Satellite Attitude Control

Motion of a rigid body

Translation Motion Rotational Motion

Position & Velocity Attitude & Attitude Rate

Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 1
 What is Spacecraft Attitude ?

► Most Spacecraft have Instruments or Antennas that

must be pointed in specific direction
► To control the attitude, the Spacecraft must have
the ability to
 Determine the current attitude
 Determine the error between the current and desired
attitudes
 Apply control torques to remove the error

Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 2
Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 3
 Reference Frames
•Attitude stabilisation and control with
respect to some reference frame.

Various Reference Frames

• Orbit Reference Frame (Rotating)
e.g. Communication, Remote Sensing S/C
• Inertial Reference Frame (Non-rotating)
e.g. Stellar Pointing S/C

Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 4
 Orbit Reference Frame
► Yaw Axis Towards the roll
roll
centre of the earth
yaw
► Roll Axis along the
E
spacecraft velocity vector yaw
► Pitch Axis perpendicular
Orbit
to the orbit plane

Inertial Reference Frame Z

• X Axis towards Vernal Equinox Ecliptic

• Z Axis along Earth spin Axis

E
• Y Axis along Equator Y
Equator
Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 5

X
Roll, Pitch & Yaw

Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 6
Spacecraft Attitude Determination
and Control

► So, the spacecraft needs an Attitude

Determination and Control System (ADCS)
► Attitude is determined using Sensors
► To do the control function requires knowledge of
Spacecraft kinematics and dynamics
► Attitude is controlled using actuators

Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 7
 CHANGE IN ATTITUDE

Satellite tends to change its orientation

because of environmental torques
 Drag of residual atmosphere
 Solar radiation pressure
 Gravity gradient
 Interaction of Satellite electronics with earth’s
magnetic field

Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 8
• Attitude control involves
• attitude acquisition and
• attitude stabilization
• Attitude acquisition is an attitude manoeuvre from an
unknown orientation to known orientation
. Attitude Stabilisation is the process of maintaining an
existing orientation in the presence of disturbances
acting on it
Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 9
 Components of ADCS

 Sensors- To determine the orientation and position

of the satellite
 Algorithms-To calculate the deviation from the
desired orientation and to generate actuation
command to counter the deviation
 Actuators-To act upon the signals given by the
control algorithms and to produce the necessary
torques

Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 10
 Basic Functions of ADCS

(i) Attitude determination using sensors

(ii) Attitude error computation from the

desired attitude

(iii) Computation and commanding of the

required torques to be developed by
actuators Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 11
- The requirements of attitude determination can be
classified as

(i) Determination of attitude of spin axis and

orientation of spin axis in spin stabilized spacecraft

(ii) Determination of attitude for acquisition/reacquisition

and attitude maintenance for 3 axis stabilized
spacecraft.
Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 12
Elements of Attitude Control system

Sensors
Main sensors are
► Sun sensor
► Star sensor
► Earth sensor
► Magnetometer

Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 13
 Attitude Determination
• is the process of computation of the orientation
of the spacecraft relative to known ref. frame
• Inertial ref frame/Orbit ref frame
• Requires two or more sensors like star sensor,
earth sensor, sun sensor, gyroscope,
magnetometer etc.
• Attitude accuracies achievable
Star sensor : 0.01 degree
Earth sensor : 0.1 degree
Sun sensor : 0.1 – 0.5 degree
Magnetometer: 1 – 2 degree
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 Sun sensor

► I(α) = I(0) cosα

Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 15
Sun sensor

Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 16
 Disadvantages
The following disadvantages exist in the use
of the sun as the test source:
1.Effect of atmospheric refraction
2.Bright sky background
3.Reflection from surrounding structures
4.Effect of the atmosphere on the intensity &
spectral content of the sunlight.

Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 17
 Star sensor

► Star sensors measure star coordinates in the

spacecraft frame and provide attitude
information when these observed
coordinates are compared with known star
directions obtained from a star catalog.
► Star sensor are the most accurate of attitude
sensor achieving accuracies to the arc
second range.

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► It can be divide in to three major classes
Star scanners
► which use the spacecraft rotation to provide
the searching and sensing function
Gimbaled star trackers
► which searches out and acquire stars using
mechanical action
Fixed head star trackers
► which have electronic searching and tracking
capabilities over a limited FOV
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Sensors in each of these classes usually
consist of the following components
► A sun shade
► An optical system
► Detector
► Electronics unit

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Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 21
► Heavy
► Expensive
► Require more power than most other
attitude sensors
► Software requirements are extensive
► Suffer from both occultation and
interference from the sun, earth and other
bright sources Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 22
 Horizon sensors
►A horizon sensor is an optical instrument that
detects light from the 'limb' of the Earth's
atmosphere, i.e., at the horizon.
► Thermal Infrared sensing is often used, which
senses the comparative warmth of the
atmosphere, compared to the much colder cosmic
background.
► This sensor provides orientation with respect to the
earth about two orthogonal axes.
► It tends to be less precise than sensors based on
stellar observation. Sometimes referred to as an
Earth Sensor. Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 23
Major horizon sensors consists of four
components
► Scanning mechanism
► Optical system
► Radiance detector
► Signal processing electronics
► AOS & LOS

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 Magnetometer
They are widely used sensors because of
► They are vector sensor
► Reliable & light weight
► Low power requirements
► Can operate over a wide temperature range.

Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 25
 Actuators

Momentum Exchange Devices like

momentum/reaction wheels or control moment gyros

Magnetic torquers

- Reaction control system (thrusters) using

propellants like hydrazine or MMH/N2O4
Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 26
► Devices for the storage if angular
momentum called momentum in attitude
work and are used for
► To add stability against disturbance torques
► To provide variable momentum
► To absorb cyclic torques
► To transfer momentum to the satellite body
for the execution of slewing maneuvers.
Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 27
► These devices depends on the momentum of a
spinning wheel h=Iw where
► I=moment of inertia about the rotation axis
► W=angular velocity

Fly wheel or inertia wheel

► rotating wheel or disk used to store or
transfer momentum. It refers to the wheel
itself, exclusive of electronics or other
associated devices.
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Momentum wheel
► fly wheel designed to operate at a biased or
nonzero momentum. it provides a variable
momentum storage capability about its rotation axis
which is usually fixed in the vehicle.
Reaction wheel
► fly wheel with a vehicle fixed axis designed to
operate at zero bias
Control moment gyro
► consists of single or a double gimbaled wheel
spinning at constant rate. The gimbal rings allow
control of the direction of the fly wheel momentum
vector in the spacecraft body.
Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 29
 Fly wheel
► A flywheel is a wheel or a disk
with significant moment of
inertia ( ability to resist to
changes in its rotation)
► It is used as a storage device
for rotational energy. i.e.
momentum can be imparted on
it or taken away from it
► They are of two types:
o reaction wheel
o momentum wheel

Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 30
 Momentum wheel
► Momentum wheels are run at high rpm (6000).
► A tachometer based control loop maintains wheel speed at
constant value.
► Momentum wheels offers substantial gyroscopic stability.
► That is , a given disturbance torque will produce only smaller
change in the spacecraft because of its smaller percentage
change it makes in the total angular momentum vector of the
spacecraft.
► For this reason they are used in dual spin configuration where
one part of the spacecraft should always point in same direction.
► Eg LEO satellites.

Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 31
 Reaction wheel
► Fly wheel with zero initial momentum is called reaction wheel. (fly
wheel is at rest)
► The wheel rotates only after reacting to an external disturbance
torque.
► The wheel is driven by a motor which is controlled by spacecraft
feedback control loop.
► With such a system, the wheel rotates one way and the spacecraft
rotates in the opposite way. Therefore no net system torque.
► After each attitude correction ,the momentum of the wheel is
added up to the rated speed of the motor after which the wheel is
said to be ‘saturated’ and cannot be effective further and the
spacecraft will tumble.
► The correction torque is aDr.A.Saravanakumar,
weightedMITcombination of position error
32
and rate error.
Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 33
 Momentum dumping
► To keep the wheel from attaining saturation, momentum dumping is
used.
► Done by magnetic torquers in LEOs
► Done by jt thrusters in higher orbits.
► The wheel need not to be in Zero and can be rotated at low nominal
speed which has advantages.,
► It avoids the problem of wheel go through zero speed (from minus
direction to plus direction)
► This avoids the problem of sticking friction (stiction) ehen thw wheel is
temporarily stopped.
► One wheel for each axis and a reduntant wheel forms a complete
attitude control.

Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 34
Practical problems considered in the design of
momentum wheel systems are
► Bearing noise
► Quantization
► Jitter
► Variation of the bearing friction with temperature
► Offset of the wheel axis from body principal axis

Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 35
Magnetic Torquers
- Electromagnets used to generate magnetic dipole moment
for attitude and angular momentum control.
- Used for spin axis orientation and spin rate control for a
spinning spacecraft
- Also used for damping of librational motion for a gravity
gradient stabilized spacecraft.
-

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Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 37
 Magnetic coils
► Magnetic coils are used to generate magnetic
dipole moments for attitude & angular momentum
control.
► Used to compensate for residual spacecraft biases
► To counteract attitude drift due to environmental
disturbance torques.
► Accurate prediction of the magnetic control
torques requires that the coils be supplied with a
constant current

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Advantages
► Light weight
► Reliable
► Energy efficient
Disadvantages
► High magnetic flux needed for large sat
► Leos

Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 39
Reaction Control System Thrusters
- Mass expulsion system thrust is produced by expelling
propellant
- RCS is used
i) to control attitude
ii) to control spin rate
iii) to control nutation
iv) to control the speed of momentum/reaction wheels
v) to adjust orbital parameters
-

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Rcs can be classified as
► Cold gas thrusters
► Monopropellant thrusters
► Bipropellant thrusters
► Ion thrusters

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Dampers

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 Solar sails
► Solar sails are a form of spacecraft
propulsion using the radiation pressure of
light from a star or laser to high speed
► Disadvantages
► structure
► not below 800km

Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 43
 Disturbance Torques

Environmental Disturbance
► Solar radiation torque
► Magnetic torque
► Aerodynamic torque
► Gravity gradient torque

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Gravity gradient torque

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Solar radiation pressure

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Magnetic torque

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Aerodynamic torque

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 Slosh
► Slosh refers to the movement of liquid inside another
object (which is, typically, also undergoing motion).
► The liquid must have a free surface to constitute a slosh
dynamics problem, where the dynamics of the liquid can
interact with the container to alter the system dynamics
significantly.
► Slosh can adversely impact satellite performance in a
number of ways. propellant slosh can introduce uncertainty
in spacecraft attitude which is often called jitter

Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 49
Dr.A.Saravanakumar, MIT 50