inherited) made up from DNA

Controls the activities of the cell

Chloroplasts

Found only in plant cells

Contains chlorophyll which absorbs sunlight and makes food for the
plant by photosynthesis

Mitochondria

Found in all cells

Where aerobic respiration happens

Ribosomes

Found in all cells

Site of protein synthesis

Bacterial Cells

Cell wall made up of peptidoglycan

Have cytoplasm and ribosomes

Don’t have mitochondria or chloroplasts

Are prokaryotic cells

Prokaryote

Cells without a nucleus

Eukaryote

Cells with a nucleus

Has DNA but not bound in a nucleus (Circular DNA)

Biology - Notes 4
 Has plasmids

Extra DNA

Specialised Cells

Cells made to specifically carry out a function and are modified (adapted) to
do so

Organisation

Cells

The smallest units from which all organisms are made

Tissues

A group of the same type of cell to carry out one function in an organ

Organs

A group of tissues to carry out a function together

Organ Systems

A group of organs to complete one key function of the body

Movement into and out of cells

Diffusion

Net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region

of lower concentration (down a concentration gradient), as a result of their
random movement

Net movement

Overall or average movement

Concentration gradient

An imaginary slope from a high concentration to a low concentration

Occurs in liquids and gases

Factors that affect the rate of diffusion

Concentration Gradient

The greater the difference in concentration between two areas, the

faster the rate of diffusion.

Biology - Notes 5
 Temperature

As temperature increases, the kinetic energy of particles also

increases. This makes them move faster, increasing the rate of
diffusion.

Surface Area

A larger surface area allows for more particles to diffuse at once,

thereby speeding up the rate of diffusion.

Distance

The shorter the distance that particles have to move, the faster the
rate of diffusion.

Particle Mass

Lighter particles tend to diffuse faster than heavier particles

Osmosis

Definitions

General: The diffusion of water molecules through a partially permeable

membrane

In terms of water potential: Net movement of water molecules from a

region of higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower
water potential (concentrated solution) through a partially permeable
membrane

Partially permeable membrane has holes big enough to only let water pass
through and not bigger molecules

Biology - Notes 6
 Water Potential

The amount of water molecules in an area or solution

High water potential

An area where there are relatively lot of water molecules (dilute

solution)

Low water potential

An area where there are relatively not many water molecules

(concentrated solution)

Water potential gradient

Difference in water potential between two areas

Osmosis and plant cells

Water in cells

Turgid

A state of a plant cell that is tight and firm due to high water
pressure

Turgor pressure

Biology - Notes 7
 The pressure of the water pushing outwards on a plant cell
wall

Flaccid

A state of a plant cell that has lost it’s turgor pressure and is soft
and has lost it’s firmness

Plasmolysed

When a cell membrane tears away from the cell wall due to
flaccidity

Active Transport

The movement of molecules or ions through a cell membrane from a region

of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration (against a
concentration gradient) using energy from respiration

How it happens

Molecules or ions that need to pass through the cell membrane against
the concentration gradient will enter a carrier protein, which changes
shape to push the ion or molecule into or out of the cell

Carrier protein (protein carriers)

Protein molecules in cell membranes that can use energy to change

shape and move ions or molecules into or out of a cell

Biological Molecules
Carbohydrates, fats and proteins

Body Composition

Component Percentage of body mass

Water 62%

Carbohydrates 1%

Fats 16%

Proteins 16%

Calcium, phosphorus (mostly in bones)

