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WHAT IS MATTER?
matter is the substance that makes up everything
in the universe. it has mass and takes up space,
which means it has volume. matter can exist in
several states: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma.
at the most fundamental level, matter is composed of
atoms. atoms are the basic units of matter and consist
of protons, neutrons, and electrons. protons and
neutrons are located in the nucleus at the center of
the atom, while electrons orbit around the nucleus in
energy levels or shells.
different types of matter are made up of different
combinations of atoms. elements are substances
made up of only one type of atom. when two or more
elements chemically combine, they form
compounds. the study of matter and its properties is
a fundamental part of chemistry and physics.
pure substances are materials that have a
PURE SUBSTANCES
constant composition and consistent properties
throughout their structure. this means that all
samples of a pure substance have the same chemical
composition and the same set of intensive properties,
such as density, melting point, and boiling point.
pure substances can be classified into elements and
compounds:
elements: elements are substances that consist of
only one type of atom. each element is defined by
the number of protons in the nuclei of its atoms,
known as the atomic number. elements cannot be
broken down into simpler substances by chemical
methods. examples of elements include oxygen (o),
hydrogen (h), and carbon (c).
compounds: compounds are substances composed
of two or more elements chemically combined in
fixed ratios. the atoms in compounds are bonded
together in specific arrangements, giving compounds
unique properties different from the elements they
are made of. compounds can be broken down into
simpler substances (elements or other compounds)
through chemical reactions. water (h 2o) and sodium
chloride (nacl) are examples of compounds.
mixtures are substances made up of two or more
different types of particles or substances that are
physically combined but not chemically bonded.
unlike pure substances, mixtures do not have a fixed
composition, meaning the proportions of the
components in a mixture can vary. mixtures can be
classified into two main types: homogeneous
mixtures and heterogeneous mixtures.
homogeneous mixtures: homogeneous mixtures,
also known as solutions, have a uniform composition
and appearance throughout. in a homogeneous
mixture, the particles of different substances are
evenly distributed and do not settle upon standing.
examples of homogeneous mixtures include salt
dissolved in water ( creating saltwater ) and air ( a
mixture of gases, primarily nitrogen and oxygen,
with traces of other gases ).
MIXTURES
heterogeneous mixtures: heterogeneous mixtures
do not have a uniform composition and may have
distinct phases with visible boundaries between
them. in a heterogeneous mixture, the components
are not uniformly distributed, and they may separate
over time. examples of heterogeneous mixtures
include a mixture of sand and water, a salad with
various vegetables, and a mixture of oil and water.
unlike compounds, mixtures can be separated
into their individual components through
physical methods such as filtration, distillation, or
chromatography. the properties of each component
in a mixture remain unchanged, and no chemical
reactions occur between the components.
atoms are the basic building blocks of matter.
everything WHAT AREfrom
in the universe, ATOMS?
a tiny grain of sand
to the vast galaxies, is made up of atoms. atoms are
incredibly small, and they are the smallest unit of an
element that retains the chemical properties of that
element.
structure: atoms consist of three main particles:
protons, neutrons, and electrons. protons and
neutrons are located in the nucleus, which is the
central part of the atom. electrons orbit the nucleus
in electron shells or energy levels.
protons: protons are positively charged particles
found in the nucleus of an atom. the number of
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protons in an atom determines the element to which
it belongs. it is called the atomic number and is
unique for each element.
neutrons: neutrons are neutral particles (having no
charge) found in the nucleus alongside protons.
together, protons and neutrons form the nucleus of
an atom.
electrons: electrons are negatively charged particles
that orbit the nucleus in electron shells. electrons are
involved in chemical reactions and the formation of
chemical bonds between atoms.
element: each element is made up of atoms of a
specific type, all having the same number of protons
in their nuclei. elements are represented by their
chemical symbols (such as h for hydrogen, o for
oxygen, and fe for iron).
isotopes: atoms of the same element can have
different numbers of neutrons, leading to the
existence of isotopes. isotopes of an element have
the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons. this can result in variations in atomic mass.
subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and
electrons are subatomic particles. protons and
neutrons are composed of even smaller particles
called quarks.
understanding the behavior of atoms and their
interactions forms the basis of chemistry and is
PHYSICISTS
essential & properties
for explaining the SCIENTISTS and behavior
of matter at the atomic and molecular levels.
ernest rutherford, james chadwick, and joseph
john thomson were influential physicists and
scientists who made significant contributions to the
field of atomic physics. here's a brief overview of
their contributions:
1. ernest rutherford (1871-1937):
discovery of the atomic nucleus: rutherford is best
known for his gold foil experiment in 1909, which
