CHAPTER 10: SUBJECTIVE FACTORS CONTRIBUTORY TO CRIME

I. MODULE TITLE: THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

II. LESSON TITLE: SUBJECTIVE FACTORS CONTRIBUTORY TO CRIME

III. LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of this lesson, you will learn about the subjective factors that
contribute to crime.

A. How does inherited traits contribute to criminality?

B. How does hormonal imbalance contribute to criminality?

C. How does physical abnormality contribute to criminality?

D. How does mental disorder contribute to criminality?

E. How does substance abuse contribute to criminality?

F. How does intelligence contribute to criminality?

G. How does diet and malnutrition contribute to criminality?

H. How does sex and gender preference contribute to criminality?

IV. INTRODUCTION: This lesson will cover those subjective factors like inherited traits, hormonal
imbalance, physical abnormalities, mental disorder, substance abuse, intelligence, diet and malnutrition, sex
and gender preference, utilization of talent and skills.

V. LESSON CONTENT:
How does inherited traits contribute to criminality?

Inheritance as a factor in criminality may be considered under two heads:

(a) the direct inheritance of criminalistic traits in otherwise normal individuals;
(b) the indirect inheritance of criminalistic tendencies through such heritable factors as epilepsy, insanity,
feeblemindedness, etc.

The first should include only those cases in which the traits
themselves are primarily crininalistic, while the second
comprises those in which certain inherited qualities of body
or mind, not antisocial in themselves, produce criminals
when ill proportioned to other characteristics in the same
individual, or ill adjusted to environment. Thus a feeble-
minded individual may show no delinquent tendencies if
sufficiently protected, but placed on his own resources in
society, he soon finds his way to the police court

How does hormonal imbalance contribute to criminality?

Many different hormones can influence several types of

behavior, but for the purpose of this module, we will restrict
our discussion to just a few examples of hormones and
behaviors. To understand the hormone-behavior relationship,
it is important briefly to describe hormones. Hormones are
organic chemical messengers produced and released by
specialized glands called endocrine glands. Hormones are
released from these glands into the blood, where they may
travel to act on target structures at some distance from their origin. Hormones are similar in function to
neurotransmitters, the chemicals used by the nervous system in coordinating animals’ activities. Hormones are
secreted from the glands of the endocrine system, they are specific in that each hormone causes a response in a
specific target organ or group of cells, rather than on the body as a whole. Exocrine hormones are secreted via a duct
into the blood and usually effect a distant organ or tissue. Endocrine hormones are secreted within the tissue (rather
than via a duct) and enter the blood stream via capillaries.
Hormones can be grouped into three main types:

1. amines, these are simple molecules

2. proteins and peptides which are made from chains of amino acids
3. steroids which are derived from cholesterol.

Glands discharge hormones directly into the bloodstream. They have built in feedback mechanisms that maintain a
proper balance of hormones, and prevent excess hormone secretion. Low concentrations of a hormone will often
trigger the gland to secrete. Once the concentrations of the hormone in the blood rise this may cause the gland to
stop secreting, until once again hormone concentrations fall. This feedback mechanism (which is characteristic of
most glands) causes a cycle of hormone secretions.

Disposal of waste.
Once hormones have served their function on their target organs/tissues they are destroyed. They are either
destroyed by the liver or the actual tissues of the target organs. They are then removed by the kidneys.

The Pituitary Gland

This is known as the "master gland" because it exerts control over all of the other glands of the endocrine system.
Despite its importance the pituitary gland is no larger than a small pea. The Pituitary gland is made up of two
separate glands: the Anterior lobe which is an outgrowth of the pharynx, and the Posterior lobe which is an
outgrowth of the brain composed of neural (nerve) tissue.

The Anterior Lobe of the pituitary plays the 'master' role secreting six major hormones that affect most of the body,
including the other Endocrine glands:

ACTH (Adrenocorticotrophic hormone) stimulates the adrenal glands to secrete its hormones.
hGH (Human growth hormone) also known as somatotrophic hormone is responsible for the growth of long bones,
muscles and viscera.
TSH (Thyroid stimulating hormone) influences the structure of the thyroid and causes it to secrete thyroid hormone.
FSH (Follicle stimulating hormone) stimulates female egg production or male sperm production.
PRL (Prolactin) in females causes the corpus luteum the area around the mature follicle to produce two important
hormones: Oestrogen and Progesterone. During pregnancy PRL is also responsible for the development of the
glandular tissues of the breast which produce milk.
LH (Luteinzing hormone) works in conjunction with FSH in females to cause ovulation and prepares the uterus for
pregnancy, in males the testes to secrete testosterone.
The Posterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland (or neurophpophysis) stores and releases hormones secreted by the
hypothalamus section of the brain including:

