FACULTY OF

ENGINEERING

M
E Static Characteristics Of Measurement
C System’s Elements
H
A
T
R Dr. Bashir NOURI
O Department of Mechatronics Engineering
N
I Faculty of Engineering
C An-Najah National University
S
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M
Introduction:
E
This chapter concerned with static or steady state characteristics, these
C are the relationships which may occur between the output (O) and the
H input (I) of an element when I is either at a constant value or changing
A slowly.

T
R
Systematic Characteristics
O
N Systematic characteristics can be exactly quantified by mathematical or
graphical means. They are distinct from statistical characteristics
I which cannot be exactly quantified.
C
S
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M 1- Range:
E Input range: The input range of an element is specified by the
C minimum value of the input (IMIN) and the maximum value (IMAX).
H Output range: The output range of an element is specified by the
A minimum value of the output (OMIN) and the maximum value
(OMAX).
T
Examples:
R
1- A pressure transducer may an input range of 0 to 104 Pascal (PMIN =
O 0 and PMAX = 104 Pa), and an output range of 4 to 20 mA (CMIN = 4
N mA and CMAX = 20 mA).
I 2- A thermocouple may have an input range of 100 to 250 C (TMIN =
C 100 C and TMAX = 250 C) and an output range of 4 to 10 mV
(VMIN = 4 mV and VMAX = 10 mV).
S
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M 2- Span:
E
Input span: The maximum variation of the input (IMAX - IMIN).
C
Output span: The maximum variation of the output (OMAX - OMIN).
H
Examples:
A
1- The above pressure transducer has an input span of (PMAX - PMIN =
T 104 – 0 = 104 Pa), and an output span of (CMAX - CMIN = 20 – 4 = 16
R mA).
O 2- The above thermocouple has an input span of (TMAX - TMIN = 250 –
N 100 = 150 C) and an output span of (VMAX - VMIN = 10 – 4 = 6
mV).
I
C
S
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M 3- Ideal Straight Line:

E An element is linear if the corresponding values of Input and output (I
C and O) lie on a straight line.
H The ideal straight line connects the minimum point (IMIN, OMIN) to the
A maximum point (IMAX, OMAX). O
T OIDEAL = k I + a O MAX

R Where:

a
ht I +
ne
tra = k

Li
O k = Ideal straight line slope.

l S AL
ig
ea IDE
Id O
N a = Ideal straight line intercept.
O MIN
I O MAX  O MIN
C k  I I I
I MAX  I MIN MIN MAX

S a  O MIN  k I MIN
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M Example: Determination of Ideal Straight Line

E Determine the Ideal straight line of above pressure transducer; i. e. find k and a.
C Solution:
H The ideal straight line of the pressure transducer is given by:
A CIdeal(P) = k P + a
T Input range of 0 to 104 Pascal (PMIN = 0 and PMAX = 104 Pa)
R Output range of 4 to 20 mA (CMIN = 4 mA and CMAX = 20 mA)
O
N CMAX  CMIN 20  4
k   4  1.6  10 3 [mA / Pa]
I PMAX  PMIN 10  0
C a  CMIN  k PMIN  4  0  4 [mA]

S CIdeal ( P )  1.6  10  3 P  4 [mA]

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M 4- Nonlinearity:
E If the straight line relationship is not obeyed, the element is said to be
C nonlinear. Nonlinearity is defined in terms of a function N(I).
H N(I) = Actual behavior – Ideal straight line behavior.
A O
T O MAX
a
N(I)
R
I+
k

+
=

O
L
EA

IMIN IMAX
ID
O

0
N O Ideal
Actual I
N(I)
I O Actual
O(I) N̂

C O MIN
-
I I I I
S MIN MAX

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M
Nonlinearity:  Actual output:
E
N(I) = O(I) – (k I + a) O(I) = k I + a + N(I)
C
H Nonlinearity is quantified in terms of maximum nonlinearity ( N̂ )
A expressed as a percentage of full-scale deflection (f.s.d.); i.e. as a
percentage of the output span.
T N̂
 Max. nonlinearity as a percentage of f.s.d.   100%
R O MAX  O MIN
O
N O(I) and N(I) can be expressed as a polynomial in the input (I)
I qm
C O(I )  a 0  a1 I  a 2 I    aq I    am I
2 q m
  aq I q
q0
S
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M 5- Sensitivity:
E Rate of change of output (O) with respect to input (I)
C
dO dN
H  Sensitivit y   k 
dI dI
A dO
For an ideal element: Sensitivit y   k
T dI
R
Example: Determination of the sensitivity
O
Determine the sensitivity of the above pressure transducer.
N
Solution:
I
The ideal straight line of the pressure transducer is given by: CIdeal(P) = k P + a
C
S Sensitivit y  d CdIdeal
P
 k  1.6  10  3 [mA / P ]

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M 6- Environmental effects:
E The output (O) depends not only on the input signal (I) but on
C environmental inputs such as ambient temperature, atmospheric
H pressure, relative humidity, supply voltage … etc.