led to the discovery of the atomic nucleus. in this
experiment, he directed alpha particles at a thin gold
foil and observed that some particles were deflected,
suggesting that atoms have a small, dense nucleus at
their center.
nuclear model of the atom: based on his gold foil
experiment, rutherford proposed a new model of the
atom in which a positively charged nucleus is orbited
by negatively charged electrons. this model laid the
foundation for modern atomic theory.
2. james chadwick (1891-1974):
discovery of the neutron: in 1932, chadwick
discovered the neutron, a neutral subatomic particle
found in the nucleus of an atom. he conducted
experiments that demonstrated the existence of
neutrons, which have a mass similar to that of
protons but carry no electrical charge. this discovery
provided a more complete understanding of atomic
structure and helped explain certain phenomena,
including nuclear reactions.
3. joseph john thomson (1856-1940):
discovery of the electron: thomson is credited with
the discovery of the electron, a subatomic particle
with a negative charge. in 1897, he conducted
experiments with cathode rays and determined that
they were made up of negatively charged particles,
which he called electrons. this discovery
revolutionized the understanding of atomic structure
and led to the development of the plum pudding
model, in which electrons are embedded in a
positively charged sphere.
contributions to mass spectrometry: thomson also
made significant contributions to the development of
mass spectrometry, a technique used to analyze the
masses of atoms and molecules.
valence electrons are the electrons located in the
outermost energy level, or shell, of an atom. these
electrons are involved in the chemical reactions and
bonding behavior of the atom. the number of valence
electrons an atom has is crucial in determining its
chemical properties, such as how it will bond with
other atoms to form molecules.
the valence electrons are the electrons in the
highest-numbered energy level of an atom. for
example, in sodium (na), which has an atomic
number of 11, the electron configuration is 2-8-1,
indicating that it has two electrons in the first energy
VALENCE ELECTRONS
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level, eight electrons in the second energy level, and
one valence electron in the third energy level. in
oxygen (o), with an atomic number of 8, the electron
configuration is 2-6, indicating that it has two
electrons in the first energy level and six valence
electrons in the second energy level.
the number of valence electrons in an atom
determines its chemical behavior because atoms tend
to achieve a full outer energy level, usually eight
electrons, following the octet rule. atoms can gain,
lose, or share valence electrons with other atoms to
achieve a stable electron configuration, usually the
same as that of a noble gas. this process of gaining,
losing, or sharing electrons leads to the formation of
chemical bonds between atoms, creating molecules
and compounds.
in summary, valence electrons are the outermost
electrons in an atom and play a crucial role in
chemical bonding and the formation of compounds.
the number of valence electrons an atom has
influences its reactivity and bonding patterns with
other atoms.
a lewis dot diagram (also known as lewis dot
structureLEWIS
or electron dot diagram) is a
DOT DIAGRAM
representation of the valence electrons in an atom.
it uses dots around the atomic symbol to represent
the valence electrons of an atom. the lewis dot
diagram provides a simple way to understand how
the valence electrons are arranged in an atom and
how atoms form chemical bonds.
here are the basic steps to create a lewis dot diagram:
determine the number of valence electrons: find the
group number of the element in the periodic table.
elements in the same group have the same number of
valence electrons. for example, elements in group 1
(such as hydrogen and sodium) have 1 valence
electron, elements in group 2 (such as helium and
magnesium) have 2 valence electrons, and so on.
place the dots: represent the valence electrons as dots
around the atomic symbol. place one dot at a time on
each side of the atomic symbol (top, bottom, left,
right) before pairing the dots.
for example, hydrogen (h) has 1 valence electron, so
its lewis dot diagram is represented as:
h: ●
oxygen (o) has 6 valence electrons, so its lewis dot
diagram is represented as:
o: ● ● ●
pairing electrons: once you have placed one dot on
each side, start pairing the dots. each side can hold a
maximum of two electrons. for example, carbon (c)
has 4 valence electrons, so its lewis dot diagram is
represented as:
c: ● ● ● ●
lewis dot diagrams are particularly useful for
understanding how atoms bond with each other.
atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons in order
to achieve a full valence electron shell, typically
with 8 electrons (the octet rule), similar to the noble
gases. lewis dot diagrams help visualize how these
electrons are transferred or shared between atoms,
forming chemical bonds.
chemical bonding is the process by which atoms
combine to form molecules and compounds. atoms
bond together to achieve a more stable state,
usually by filling their outermost energy level with
electrons, following the octet rule. there are three
main types of chemical bonds: ionic bonds, covalent
bonds, and metallic bonds.
ionic bonds:
ionic bonds form when atoms transfer electrons from
one to another, resulting in the formation of
oppositely charged ions. one atom loses electrons to
become a positively charged cation, while another
atom gains those electrons to become a negatively
charged anion. the opposite charges attract, holding
the ionsCHEMICAL
together. ionic BONDING
bonds typically occur
between elements with significantly different