5%
and other elements

Carbohydrates

Biology - Notes 8
 Substances that include

Sugars

Simplest type of molecule

Taste sweet

Soluble in water

Reducing sugars can be detected with Benedict’s solution

Reducing sugars

A sugar such as glucose that turns Benedict’s solution

orange-red when they are heated together

Benedict’s solution

Blue solution that turns orange-red when they are

heated together

Types of sugars

Glucose

Used in respiration to release energy

6 Carbon atoms, 12 Hydrogen atoms, 6 Oxygen atoms

Atoms arranged to form hexagon shape

The form in which carbohydrates are transported around

the human body

Dissolves in blood plasma

Required by cells to produce energy

Molecules can link together in chains to form glycogen

Used as an energy store in animals

Molecules can link together in a different way to form

starch

Starch

Used as an energy store in plant cells

Can be broken down to form glucose again when the plant

needs it

Biology - Notes 9
 Can be detected using iodine solution

A solution of iodine in potassium iodine

Orange-brown

Blue-black in the presence of starch

Cellulose

Carbohydrate molecules are made up of

Carbon

Hydrogen

Oxygen

Fats and oils

Also known as lipids

Substances that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

Insoluble in water

Used as energy stores in organisms

Dissolve in ethanol

Fats

Lipids that are solid at room temperature

Oils

Lipids that are liquid at room temperature

Can be tested with ethanol emulsion

A liquid containing 2 substances that do not fully mix; one of them

forms tiny droplets dispersed throughout the other

Protein

Molecules contain 4 elements

Carbon

Hydrogen

Oxygen

Nitrogen

Biology - Notes 10
 Sulphur (only some)

Made up of a long chain of smaller molecules called amino acids

Substances with molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

and nitrogen

20 different amino acids

Each kind of protein has different amino acids in a specific order

Functions

Enzymes are proteins (catalysts for biological reactions)

Antibodies are proteins (help the body against pathogens)

Molecules secreted by WBCs, bind to pathogens and destroy

them

Pathogens

Microorganisms, such as bacteria, that cause disease

Haemoglobin are proteins (red pigment that transports oxygen in

mammalian blood)

Important for forming cell membranes in all organisms

Keratin is a protein

Makes up hair and fingernails

Proteins can be tested with biuret reagent

Blue

Changes to violet (purple) in presence of proteins

Enzymes
Proteins that are involved in all metabolic reactions, where they function as
biological catalysts

Catalysts

Substances that increases the rate of a chemical reaction and is not

changed by the reaction

Enzymes

Amylase

Biology - Notes 11
 Catalyses the breakdown of starch to maltose

Protease

Catalyses the breakdown of protein to amino acids

Catalase

Catalyses the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen

Carbohydrases

Break down carbohydrates

Lipases

Break down lipids (fats and oils)

Maltase

Catalyses the breakdown of maltose to glucose

Sucrase

Breaks down sucrose

Substrate

The substance that an enzyme causes to react

Specificity

Of enzymes; able to act only on a particular (specific) substrate

Enzyme-substrate complex

The short-lived (temporary) structure formed as the substrate binds

temporarily to the active site of the enzyme

How enzymes work

Each enzyme has a very specific shape with a ‘dent’ in it, according to
it’s substrate

The ‘dent’ is called an active site

The part of an enzyme molecule to which the substrate

temporarily binds

The shape of the enzyme and the shape of the substrate are
complementary to each other

Complementary

Biology - Notes 12
 With a perfect mirror-image

Once the enzyme and substrate are bound the enzyme, the enzyme
changes the substrate into a new substance called the product

Product

The new substance formed by a chemical reaction

Once this process is complete. the enzyme has detached from the
product and is free to move on to another substrate molecule and repeat
the process

Factors that affect enzymes

Temperature

Enzymes work best, fastest and most efficiently at optimum temperature

for that enzyme (the temperature at which the enzyme’s activity is the
greatest)

As temperature increases, enzymes get more kinetic energy, leading to

more collisions with substrates which leads to more and increases
enzyme activity

Denaturation

When an enzyme cannot catalyse it’s reaction

High temperatures may stop the enzyme from working (when it is

past it’s optimum temperature, to the point of denaturation)

When the temperature is too high, kinetic energy begins to

shake the enzyme apart. The enzyme deforms (changes shape)
and is no longer complementary to the substrate

Optimum Temperatures

Humans - 37 C

Bacteria - Up to 80 C

Many Enzymes - Under 60 C

pH

Enzymes work best, fastest and most efficiently at optimum pH for that
enzyme (the pH at which the enzyme’s activity is the greatest)