A Types of environmental inputs:

T 1- Modifying input (IM):
R The modifying input (IM) causes the linear sensitivity (slope ≡ k) of an
element to change.
O
N Standard conditions (IM = 0)  Slope = k

I Nonstandard conditions (IM ≠ 0)  Slope = k + kM IM

C Where: kM ≡ sensitivity of the element to the modifying input (IM).
S
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M 2- Interfering input (II):

E The interfering input (II) causes the intercept or zero bias (a) of an
C element to change.
H Standard conditions (II = 0)  Zero bias = a
A Nonstandard conditions (II ≠ 0)  Zero bias = a + kI II
T Where: kI ≡ sensitivity of the element to the interfering input (II).
R
kM and kI are referred to as environmental coupling constants or
O sensitivities.
N At standard conditions, the actual output of an element is given by
I the equation:
C O(I) = k I + a + N(I)
S
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M Nonstandard
II = 0
E O Nonstandard
IM = 0
O
k
C kM
IM Standard Slo
pe
=
Standard
+ IM = 0 II = 0
H op
e=
k
Slo
pe
=k
Slo
pe
=k
Sl Zero bias
A = a + kI II

T a Zero bias
=a
R 0 0
O Modifying Effects I
Change the slope of the ideal straight line
Interfering Effects I
Change the zero bias of the ideal straight line
N
I O(I) = k I + a + N(I) + kM IM I O(I) = k I + a + N(I) + kI
C II
S
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At nonstandard conditions, the actual output of an element is given

M by the equation: Nonstandard
E I M = 0 & II = 0

IM II
C +
kM +
kI
k I
H O
o p e =
k M
IM
Sl a+
A k
I+ Standard
=
T DE
A L
p e =k
IM = I I = 0
Slo
O I
Zero bias
R = a + kI II I +a
=k
O Zero bias
O IDE
A L

N =a

I 0
I
Modifying & Interfering Effects
C Change the slope & zero bias of the ideal straight line

S O(I) = k I + a + N(I) + kM IM I + kI II
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M 7- Hysteresis:
E For a given input (I), the output (O) may be different depending on
C whether the input (I) is increasing or decreasing. Hysteresis is the
H difference between the two values of the output (O).

A Hysteresis ≡ H ( I )  O ( I )I   O ( I )I 
T O
R OMAX
H(I)
O( I )
O
Ĥ
N H(I)
I O( I )
0
C IMIN IMAX I
OMIN
S IMIN I IMAX I
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Hysteresis is usually quantified in terms of maximum hysteresis ( Ĥ ) expressed as

M a percentage of full-scale deflection (f.s.d.); i.e. as a percentage of the output span.
E  Max. hysteresis as a percentage of f.s.d.
Ĥ
8- Resolution:   100%
C O MAX  O MIN
Some elements are characterized by
H the output increasing in a series O
A of discrete steps or jumps in
OMAX
response to a continuous increase
T in input. The largest change in
R the input (I) that can occur
without any corresponding
O change in the output (O).
Thus the resolution is defined in
N terms of the width ΔIR of the widest
step. The resolution is expressed as a
I percentage of f.s.d. of the input span.
C  IR
OMIN
S   100 % IMIN
IR
IMAX I
I MAX  I MIN
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M Example: Determination of the resolution

E Determine the resolution of the a 100 turns wire wound potentiometer as
percentage of f.s.d.
C Output resistance Slider with input
Solution: (R = f(x)) displacement (x)
H
A 100 turns  IMIN = xMIN = 0 Wire diameter (d)
T IMAX = xMAX = 100 d Wire cross section
R Assume no gapes (spaces)
O between wire tunes  ΔIR = d
N IR

I  IR
C Re solution as % of f . s. d.   100 %
I MAX  I MIN
S d
  100 %  1%
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M 9- Wear and ageing:

E Throughout the life of an element, the characteristics (e.g. k and a) of the ideal
straight line change slowly but systematically.
C Examples:
of a spring k(t) decreasing slowly with time due to wear, i.e.
H 1- The stiffness
k(t) = k0 − bt , where k0 is the initial stiffness and b is a constant.
A 2- The constants a1, a2, etc. of a thermocouple, measuring the temperature of
gas leaving a cracking furnace, changing systematically with time due to
T chemical changes in the thermocouple metals.
R
O 10- Error bands:
In many modern sensors and transducers, non-linearity, hysteresis and resolution
N effects are so small that it is difficult and not worthwhile to exactly quantify
each individual effect. In these cases the manufacturer defines the
I performance of the element in terms of error bands. Here the manufacturer
C states that for any value of the input (I), the output (O) will be within ±h of
the ideal straight-line output value (OIDEAL).
S
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M
E Error Bands Rectangular Probability
C Density Function

H
A
T
R
O
N
In this case the exact or systematic statement of performance is replaced
I by a statistical statement in terms of a probability density function p(O).
C
S
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M x2
p ( x1 , x 2 )   p ( x ) dx Area under the curve of probability density
E x1 function between x1 and x2 = Probability
C P(x1, x2) of x lying between x1 and x2.

H In this case the probability density function is rectangular and

A its area equal to unity: The probability of an output (O) lying
T between OIDEAL − h and OIDEAL + h is given by:

R
O  1
 2 h , O IDEAL  h  O  O IDEAL  h
N 
P ( O )   0 , O  O IDEAL  h
I  0 , O  O
IDEAL  h

C 

S
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M 11- Repeatability (Reproducibility):

The ability of a measurement system to give the same output for repeated
E applications of the same input values.
C R̂
Re peatabilit y   100 %
H OMAX  OMIN
A R̂ ≡ Maximum error in the output for repeated input.
T
12- Stability:
R The ability of a measurement system to give the same output for a given constant
O input over a period of time.

N Ŝ
Stability   100 %
I OMAX  OMIN
C Ŝ ≡ Maximum error in the output for constant input over a period of time.
S Zero drift ≡ Change in output over time when there is zero input.
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M 13- Dead band / Time:

Dead band: The range of input values for which there is no output.
E Dead time: The length of time from the application of an input until the output
C begins to respond and change.

H
A
T
Generalized Model Of A System Element
R
O O(I) = k I + a + N(I) + kM IM I + kI II

N
I
C
S
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M
E IM
Modifying
II
Interfering
C
H kM kI

A kM IM I
× k I II
T
R I kI O O’
k + + G( s )
O Input Output

N N( )
N( I )
a
I Static Dynamic

C General Model of an Element

S
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M Problem 2.3/ Page 32

E A displacement sensor has an input range of 0.0 to 3.0 cm and a standard supply
voltage VS = 0.5 volts. Using the calibration results given in the table, estimate:
C (a)The maximum non-linearity as a percentage of f.s.d.
(b)The constants KI , KM associated with supply voltage variations.
H (c)The slope K of the ideal straight line.
A
T
R
O
Solution:
N
(a) Ideal straight line is found from standard conditions (VS = 0.5 volts)
I
VOIdeal = k x + a , where k ≡ slope and a ≡ zero bias
C
S
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M VO max  VO min 58.0  0.0 58.0

k     19.3 [ mV / cm ]
xmax  xmin 3.0  0.0 3.0
E
a  0.0
C
 Ideal straight line is  VO Ideal  k x  19.3 x [ mV ]
H
x [ cm ] 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
A
VO [ mV ] @ VS = 0.5 V (Standard) 0.0 16.5 32.0 44.0 51.5 55.5 58.0
T VOIdeal = 19.3 x [ mV ] 0.0 9.7 19.3 29.0 38.6 48.3 58.0
R N(x) = VO – VOIdeal [ mV ] 0.0 6.8 12.7 15.0 12.9 7.2 0.0
O
N N̂  15.0 [ mV ]
I N̂ as % of f . s. d. 
N̂
 100 %
VO max  VO min
C
15.0
S   100 %  25.9 %
58.0  0.0
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M
E
C
(b) At standard conditions (VS = 0.5 volts)  zero bias = 0.0
H
at non-standard conditions (VS = 0.6 volts)  zero bias = 0.0
A
Zero bias = a + kI II  0.0 = 0.0 + kI II  kI = 0.0
T
Slope = k + kM IM
R (74.0 – 0.0)/ (3.0 – 0.0) = 19.3 + kM (ΔVS)
O 24.7 = 19.3 + kM (0.6 – 0.5)
N  kM = (24.7 – 19.3) [mV/ cm] / (0.1) [ V ] = 54 [ (mV/ cm) / Volts supply]
I (c) The slope k of the ideal straight line = 19.3 [mV/ cm]
C What is the general model of the displacement sensor?