ADH (Antidiuretic hormone) stimulates the smooth muscles, blood vessels and the intestine. ADH increases the
kidney's permeability to water allowing the body to re-absorb water that would otherwise escape in urine.
OT (Oxytocin) stimulates the smooth muscles of the uterus during pregnancy, causing it to contract during labour. It
also stimulates the lacteals (milk ducts) in the breast.

The Thyroid gland

The thyroid is a butterfly shaped gland which is located at the base of the throat . It has two lobes separated in the
middle by a strip of tissue (the isthmus). The Thyroid itself secretes three main hormones:

Thyroxine contains iodine which is essential for the body's normal growth, and metabolism. Thyroxine helps control
body size, regulating not only the growth of tissues but also the differentiation or specialisation of tissues.
Triiodothyronine has similar functions to thyroxine.
Calcitonin causes a decrease in the concentration of calcium in the blood. Calcitonin works with secretions from the
parathyroid glands to maintain the balance of calcium necessary for the body to function.
People who have surgery to remove the thyroid gland (thyroidectomy) for cancer or other thyroid problems usually
need to take thyroxine supplements in order to maintain normal weigh and body functions.

The Parathyroids
There are four Parathyroid glands which are small and rounded, arranged in two pairs usually located above and
below the thyroid. Each Parathyroid is small, yellow and smooth, sometimes they imbed themselves in the thyroid
itself.

Parathyroid hormone increases the blood concentrations of calcium and phosphorous, working to balance the
Calcitonin which is secreted by the thyroid to maintain the body's balance of calcium.

The Pancreas
The pancreas is a long, narrow, lobed gland located behind the stomach. The Pancreas has two types of cells:
exocrine and endocrine cells. The exocrine cells secrete Pancreatic juices which are used in the duodenum as an
important part in the digestive system. The endocrine cells are arranged in clusters throughout the Pancreas, these
known as Islets of Langerhans . There are three types of endocrine cells; alpha cells which secrete glucagon, beta
cells which secrete insulin, and delta cells which inhibit the secretion on glucagon and insulin:

Glucagon increases the blood glucose level by stimulating the liver causing convert Glycogen into Glucose (sugar).
Insulin increases the cells permeability to glucose, which the cells use for energy. By promoting the utilisation of
glucose by the tissue cells, insulin causes a decrease in the concentration of glucose in the blood. Insulin also
promotes the storage of glycogen in the liver.

The Adrenal Glands

The adrenal glands resemble small caps perched on top of each kidney. The Adrenal is actually a combination of
two glands the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla.

The adrenal cortex is essential for life, as opposed to the adrenal medulla which is important but not indispensable.
The anterior pituitary controls the adrenal cortex by secreting the hormone ACTH. All of the secretions of the
adrenal cortex are known as steroids, many of which can now be manufactured synthetically. The adrenal cortex is
made up of three layers associated with three classes of hormones:

Mineralocorticoids are produced by the outer layer of the adrenal cortex, the most important of which is aldosterone.
Aldosterone promotes the retention of sodium (Na+) and the excretion of potassium (K+). This helps to maintain
both the electrolyte and water content of the body.
Glucocorticoids are produced by the middle cortex. These affect almost every cell in the body regulating the
metabolism of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates. Cortisone is one such glucocorticoid.
Gonadal hormones are produced by the inner cortex, there are roughly even amounts of two types of hormones
secreted: Androgen (male) and Estrogen (female). The adrenal gland is not the only gland to secrete sex hormones.
The Adrenal Medulla is the inner part of the adrenal gland. The hormones secreted effect the structures in the body
that are under the control of the sympathetic nervous system, aiding the body to deal with stressful situations such as
fright, attack or pursuit. They are both associated with an increased heart beat, higher blood pressure, and higher
blood glucose levels, thus preparing the body for quick action.

Adrenalin (or epinephrine) affects both alpha and beta receptors in the nervous system.
Noradrenalin (Norepinephrine) affects only the alpha receptors of the nervous system.