Denaturation

Biology - Notes 13
 When an enzyme cannot catalyse it’s reaction

When an enzyme is placed in a liquid which is not it’s optimum pH, it

may stop functioning as it is damaged, and will get denatured

Optimum pH

Most Enzymes - Around pH 7

Enzyme in acidic conditions of human stomach - Around pH 2

Plant Nutrition
Photosynthesis

Process by which plants synthesis carbohydrates from raw materials using

energy from light

Word Equation

Chemical Equation

Chlorophyll

Green pigment present in chloroplasts

In the chloroplasts water and carbon dioxide react together to make

carbohydrates and oxygen

Able to capture energy from sunlight

Passes (transfers) the energy to carbon dioxide and water to make

them react and produce glucose and oxygen

Glucose contains some of the energy captured from sunlight

Transferred energy in sunlight to energy in carbohydrates

How a plant uses carbohydrates

Biology - Notes 14
 Releases oxygen into the atmosphere (or water if it is aquatic)

Glucose used to carry out activities in the plant

Move mineral ions into the root hairs (active transport)

To build protein molecules from amino acids, for growth

Respiration

Storing of carbohydrates

Converts glucose to starch to store

Starch

Many glucose molecules linked together

Insoluble in water (do not get involved in chemical reactions taking

place)

Do not affect concentrations of solutions

Can be quickly and easily be broken down into glucose for use

Transport

Converts into sucrose to transport

Sucrose

Carried from one part to another inside phloem tubes

Fructose molecules linked together

Can be changed back to glucose when required

Cell Walls

Becomes cellulose

Glucose molecules linked in a long chain

Polymer is cellulose

Monomer is glucose

Attract Pollinators

Becomes nectar

Nectar

Biology - Notes 15
 Sweet liquid secreted by insect pollinated flowers to attract their
pollinators

Contains different kind of sugars (made from glucose)

Making amino acids to make proteins

Glucose used to make amino acids which link to make protein

Leaves

Have vascular Bundles

Collection of xylem tubes and phloem vessels running side by side to

carry substances to and from the leaf

Large surface area

Allows large amounts of sunlight to fall on the leaf in order to maximise

photosynthesis

Increases the rate at which carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf from the
air

Very thin

Sunlight can pass through it, allowing many cells to photosynthesise

Tissues (cell groups) in the cross-section of a leaf

Factors that affect photosynthesis

Supply of raw materials (carbon dioxide and water)

Quantity of sunlight (provides energy for the reactions)

The temperature (affects the activity of enzymes)

Experiments (ATP)
How surface area affects diffusion

Pieces of alkaline agar jelly to represent cells

Measure time taken for 8 small cubes to change colour when places in an
indicator vs when 1 big cube (both have the same total volume)

How temperature, concentration gradient and distance affect diffusion

Use alkaline agar jelly and indicator

Biology - Notes 16
 Change independent variable accordingly

Temperature

Temperature of alkaline indicator

Concentration Gradient

Concentration of alkaline indicator

Distance

Distance of indicator from central spot on jelly

Effect of osmosis on potato strips

Peel large potato (sharp knife)

Use cork borer to make cylinders

Use ruler to measure (in mm) and make sure all cylinders are of same length

Pour distilled water in one beaker, dilute sugar solution in another and
concentrated sugar solution in another

Place 2 potato cylinders in each beaker (2 for good measure) for 20 minutes

Remeasure length of each potato strip and observe change

Testing for carbohydrates

Testing for starch

Take small piece of food and place it on a white tile

Test with iodine solution

If there is a colour change from yellow-brown to blue-black, there is

starch present

Testing for reducing sugars

Cut food into small pieces and mix with a little water and shake the tube

Add enough Benedict’s solution to cover the food and shake

Stand tube in boiling water bath

Watch as the solution heats up, if Benedict’s solution turns from blue to
red, there is reducing sugars in the food

Testing for fats and oils

Biology - Notes 17
 Cut food into very small pieces

Put pieces into clean test-tube and add ethanol

Put distilled water in another test tube

Put the ethanol from 1st test tube into test tube with distilled water (make
sure no food goes in)

If there is milky white colour appearing, there is fat in the food

Testing for proteins

Cut food into small pieces

Put food in test tube

Mix with biuret reagent solution

If the colour changes from blue to violet, there is protein present in the
food

Investigating the effect of pH on catalase

Biology - Notes 18
Biology - Notes 19
 Investigating the effect of carbon dioxide on photosynthesis

Biology - Notes 20