Fundamental of Electric Circuits

Mechanical Engineering
Rail Transportation Engineering
2/2022
Dr. Sompob Polmai
 Contents
• Definition, Ideal Voltage Sources, Ideal Current Sources, Dependent
(Controlled) Sources, Branch, Node, Loop, Mesh and Network
Analysis
• Charge, Current, and Kirchhoft’s Current Law
• Voltage, and Kirchhoft’s Voltage Law, Ground
• Electric Power and Sign Convention
• Circuit Element and their i-v Characteristics
• Resistance and Ohm’s Law, Open and Short Circuits, Series Resistors
and the Voltage Divider Rule, Parallel Resistors and the Current
Divider Rule
• Practical Voltage and Current Sources
• Measuring Devices, The Ohmmeter, The Ammeter, The Voltmeter

2
Ideal Voltage Sources
I

~ You I
i

3
Ideal Voltage Sources

4
Ideal Current Source

5
Dependent (Controlled) Sources
[Amplification
A

w
Jaes umw 11s

↑
A
voltage
=

garn

A
= trans resistant

A
1
= transconductant

~mind
A
-. -

X
currentgain

A category of sources whose output (current or voltage) is

a function of some other voltage or current in a circuit.

6
 Branch
A branch is any portion of a circuit with two terminals connected
to it. A branch may consist of one or more circuit elements. In
practice, any circuit element with two terminals connected to it is
a branch.

7
 Node
↳
a branches intuitors

A node is the junction of two or more branches (one often

refers to the junction of only two branches as a trivial node).

8
 Loop
branches oviku esta

A loop is any closed connection of branches.

9
 Mesh
looq Y lorg rogue
3
w

↓Pedropne

A mesh is a loop that does not contain other loops.

2
I

4 node

10
 Charge, Current, and Kirchhoff’s
Current Law
The unit of charge is the coulomb (C).
The elementary charges are electron and proton.
The charge of an electron is
qe  1.602 1019 C.

The charge of a proton is

q p  1.602 1019 C.

11
 Electric Current
Electric Current is defined as the time rate of change of
charge passing through a predetermined area.

q C
i
t s

dq C
i
dt s

The units of current are called amperes (A), where 1 ampere=1 coulomb/second.
The name of the unit is a tribute to the French scientist Andre Marie Ampere.
12
Example 1

free electron
->

13
Example 1

descr
farnioned
sudnansnrunus e

14
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
In order for current to flow, there must exist a closed circuit.
dea,i=vor deignuwas
b
e "urno
L

lines we Kirchhoff’s current law states that because

,
V
charge cannot be created but must be
conserved, the sum of the currents at a
node must equal zero (in an electrical
circuit, a node is the junction of two or
es
a o en more conductors). Formally:
3

N
-

i
n 1
n 0
KCL at node 1:
i  i1  i2  i3  0
b
no
e
8 nooonfr
ne= +

15
Example 2

Node a

Io I, + Iz 0
+

I=3 -
2 1A =

Node b
⑧

T
Iz I4 +
-

-o-1 =, -

Ic -

Is 0
=

1.5 I4
+
0
+ -
5 0 =

I4 3.5A =

mode o

Node O
>Ground/reference Symbol
uosos vosnances w
↑
Is -

13 14 -
= 0
V 0
=

I I3
Ip
=
-

16
 Review of Coulomb Force and Electric Field

Force between two point-charges q1 and q2 at distance r12

  q1q2
F12 F12  k 2 r̂12
q1 q2 r12

Total force at any point charge q0 is vector sum of all force

 +q1
F1
+q0     
+q3 F F0  F1  F2  F3 
 
F3 F2 +q2

17
 Electric Force and Electric Field
• If there is a force exerting on a test
Point charge +Q and test charge +q0 charge at the location, then the
electric field is there.
+ q0 • Electric field is defined by the force
per unit charge.
ˆ kQ
r FE  2 q0 rˆ Force on the test charge is
r
ˆ kQ
+Q FE  2 q0 rˆ
r
By definition electric field is

Eˆ  FˆE / q0
q0
Electric field at radius r due to the point charge +Q at the center is
ˆ kQ
E  2 rˆ 18
r
q
⑧

F
or GE
=

=
Ed q
v Ed
=

19
20
21
 Voltage and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Wessnude,remd 0
=
sewn

The total work per unit charge associated with the motion of
charge between two points is called voltage.

1 joule
1volt 
coulomb

The voltage, or potential difference,

between two points in a circuit
indicates the energy required to
move charge from one point to the
other. The direction, or polarity, of
the voltage is closely tied to whether
energy is being dissipated or
generated in the process.
22
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
The principle underlying KVL is that no
energy is lost or created in an electric

%
circuit; in circuit terms, the sum of all
voltages associated with sources must
equal the sum of the load voltages, so
that the net voltage around a closed
circuit is zero.
&

vab  vba i adevosme 2

i ne
oonon+(V+ -use in t itw t

or v, -vz 0
=
ende - its-

v1  v2
v, vz0
-
+

23
=

V, V2
=

Ve Vz
=
 Source and Load

source) Imbocawissaw:ne=118+of1noornavot

CLoad) &noncdef):neis+Inavio +

24
Example
1 mesh 1

EV 0 =

Vs1 -

V -

vz -

Vz 0
=

12
-V, 2 6
=

0
>
- -

W, 4V
=

3 2
mesh 2

↑ Vs2 +V4 Vz 0
-
+ =

1
4
Vx 2 0
=

+
+

> V4 =

- 6V

I
3 mesh 3

Vz -

V4 -

V5 0
=

< 6 12 0
=

V
-
-

6V
Up
=
-

25
 Ground
• In every circuit a point can be defined as “ground” and is
assigned the electric potential of zero volts for convenience.
• Note that, unless they are purposely connected together, the
grounds in two completely separate circuits are not necessarily
at the same potential.

