Result & Calculation

Result for Modern Method

Rod Length (m) Area (𝒎𝟐 )

Copper, Cu 0.315 4.91 × 10
Aluminium, Al 0.315 4.91 × 10
Table 1: The dimension of the rods

Copper (side) 𝑰 (±𝟎. 𝟏𝑨) 𝑽 (±𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝑽)

0.8 0.12
1.6 0.20
2.4 0.29
3.2 0.38
4.0 0.48
Table 2: The value of modern method for copper (side)

Figure 1: Graph Voltage vs Current for modern method Copper (side)

From the equation, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅. The y-axis is voltage values, x-axis is current values and the
gradient is the resistance of the rod.

From the graph,

The resistance, 𝑅 of the Copper (side) which is slope of the graph could be calculated which
is 𝑅 = 0.1125Ω

The uncertainty of the slope from the graph is ± 0.0025

The intercept of the graph is 0.024 with uncertainty ± 0.001

Copper 𝑰 (±𝟎. 𝟏𝑨) 𝑽 (±𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝑽)

(top and bottom) 0.8 11.48
1.6 12.51
2.4 12.70
3.2 12.78
4.0 12.88
Table 3: The value of modern method for copper (top and bottom)

Figure 2: Graph Voltage vs Current for modern method Copper (top and bottom)
From the equation, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅. The y-axis is voltage values, x-axis is current values and the
gradient is the resistance of the rod.

From the graph,

The resistance, 𝑅 of the Copper (top and bottom) which is slope of the graph could be
calculated which is 𝑅 = 0.307Ω

The uncertainty of the slope from the graph is ± 0.007

The intercept of the graph is 11.549 with uncertainty ± 0.001

Aluminium (side) 𝑰 (±𝟎. 𝟏𝑨) 𝑽 (±𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝑽)

1.0 0.17
2.0 0.36
3.0 0.55
4.0 0.73
5.0 0.92
Table 4: The value of modern method for aluminium (side)

Figure 3: Graph Voltage vs Current for modern method aluminium (side)

From the equation, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅. The y-axis is voltage values, x-axis is current values and the
gradient is the resistance of the rod.

From the graph,

The resistance, 𝑅 of the Aluminium (side) which is slope of the graph could be calculated
which is 𝑅 = 0.187Ω

The uncertainty of the slope from the graph is ± 0.001

The intercept of the graph is −0.015 with uncertainty ± 0.003

Aluminium 𝑰 (±𝟎. 𝟏𝑨) 𝑽 (±𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝑽)

(top and bottom) 1.0 13.48
2.0 13.54
3.0 13.57
4.0 13.60
5.0 13.62
Table 5: The value of modern method for aluminium (top and bottom)

Figure 4: Graph Voltage vs Current for modern method aluminium (top and bottom)
Traditional method
From the equation, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅. The y-axis is voltage values, x-axis is current values and the
gradient is the resistance of the rod.

From the graph,

The resistance, 𝑅 of the Aluminium (top and bottom) which is slope of the graph could be
calculated which is 𝑅 = 0.034Ω

The uncertainty of the slope from the graph is ± 0.004

The intercept of the graph is 13.46 with uncertainty ± 0.01

Calculation for modern method

Copper (side) 𝑙 = 0.315𝑚

𝐴 = 4.91 × 10 𝑚
𝑅 = 0.1125Ω
The conductivity of the copper,

𝜎=
.
=( . × )( . )

= (5.7 × 10 )(Ωm)

Theoretical value of copper = (5.98 × 10 )(Ωm)

Percentage Difference = | | × 100 %

( . × ) ( . × )
% difference = | ( . × )
| × 100 %

= 100 %

Copper (top and bottom) 𝑙 = 0.315𝑚

𝐴 = 4.91 × 10 𝑚
𝑅 = 0.307Ω
The conductivity of the copper,

𝜎=
.
=( . × )( . )

= (2.09 × 10 )(Ωm)
 Theoretical value of copper = (5.98 × 10 )(Ωm)

Percentage Difference = | | × 100 %

( . × ) ( . × )
% difference = | ( . × )
| × 100 %

= 100 %

Aluminium (side) 𝑙 = 0.315𝑚

𝐴 = 4.91 × 10 𝑚
𝑅 = 0.187Ω
The conductivity of the aluminium,

𝜎=
.
=
( . × )( . )

= (3.43 × 10 )(Ωm)

Theoretical value of aluminium = (3.58 × 10 )(Ωm)

Percentage Difference = | | × 100 %

( . × ) ( . × )
% difference = | ( . × )
| × 100 %

= 100 %

Aluminium (top and bottom) 𝑙 = 0.315𝑚

𝐴 = 4.91 × 10 𝑚
𝑅 = 0.034Ω
The conductivity of the aluminium,

𝜎=
.
=( . × )( . )

= (1.89 × 10 )(Ωm)
Theoretical value of aluminium = (3.58 × 10 )(Ωm)

Percentage Difference = | | × 100 %

( . × ) ( . × )
% difference = | ( . × )
| × 100 %

= 99.95 %
Result for Traditional Method

Nichrome 𝑰 (±𝟎. 𝟏𝑨) 𝑽 (±𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝑽)

0.4 0.77
0.8 1.51
1.2 2.27
1.6 3.02
2.0 3.82
Table 6: The value of Current and Voltage obtained by using traditional method for nichrome

Figure 5: Graph of Voltage against Current for traditional method nichrome

From the graph,

The resistance, 𝑅 of the nichrome which is slope of the graph could be calculated which
is 𝑅 = 1.9025𝛺