The Gonads
The gonads consist of ovaries in the female and testes in the male. These glands produce hormones important in the
development and functioning of the reproductive organs. they are under the control of the pituitary gland, and
produce the secondary sexual traits.

Male testes are egg shaped glands located in the sac like scrotum, and serve two main functions: (i) The production
of sperm cells, and (ii) The secretion of testosterone. Testosterone is the masculizing hormone inducing male
secondary sexual characteristics after puberty.

Female ovaries are two almond shaped glands on each side of the uterus. They have three main functions; (i)
Containing immature ova (eggs), (ii) The secretion of oestrogen, and (ii) the secretion of progesterone. Ostrogen is
secreted by the adrenal cortex as well as the ovaries, and is present in the blood of all females from puberty through
to the menopause. oestrogen acts on the structure of the reproductive organs, especially during the menstrual cycle.
This induces and maintains female secondary sexual characteristics. Progesterone works on the uterus to prepare it
for the implantation of a fertilised ovum (egg). It causes the development of the breasts, and is essential for the
complete development of the maternal proportion of the placenta.

Giantism too much HGH is secreted before puberty.

Dwarfism is caused by a lack of HGH before puberty.
Diabetes Mellitus is a condition with under-secretion of insulin, causing the cells to loose their permeability to
glucose preventing them from getting sugar needed for energy. Sugar remains in the blood and often the body will
try and remove this leading to a high sugar content in the urine, causing polyuria (passing of large volumes of urine)
and polydipsia (excessive thirst).

How does physical abnormality contribute to criminality?

In the nineteenth century criminologists focused on the physical characteristics and sanity of an individual. They
believed it was "predetermined" or that people had no control over whether they would lead a life of crime. For
example, criminologists believed people with smaller heads, sloping foreheads, large jaws and ears, and certain
heights and weights had a greater chance to be criminals. Race was also a determining factor. Some criminologists
believed criminals were more like savages or primitive humans, and somehow less human than law-abiding citizens.

Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909), who believed some people were simply born criminals,
published a book in 1906 called Crime: Its Causes and Remedies. Though many of his theories about visible
physical traits were not supported by other criminologists, Lombroso did identify some traits still considered
important in the twenty-first century such as the occurrence of head injuries. Later research showed head injuries
often limited a person's ability to control violent outbursts.

How does mental disorder contribute to criminality?

Mental abnormality is an exaggeration of normal attitudes and

behavior. We all know people whom we consider over-
sensitive or over-critical, unduly suspicious or excessively
hostile and sarcastic, whom we recognize as too mild and meek
for their own good or as overly assertive and demanding, or
who are too much preoccupied with health and body functions,
who tend to over-worry, over-drink, over-smoke, who are
overactive or over-inhibited. We do not usually consider such
people abnormal. Where do we draw the line? The line can be,
and sometimes is, a thin one. The traits just listed are found in a varying extent in all of us. The difference is one of
degree. The abnormal person is suffering from an intensification of these traits.

Most behavior is designed to help the individual maintain or re-establish a physical and psychological equilibrium,
in response to the many stimuli which affect him both from within and from the outer environment. That is, behavior
always has a purpose. An example of a stimulus originating from within the person is hunger pangs. The individual
usually disposes of the tension created by this stimulus by eating and equilibrium is restored. An environmental
stimulus might be a sudden and unexpected verbal attack. "You are a good-for-nothing Scoundrel! I hate you! The
response is in the direction which the individual's previous experiences and estimate of the present situation suggest
will be most likely to bring the desired result-re-establishment of the earlier condition of balance. It may take the
form of a verbal counter-attack-"And you are a liar and a cheat!", submissive behavior- "Excuse me, I meant no
offense", flight from the scene, or something else. Each response points up the fact that though the desired end-result
is a common one the organism's effort to retrieve a balance-the behavior oriented toward this goal involves an
individual solution. This principle holds true for all activity, including that which to others may seem senseless, self-
destructive or without purpose. Some people persistently lie even when there is no advantage to be gained, except
for what it does to maintain a shaky inner feeling of self-esteem. Some "clever" criminals commit a stupid and
obvious blunder or return to the scene of their exploit or may do other things which seem senseless or self-
destructive. It makes sense when the individual's inner drives are uncovered, when we learn that the unconsciously
motivated need to be caught and punished are major factors leading to this particular criminal act. This is behavior
with a purpose! Children sometimes do this when they provoke their parents to the limit of endurance-"You're
asking for it!"-so that the latter finally will punish them. Then the child feels better-no more "guilty conscience"-the
balance has been restored. Efforts toward equilibrium may fail, but always the individual is doing the best he can,
given the existing circumstances and his own limited powers of adaptation. Some people are born with basically
restricted powers of adaptation because of inferior intelligence, birth abnormalities, or other factors. Others may
evolve poor adaptive resources, from a social point of view, because they have been so badly damaged emotionally
during their early most impressionable years that they have not learned how to cope satisfactorily with situations
with which others deal readily.