S
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M Generalized Model Of A System Element

O(I) = k I + a + N(I) + kM IM I + kI II  VO(x) = 19.3 x + 0.0 + N(x) + 54 ΔVS x + 0
E
VO(x) = 19.3 x + N(x) + 54 ΔVS x [mV]
C  Predict a value for the output of the displacement transducer when x = 2.0 cm
H and the supply voltage is 0.4 volts.

A Solution:
The general model of the displacement transducer is:
T
VO(x) = 19.3 x + N(x) + 54 ΔVS x
R VO(2.0) = 19.3  (2.0) + N(2.0) + 54 (0.4 – 0.5)  (2.0)
O VO(2.0) = 38.6 + 12.9 – 10.8 = 40.7 mV
N
I
C
S
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M Dynamic Characteristics
E Dynamic characteristics: The time that the input value change and the output
settles down to the steady state measured value.
C
Dynamic characteristics are:
H
1. Response time: The required time (elapsed time) for the output (measured
A value) to become equal 95 % of the input (true value)
T 2. Time constant: The elapsed time for the output (response or measured value)
R to become equal 63.2 % of the input value.
Small time constant  Fast sensor.
O
Large time constant  Slow sensor.
N
3. Rise time: Time taken for the output (response) to become equal 90 % or 95
I % of the input value (steady state value).
C 4. Settling time: The time needed for the output to settle within ± 2 % of the
S input value or steady state value.

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M Output
Input value to the sensor
+_ 2 %
E (%)
100 %
C 95 %
H Output (response)
of the sensor
A
63.2 %
T
R
O
N
I  Time (s)
Tr 95% TS
C Time
Constant
Response
Time
Settling
Time

S (rise Time)

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M Example: Determination of the dynamic characteristics.

E A thermal process is used for the dynamic characteristics of a thermometer. When the
thermometer is plugged with the thermal process the dynamic response of the
C thermometer was such as shown in the following table:

H Time (sec) 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 55.0
Temperature (°C) 25.0 28.0 31.0 35.5 42.0 48.0 60.0 69.5 80.0 86.0 90.5 93.0
A Time (sec) 60.0 65.0 70.0 75.0 80.0 85.0 90.0 95.0 100.0 105.0 110.0 115.0

T Temperature (°C) 95.0 97.5 99.0 102.5 104.0 103.0 100.0 98.0 101.5 100.0 100.0 100.0

R Time constant:
O 63.2 % of the response = 25.0 + 0.632  (100.0 – 25.0) = 72.4 °C
N To find the time constant make interpolation between 35.0 sec and 40.0 sec

I Time constant (τ) = 35.0 + [(40.0 – 35.0)/ (80.0 – 69.5)]  (72.4 – 69.5)

C = 35.0 + (5.0/ 10.5)  (2.9) = 36.4 sec

S
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M Time (sec) 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 55.0
Temperature (°C) 25.0 28.0 31.0 35.5 42.0 48.0 60.0 69.5 80.0 86.0 90.5 93.0
E Time (sec) 60.0 65.0 70.0 75.0 80.0 85.0 90.0 95.0 100.0 105.0 110.0 115.0
C Temperature (°C) 95.0 97.5 99.0 102.5 104.0 103.0 100.0 98.0 101.5 100.0 100.0 100.0

H Response time or 95 % rise time:

A 95 % of the response = 25.0 + 0.95  (100.0 – 25.0) = 96.25 ≈ 96.3 °C
T To find the response time or 95% rise time make interpolation between 60.0 sec and 65.0 sec

R Response time or 95 % rise time = 60.0 + [(60.0 – 65.0)/ (97.5 – 95.0)]  (96.3 – 95.0)
= 60.0 + (5.0/ 2.5)  (1.3) = 62.6 sec
O
N Settling time (TS):
I ± 2 % of the response = ± 0.02  (100.0 – 25.0) = 1.5 °C
C Settling time is the required time for the response to inter the corridor of (100.0 °C ± 1.5 °C
= 98.5 °C --- 101.5 °C).
S
From the Table the settling time (TS) = the time 101.5 °C = 100.0 sec
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M
E
C
H
A
T
R
Questions
O
N
I
C
S
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