electronegativities, leading to the transfer of
electrons.
example: sodium (na) loses an electron to become
na⁺, and chlorine (cl) gains that electron to become
cl⁻, forming sodium chloride (nacl) or table salt.
covalent bonds:
covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons to
achieve a full valence shell. atoms that share
electrons form molecules. covalent bonds occur
between non-metal atoms and can be either polar or
nonpolar, depending on the electronegativity
difference between the atoms involved. in polar
covalent bonds, electrons are shared unevenly,
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leading to partial charges on the atoms. in nonpolar
covalent bonds, electrons are shared equally.
example: in a water molecule (h₂o), hydrogen atoms
share electrons with oxygen, forming covalent
bonds.
metallic bonds:
metallic bonds occur between metal atoms. in a
metallic bond, electrons are delocalized, meaning
they are not associated with any particular atom but
move freely among the metal ions. this electron sea
gives metals their unique properties, such as
electrical conductivity, malleability, and luster.
metallic bonds are responsible for the formation of
metallic structures like alloys.
example: in a copper (cu) metal, the atoms share a
metallic bond, allowing the electrons to move freely
throughout the structure.
understanding these types of chemical bonding is
fundamental to understanding the properties of
different substances and how they interact with one
another in chemical reactions. the type of bond that
forms in a compound depends on the elements
involved and their electronegativity differences.
atoms form bonds to become more stable and
achieve a lower energy state. the stability of an atom
is related to the arrangement of its electrons. atoms
are most stable when their outermost energy level,
called the valence shell, is full. the number of
electrons in the valence shell determines the
chemical behavior of an atom.
there are two main reasons why atoms form bonds:
achieving a full valence shell: atoms bond to achieve
a full valence shell of electrons. for most elements,
this means having 8 electrons in the valence shell,
following the octet rule. having a full valence shell
makes an atom more stable, similar to the noble
gases (helium, neon, argon, etc.), which have full
valence shells and are known for their stability.
atoms can achieve a full valence shell by gaining,
losing, or sharing electrons with other atoms.
gaining electrons (anions): atoms with fewer than 8
valence electrons tend to gain electrons to achieve a
full valence shell. when they do this, they become
negatively charged ions called anions.
losing electrons (cations): atoms with more than one
valence electron tend to lose electrons to achieve a
full valence shell. when they lose electrons, they
become positively charged ions called cations.
sharing electrons (covalent bonds): atoms can also
achieve a full valence shell by sharing electrons with
other atoms. this shared electron pair forms a
covalent bond, creating a molecule.
lowering potential energy: when atoms bond, they
decrease their potential energy by forming more
stable chemical arrangements. atoms naturally tend
to move toward lower energy states, and bonding
allows them to achieve this lower energy state. the
energy is released when new bonds are formed,
making the resulting compound more stable than the
separate atoms.
in summary, atoms form bonds to become more
stable by achieving a full valence shell of electrons
or by reaching a lower energy state. this bonding
behavior is a fundamental concept in chemistry and
is essential for understanding the structure and
behavior of molecules and compounds.
the properties of ionic compounds relate to how
strongly the positive and negative ions attract each
other in an ionic bond.
ionic compounds exhibit the following properties:
they form crystals. ionic compounds form crystal
lattices rather than amorphous solids. at an atomic
level, an ionic crystal is a regular structure, with the
cation and anion alternating with each other and
forming a three-dimensional structure based largely
on the smaller ion evenly filling in the gaps between
the larger ion.
they have high melting points and high boiling
points. high temperatures are required to overcome
the attraction between the positive and negative ions
in ionic compounds. therefore, a lot of energy is
required to melt ionic compounds or cause them to
boil.
they have higher enthalpies of fusion and
vaporization than molecular compounds. just as
ionic compounds have high melting and boiling
points, they usually have enthalpies of fusion and
vaporization that can be 10 to 100 times higher than
those of most molecular compounds. the enthalpy of
fusion is the heat required melt a single mole of a
solid under constant pressure. the enthalpy of
vaporization is the heat required for vaporize one
mole of a liquid compound under constant pressure.
they're hard and brittle. ionic crystals are hard
because the positive and negative ions are strongly
attracted to each other and difficult to separate,
however, when pressure is applied to an ionic crystal
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then ions of like charge may be forced closer to each

other. the electrostatic repulsion can be enough to
split the crystal, which is why ionic solids also are
brittle.

they conduct electricity when they are dissolved in

water. when ionic compounds are dissolved in water
the dissociated ions are free to conduct electric
charge through the solution. molten ionic
compounds (molten salts) also conduct electricity.

they're good insulators. although they conduct in

molten form or in aqueous solution, ionic solids do
not conduct electricity very well because the ions are
bound so tightly to each other.