By abnormal people, then, we mean individuals whose attempts to deal with problems stemming from inner conflict
are either grossly unsuccessful or are expressed in socially unacceptable ways. A fear of open spaces sometimes is
the means for keeping personality functioning intact. This neurotic equilibrium may, for a variety of reasons
(changes in life circumstances, for example) fail. Then the symptom must widen its boundaries in a further effort to
"hold the line". Presently the individual feels in danger in almost any free space and ultimately is driven back to the
confines of his own room. From a social point of view this is certainly an unsuccessful solution. As another
example, the exhibitionist, who is really under the stress of proving his masculinity to himself and others, does so in
a socially condemned way, i.e., by disrobing publicly. As seen by Wegrocki abnormality is "the tendency to choose
a type of reaction which represents an escape from a conflict-producing situa tion instead of a facing of the
problem.., it is not the mechanism [behavior] that is abnormal; it is its function which determines its abnormality".

Abnormal individuals, however, generally hold to reality sufficiently to recognize that they are abnormal or that
others consider them so. This being the case they frequently are frightened of their own impulses and/or of what
others are planning to do. To hide his fear, the abnormal individual puts on a mask of anger or aggressiveness,
dealing with this source of anxiety in the same way which characterizes much "ordinary" behavior in fear-provoking
situations. The common element is the avoidance of anxiety or the attempt to master it. Coping with anxiety and the
gratification of needs are the twin cornerstones of mental activity and the latter's expression in behavior.

This concept deserves further exposition. Anxiety may be defined as a subjectively experienced, usually intense,
feeling of dread, apprehension or fear, the immediate source of which may or may not be known to the person. It
differs from fear in that it is irrational and internalized, but like fear is designed to "warn" the person of impending
danger, so that appropriate defensive measures may be taken. One normally fears an external source of danger, e.g.,
a dangerous animal on the loose, and mobilizes his energies toward effective means of self-protection. Anxiety
(which is an acutely uncomfortable reaction) warns the individual that an internally forbidden impulse is in danger
of breaking through into awareness. An adolescent may avoid going to parties because of the apprehension that
budding erotic impulses may overwhelm him (rationalized, perhaps, as "Only sissies go with girls").

How does substance abuse contribute to criminality?

The types of crime associated with the legal status of certain

drugs are discussed, including possession, production and
purchase of illegal drugs – all of which are indictable offences.
Three theoretical models, originally proposed by Goldstein to
explain the drugs-violence nexus in the United States, are then
examined; these models have since served as a framework to
analyze the relationship between drugs and crime. The first
model suggests that crime is linked to the
psychopharmacological effects of certain drugs; in other words,
it refers to intoxication by drugs which are recognized as
undermining judgment and self-control, causing paranoid
thoughts or distorting inhibitions and perceptions. The second
model refers to economic-compulsive crime and suggests that drug users commit crimes in order to get money to
buy drugs. Thirdly, the systemic model suggests that crime among illegal drug users is linked to the drug market.
Goldstein acknowledged that this tripartite conceptual framework represents possible relationships between drugs
and violence and that many other factors may contribute to a person’s drug use and criminal activity.

How does intelligence contribute to criminality?

 Once the IQ-crime correlation is measured, the next task is to
explain it. Why are IQ and crime negatively correlated?
Explanations of the IQ-crime correlation typically take one of
three approaches, that: (1) IQ and crime are spuriously, not
causally, correlated; (2) low IQ increases criminal behavior; or
(3) criminal behavior decreases IQ.
A popular argument against IQ as a cause of crime criticizes IQ
tests as only measuring middle-class knowledge and values rather
than innate intelligence. As a result, the observation that some
minority groups and the poor score low on IQ tests simply
reflects their diverse cultural backgrounds. These same groups
also commit proportionately more crime because they suffer
structural disadvantages such as poverty and discrimination.
Consequently, the same people who score low on IQ tests also
tend to commit more crime, and so IQ and crime are empirically
correlated, thus this correlation is not causal but reflects only
culturally biased testing of intelligence.