26
Electric Power and Sign Convention

P  VI

27
Example

28
 Resistance and Ohm’s Law
E: Electric Field (V/m)
J : Current Density (A/m2 )
V : Potential Difference or Voltage (V)
I : Current (A)
A
: Resistivity (-m)
l: Length (m)
A: Cross-Sectional Area (m2 )
Ohm’s Law
E  J

29
 Resistance and Ohm’s Law
E  J
The potential difference is
A
V    E  dl .
For uniform field along the length of the conductor,
V
V  El or E 
l
The current density and current has the relation
I  JA ,
If current density is uniform over the cross-sectional area, then
I  JA .
30
 Resistance and Ohm’s Law
Now we have, for uniform field and current density,
V  El , E   J , and I  JA.
Rearrange the term
I l
V   Jl   l  I , or
A A A
V  IR
l
where R   is the resistance in the direction of current flowing
A
through the cross-sectional area A along the length l.
The unit of resistance is ohm ().

31
 Resistance and Ohm’s Law
The inverse of resistivity is conductivity having unit of S/m
1


l l
R 
A A
The inverse of resistance is conductance having unit of S (Siemens)
1 A
G  
R l
Thus, Ohm's law can be restated in terms of conductance as :
I  GV

32
Resistivity of Materials

33
 Resistors
A linear resistor is a linear, passive two-terminal
electrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element.

Linear Resistor

34
Resistors

35
 Power Dissipation of a Resistor
V V2
P  VI  V ( ) 
R R
P  VI  ( IR) I  I 2 R
Power in a resitor dissipates into heat.

Some appliance use resistance power dissipation for heating

and lighting.

36
Example

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 Short Circuit and Open Circuit
• A circuit element with resistance approaching zero is called
a short circuit.
• A circuit element whose resistance approaches infinity is
called an open circuit.

38
 Series Resistors and the Voltage
Divider Rule
 From KVL
I VN
 V  V1  V2  ..  VN  0
or
V  V1  V2  ..  VN
+
- V  IR1  IR2  ...  IRN

 I ( R1  R2  ...  RN )
V2  IREQ

 N
V1 where REQ   RN
 n 1

REQ is called the "Equivalent Resistance"

39
 Series Resistors and the Voltage
Divider Rule
 V  I ( R1  R2  ...  RN )
I VN
V Voltage
 I
R1  R2  ..  RN Divider
Rn Rn
Vn  IRn  ( )V  V
+ R1  R2  ..  RN REQ
- V

V2

 Vn2 Rn V 2 Rn
V1
Pn    PTOTAL
Rn REQ REQ REQ

where PTOTAL  VI  V 2 / REQ
40
Example

41
 Parallel Resistors and the Current
Divider Rule
 I1 I2 IN
I V


From KCL 1 1 1
I  V (   ..  )
R1 R2 RN
 I  I1  I 2  ..  I N  0
V
I  I1  I 2  ..  I N 
REQ
V V V
   ..  1 N
1
R1 R2 RN 
REQ n1 Rn 42
  I1 I2 IN
I V


I
V
1/ R1  1/ R2  ..  1/ RN
V 1/ Rn REQ Current
In   I I Divider
Rn 1/ R1  1/ R2  ..  1/ RN Rn

Power Dissipation
REQ 2 REQ
Pn  I n Rn 
2
I REQ  PTOTAL
Rn Rn
PTOTAL  IV  I 2 REQ
43
Example

44
PRACTICAL VOLTAGE SOURCES

45
PRACTICAL CURRENT SOURCES

46
 The Galvanometer

The current flowing in the moving coil produce torque (moment) that
moves the needle. Positive and negative current will produce opposite
torque. The torque is proportional to the current.
Only small current (mA range) needed to move the coil.
47
 The Ammeter

• Shunt resistor is parallel connected to the galvanometer.

• Shunt resistance is very low compared to the moving coil
resistance so that 𝐼 − 𝐼 ≫ 𝐼 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 − 𝐼 ≈ 𝐼
48
The Ammeter

49
 The Voltmeter

• To limit the current flowing into the moving coil a resistor is

connected in series with the galvanometer.
• The series resistance is very high so that only small current
will flow into the galvanometer.

50
The Voltmeter

51
Practical Voltmeter and Ammeter

52
Analog Ammeters

53
Analog Voltmeters

54
 Digital Ammeter

Transformer or sensor based Shunt resistor based

55
Digital Voltmeter

56
The Wattmeter

57
Analog Wattmeter

58
Digital Wattmeter

59
 The Ohmmeter

• An ohmmeter applies
current to the circuit or
component whose
resistance is to be
measured.
• It then measures the
resulting voltage and
calculates the resistance
using Ohm’s law.

60
Multimeter

61
Multimeter

61