The uncertainty of the slope from the graph is ± 0.015

The intercept of the graph is −0.005 with uncertainty ± 0.02

 Copper 𝑰 (±𝟎. 𝟏𝑨) 𝑽 (±𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝑽)
1.0 0.03
2.0 0.06
3.0 0.09
4.0 0.12
5.0 0.16
Table 7: The value of Current and Voltage obtained by using traditional method for copper

Figure 6: Graph of Voltage against Current for traditional method copper

From the graph,

The resistance, 𝑅 of the nichrome which is slope of the graph could be calculated which is
𝑅 = 0.032Ω

The uncertainty of the slope from the graph is ± 0.004

The intercept of the graph is 0.0012 with uncertainty ± 0.004

Calculation for Traditional Method

Nichrome Resistance, 𝑅 = 1.9025 𝛺

Length, 𝑙 = 100 𝑐𝑚 = 1 𝑚
Width diameter, 𝐷 = 1.90 ± 0.02𝑚𝑚
𝐷 = 1.92 𝑚𝑚 = 1.92 × 10¯³ 𝑚
Radius, 𝑟 = 9.6 × 10 𝑚

Area, 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟2
= 𝜋( 9.6 × 10 )
= 2.895 × 10 𝑚

Conductivity, 𝜎 =

=( . × )( . )

= (1.815 × 10 ) (Ωm)

Theoretical value of conductivity of nichrome = (0.1 × 10 )(Ωm)

Percentage Difference = | | × 100 %

( . × ) ( . × )
% difference = | | × 100 %
( . × )

= 81.85 %

Copper Resistance, 𝑅 = 0.032 𝛺

Length, 𝑙 = 100 𝑐𝑚 = 1 𝑚
Width diameter, 𝐷 = 1.60 ± 0.02𝑚𝑚
𝐷 = 1.62 𝑚𝑚 = 1.62 × 10¯³ 𝑚
Radius, 𝑟 = 8.1 × 10 𝑚

Area, A = 𝜋𝑟
= 𝜋(8.1 × 10 )
= 2.061 × 10 𝑚
Conductivity, 𝜎 =

=( . × ¯ )( . )

= (1.516 × 10 ) (Ωm)

Theoretical value of copper = (5.98 × 10 )(Ωm)

Percentage Difference = | | × 100 %

( . × ) ( . × )
% difference = | ( . × )
| × 100 %

= 74.65 %
Discussion

In this experiment, we measured the voltage and current of aluminium, copper, and nichrome.
Then, a graph of voltage against current was plotted. Using excel, the resistance and its uncertainty as
well as intercept and its uncertainty could be calculated. The resistance was calculated from the
𝑉
gradient of the graph plotted since 𝑅 = . The graph of each metals and method shows linear graph
𝐼

with increase in voltage when value of the current was increased. Thus, from the value measured and
calculated, the electrical conductivity of copper, aluminium and nichrome were determined by having
𝑙
current-voltage characteristic line recorded. It was because from the formula conductivity, 𝜎 = , the
𝐴𝑅

length was already measured for every rod and wire metals that we used, while the area could be
calculated by the formula A = 𝜋r2 which the radius of rods and wires were also measured. Thus,
conductivity of the copper, aluminium and nichrome measured using the modern and traditional
method could be calculated using the conductivity formula. The calculation could be observed in the
result section. After finding out each resistance of our data from the gradient of the graph we were
able to calculate the electrical conductivity of metals used in this experiment. From the calculation, it
was shown that the conductivity of copper measured from the side and from top and bottom of the
rod using modern method were (5.7 × 103) (Ωm)¯¹ and (2.09×103) (Ωm)¯¹ each. Meanwhile, the
conductivity of aluminium measured from the side and from top and bottom of the rod using modern
method were (3.43×103) (Ωm)¯¹ and (1.89×104) (Ωm)¯¹ each. Lastly, using traditional methods the
conductivity of the nichrome is (1.815×105) (Ωm)¯¹ while the conductivity of the copper is (1.516×107)
(Ωm)¯¹. Thus, it is indeed true that we were able to determine the electrical conductivity of copper,
aluminium, and nichrome from recorded current-voltage characteristics line.

Percentage differences for each metal and methods were also calculated by using the formula
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙−𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
| | × 100 %. By using this formula, we were able to identify the comparison
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

between the theoretical value with their experimental value measured from the experiment. The
percentage difference for copper and aluminium measured at the side using the modern method were
both 100%. Other than that, for the copper and aluminium measured at the bottom using modern
method also both recorded percentage difference of 100%. This shows that there were some errors
in our experiment that we did not notice. As shown in the calculation in result section, the percentage
difference of nichrome using traditional method was recorded as 81.85 %. Meanwhile the percentage
difference of copper using traditional method equals 74.65 %. Even using the traditional method, the
percentage difference turns out big. Some errors that might happen in the experiment were because
of the rheostat that we used in the experiment had some problem in the component, there were some
of the coils of wire inside the rheostat melted which cause the resistance of the circuit to be so high
that it interrupted the value of voltage recorded. Other than that, length and cross-sectional area of
samples used may be measured incorrectly which results to error in this experiment. To overcome this
problem, each measurement should be done with the right technique. Thus, it is indeed important to
determine the electrical conductivity of each metal to characterize each material based on their
properties. Other than that, knowing each conductivity of metals is important to ensure the energy
efficiency in a system so that overuse of energy could be reduced.