A variation of this argument holds that the structural disadvantages that increase crime rates also reduce educational
opportunities thus lessening individuals' ability and motivation to score well on IQ tests. The IQ-crime correlation
occurs only because they are both rooted in structural disadvantage, which, in statistical terms, represents a
"spurious" correlation.

Although these discrimination hypotheses have wide appeal, they have received fairly little support in empirical
studies, for IQ and crime are significantly correlated within race and class groups as well as when statistically
controlling for race, class, test-taking ability, and test-taking motivation (e.g., Hirschi and Hindelang; Lynam et al.).

Another argument against IQ as a cause of crime holds that school teachers and administrators treat students
differently by perceptions of the students' intelligence—giving negative labels and fewer educational opportunities
to less intelligent students. These labels and constrained opportunities, in turn, produce feelings of alienation and
resentment that lead students to delinquent peers and criminal behavior (Menard and Morse). As such, society's
reaction to intelligence, and not any property of intelligence itself, increases criminal behavior. Unfortunately, few
studies have adequately tested this labeling hypothesis.

A final argument against IQ holds that even if all people commit crime with equal frequency, less intelligent people
would be less able to evade detection and would be arrested more often. This detection hypothesis has received
some empirical support in that IQ scores tend to correlate more strongly with officially recorded crime than self-
reported crime. However, most studies still find a significant correlation between IQ and self-reported crime, which
is not easily explained by differential police detection (e.g., Moffitt and Silva).

In contrast to the above spurious arguments, some explanations emphasize IQ as a cause of crime. The earliest
causal explanation, popular during the early 1900s, portrayed criminals as so "feebleminded" and "mentally
deficient" that they could neither distinguish right from wrong nor resist criminal impulses. This feeblemindedness
hypothesis, however, lost favor long ago as it became clear that few criminals are actually mentally deficient and
most recognize, though may not follow, behavioral norms (Moffitt et al.).

A more recent, and more compelling, causal explanation emphasizes the importance of intelligence—especially
verbal intelligence—during childhood socialization. The socialization of children involves constant verbal
communication and comprehension of abstract symbols; therefore, children with poor verbal and cognitive skills
have greater difficulty completing the socialization process, which puts them at risk of undercontrolled, antisocial
behavior. Empirical studies overall have supported this developmental hypothesis (Moffitt, p. 116), and it fits with
the especially strong correlation between verbal IQ and crime.

A final causal explanation links IQ to crime through school performance. Less intelligent students do less well in
school, which results in academic frustration. This frustration, in turn, weakens their attachment and commitment to
schooling, and a weakened bond to school, as per social control theory, allows for more criminal behavior (Hirschi
and Hindelang). This school-performance hypothesis has received strong support from empirical studies, and it is
probably the most widely accepted explanation of the IQ-crime correlation (Moffitt).

One last approach to IQ and crime deserves mention even though few criminological studies have examined it.
Rather than low IQ increasing criminal behavior, criminal behavior might decrease IQ. Many facets of a criminal
lifestyle can impair cognitive abilities, including physical injuries, especially head traumas, drug use, and
withdrawing from school (Moffitt).

Kallikak family: the study of feeblemindedness

1912. American psychologist Henry Herbert Goddard published the book The Kallikak Family: A Study in the
Heredity of Feeble-Mindedness in 1912. This book was highly influential in the eugenics movement, and used
provocative photographs to further its theses.

The Kallikak Family is an example of family study. Undertaken by a number of eugenicists, family studies sought to
track specific traits over two or more (ideally three) generations in order to establish hereditary relationships.
Believed to provide “scientific” evidence for the hereditability of feeblemindedness and human intelligence more
generally, family studies were used by eugenicists to make a case for eugenic interventions such as immigration
restriction, segregation, and sterilization.

Goddard served as Director of the Research Laboratory of the Training School at Vineland, New Jersey, for Feeble-
minded Girls and Boys. The research laboratory was opened in 1906 to study feeble-mindedness. Initially this
involved studying the “mental condition” of children residing in the Institution in an effort to determine “different
grades and types,” and

“to getting an accurate record of what deficiencies each child had and what he was capable of doing, with the hope
that in time these records could be correlated with the condition of the nervous system of the child, if he should die
while in the Institution and an autopsy should be allowed” (Goddard, 1912, preface).
Eventually it was decided that visits to the children’s home by trained workers were required. Goddard notes in his
preface to The Kallikak Family that “[i]t was a great surprise to us to discover so much mental defect in the families
of so many of these children” (Goddard 1912, preface). The Kallikak Family was written from the information
gathered through these investigations. Deborah Kallikak was a patient at the Training School at Vineland.

"Kallikak" is pseudonym derived from the Greek words Kallos (beauty) and Kakos (bad), referring to the two
strands of the Kallikak family, which both originated with Martin Kallikak Sr. Martin Sr., while serving in the
Revolutionary War, met a “feeble-minded” women at one of the taverns frequented by the militia, with her he
fathered an illegitimate “feeble-minded” son, Martin Kallikak Jr, the great-great-grandfather of Deborah (Goddard
1912, Chap. 2). According to Goddard, from Martin Jr. came four hundred and eighty decedents, one hundred and
forty-three of whom were feeble-minded. He went on to note,

“[a]mong these four hundred and eighty descendants, thirty-six have been illegitimate. There have been thirty-three
sexually immoral persons, mostly prostitutes. There have been twenty-four confirmed alcoholics. There have been
three epileptics. Eighty-two died in infancy. Three were criminal. Eight kept houses of ill fame” (Goddard 1912,
Chap. 2). Martin Kallikak Sr., after his tryst with the “feeble-minded” woman, went on to marry a Quaker woman
and have a “good family,” of “better stock” than the other strand. Goddard notes,

“[a]ll of the legitimate children of Martin Sr. married into the best families in their state, the descendants of colonial
governors, signers of the Declaration of Independence, soldiers and even the founders of a great university. Indeed,
in this family we find nothing but good representative citizenship…There have been no feeble-minded among them;
no illegitimate children; no immoral women; only one man was sexually loose. There has been no epilepsy, no
criminals, no keepers of houses of prostitution. Only fifteen children have died in infancy” (Goddard 1912, Chap. 2).

He sums up his findings, stating,

“[w]e thus have two series from two different mothers but the same father. These extend for six generations. Both
lines live out their lives in practically the same region and in the same environment, except in so far as they
themselves, because of their different characters, changed that environment….We thus have a natural experiment of
remarkable value to the sociology and the student of heredity. That we are dealing with a problem of true heredity,
no one can doubt” (Goddard 1912, Chap. 2).
Goddard believed that the Kallikak family provided strong evidence that intelligence was an inherited trait.

Aside from the Kallikak family study, there are also other studies that have correlated biological inheritance and
intelligence with other family studies. Attached are copies of the
other family studies like the jukes family study and the Nam Family
study.

How does diet and malnutrition contribute to criminality?

Low Blood Sugar and Criminal Violence

Dr. Ralph Bolten reported in a study of a group of Peruvian peasants that on a low protein, high carbohydrate diet
these people were extremely aggressive. Such people fight because they feel better when they are fighting. It makes
them feel better, because the adrenalin starts pouring out and drives up their blood sugar, so that at last, their poor,
tired brains get some fuel. Dr. Hoffer discussed this phenomenon at length.
"Such people are also very paranoid. They injure and insult themselves. They have a high incidence of stealing,
rape, arson, abortion, slander, and homicide. In one Peruvian village, half the household heads were directly or
indirectly involved in homicide. The incidence of rape is 50 per 100,000.
"These people were tested for blood sugar, and their levels were found to be as low as 50% of what we regard as a
good level. To keep going, they chew a lot of cola and drink a lot of alcohol.
"We have found the same thing with American Indians, Canadian Eskimos, and Australian Aborigines."
"But, doctor, what about Americans (North & South?) and Canadians?"
"We feel that this condition of malnutrition applies to a large segment of both populations. It's just a little more
evident among those who end up being classed as criminals.
"So, I feel that a large portion of our "criminals" (the word should be italicized) are ill. For example, I was invited by
Dr. Glen Green to examine what he considered 12 of the worst, most aggressive criminals in the Prince Albert, Sask
penitentiary. I found that at least nine of them were sever, chronic, paranoid schizophrenics."
"Doctor: Would you describe most violent criminals as sugar addicts?"
"I would. Many of them seem to live principally on candy bars, Cokes, coffee, alcohol. So they are getting rotten
general nutrition, which further aggravates their condition, as their blood sugar levels are on a daily roller coaster."
"Do the prisons have any understanding of the problem?"
"Absolutely none. They only make their condition worse, since they usually know almost nothing about nutrition.
They frequently furnish a low protein, high carbohydrate diet loaded with sugar, plus considerable coffee."

B and C Vitamins Can Normalize Minds

"They supply no supplemental Vitamin C, the outstanding anti-stress agent and none of the nerve relaxing B
vitamins such as B-1 and B-3 (niacin). Niacin, you know, helps these people in many ways. It makes their
misperceptions go away, as Dr. Osmond and I discovered some 20 years ago. But it also tends to give them a feeling
of well being, as it stimulates the circulation of the blood, releasing histamine and heparin.
"Of course the heparin gives a negative charge to the red blood cells, so that they are dispersed and can then go
through the tiniest capillaries of the brain, helping the prisoner to think." [ See Zeta Potential ]
"What about niacin with the sugar transport system?"
"There again, it is important, since it works with magnesium, and as Dr. Henry Schroeder has pointed out, with
chromium, something prisoners are not likely to get enough of. About 87% of it has been refined out of the wheat
used to make the emasculated bread they serve them."
"But, doctor, do you believe that the high level of adrenalin released into the blood stream when these people get
excited may result in the production of even more of these mind altering compounds, thus potentiating the
misperceptions, the wild actions of many schizophrenics?"
"Yes, I do. The excitement causes them to produce more adrenalin. This is converted into more adrenochrome,
which then throws them even more into a psychopathic state."
"One third of the prisoners I saw could be classified as having sub-clinical pellagra, which I now feel should be
identified as allergy of the brain. No doubt, the percentage is higher is higher now, because of the increase in
juvenile offenders sentenced, based on the nature of the crimes committed by them.
"Whether we describe their ailments as sub-clinical pellagra, adolescent behavior problem, schizoid behavior
pattern, or chronic alcoholic hallucinosis matters little. The treatment, principally correction of the diet, is what
matters.
"Many of these prisoners have strange experiences. The floors and walls seem to move. The patient usually knows
that they do not really, so he complains of dizziness and headache. Unless the doctor asks him about perception
changes, he will never find out what the prisoner's real complaint is.
"It is useless to prescribe drugs for these prisoners. Tranquilizers, painkillers, and antidepressants often cause
reactions, making patients worse. Yet it is the usual procedure, so long as the patient complains, to give him a
succession of drugs, until he either stops complaining or is so "stoned" that he cannot complain and is, therefore, no
administrative problem.
"Many of the prisoners are alcoholics and/or drug addicts, and they know how to rationalize, to figure out an excuse
for everything they do. They are continually demanding more liberties – and getting them. If they had the self-
discipline and the knowledge as to what they need in the way of exercise, good food, and avoidance of alcohol,
stimulants, and cigarettes, this might be great. But they have no such discipline and no such knowledge, so few of
them are ever rehabilitated, and more and more end up behind bars."

How does sex and gender preference contribute to

criminality?
Gender is among the strongest predictors of crime, particularly violent crime. Arrest, self report, and victimization
data consistently show that men and boys commit significantly more crime, both serious and not, than women and
girls. This pattern persists despite data indicating that crimes committed by females may be rising.4 Evidence also
suggests that males are generally more aggressive than females, even before the preschool years. Yet most theories
and explanations of crime are gender blind. They either bypass the gender issue entirely or focus solely on why
females fail to resemble males in their behavior.' These theories also ignore the possibility that explanations for the
gender disparity in crime may help account for the underlying correlates of crime in general.

The results of the Biosocial Study confirmed past research which had demonstrated gender differences in the
prevalence of crime. Males engaged in more crime and violence than females, and they were more likely to repeat
their crimes. However, the Biosocial Study also corresponded with some research and theory which had indicated
gender differences in the prediction of crime. With some exceptions, biological factors were found to be more
predictive of crime among females, whereas environmental factors were found to be more predictive of crime
among males.' Also, more factors overall were correlated with crime among females than males. This Article
considers the consequences of these results with respect to whether there should be a gender-based standard for
punishment or defenses.