CHAPTER 11

SEAGRASSES

Definition of terms:

Water current - rate of movement in the water, and ways to describe water current include its speed and
direction.

Epibenthic organisms - refers to organisms that live on or just above the bottom sediments in a body of
water.

Infaunal organisms - refers to aquatic animals that live in the substrate of a body of water and which are
especially common in soft sediments.

Sediment - matter that settles to the bottom of a liquid

Net primary productivity - it's the rate at which energy is stored as biomass by plants or
other primary producers and made available to the consumers in the ecosystem.

Eutrophication - excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water, frequently due to runoff
from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant life and death of animal life from lack of
oxygen.

Dredging - is the removal of sediments and debris from the bottom of lakes, rivers, harbors, and other
water bodies.

1.1. Introduction

Seagrasses are more closely related to lilies than

true grasses. Worldwide, there are more than 55 species
of seagrasses classified into 7 temperate and tropical
genera. The Indo-West Pacific region is host to the
highest diversity of seagrasses which are found in
estuaries, protected bays, lagoons, and other shallow
coastal waters.
Fig. 1.1. Seagrasses
Even if they are not true grasses, seagrasses appear
like grass with 3 - 5 shoots of leaf blades attached to a horizontal stem. Thick roots and rhizomes attach
the seagrasses to the bottom, allowing them to live in areas with strong waves and currents. Through
the extension of the rhizome which produces new plants, seagrasses can form expansive underwater
meadows. They are also capable of flowering to produce seeds that are quickly dispersed with the help
of currents and tides.

Seagrasses are aquatic angiosperms (flowering plants) with a high degree of uniformity in
vegetative appearance. They are the only flowering plants that live entirely and exclusively in seawater.
Almost all genera have well developed underground rhizomes and strap-shaped leaves, but there is
much variation in their modes of growth, branching system, and anatomical structure.

Seagrasses need sediments that are deep enough to allow roots to anchor the plants. Different
sediments ranging from fine mud to coarse sand can support their growth. Shoal grass can colonize thin
layers of sediments; turtle grass requires at least 7 cm of sediment depth to colonize; and about 50 cm
to achieve lush growth.

1.1.1. Anatomy

 Holdfast - Attach seaweeds to the sea floor. A holdfast is not necessary for water and nutrient
uptake, but is needed as an anchor.
  Stipe - The stalk or stem of a seaweed. The
function of the stipe is to support the rest of
the plant.
 Blades - The leaves of seaweeds. The main
function of the blades is to provide a large
surface for the absorption of sunlight.
 Floats/pneumatocysts - Hollow, gas-filled
structures that help to keep the
photosynthetic structures of the seaweed
buoyant so they are able to absorb energy
from the sun.
 Thallus - Refers to the entire plant body of a
seaweed.

1.2. Ecological Importance

Fig. 1.1.1. Seagrass Structure
Seagrasses have been considered as among the
most valuable ecosystems in terms of the value-added services they provide. They serve numerous
ecological functions such as nutrient recycling, sediment stabilization, and detritus production and
export. It is also an excellent habitat for the growth, survival, and reproduction of many aquatic animals.

Although seagrasses are present across only 0.15% of the ocean surface, they account for about
1% of the net primary production and 12% of the net ecosystem production of the global ocean. As
one of the most productive communities on earth, seagrasses are the habitat for large populations of
invertebrates and fishes and provide the richest nurseries and feeding grounds.

Seagrasses are extraordinarily rich habitats. Like terrestrial grasslands, sea grass meadows
support a diverse collection of other organisms. Macroalgae live among the sea grasses, and both may
have epiphytes attached to them.

Organisms living on the substrate find shelter as well as food within the meadow. Infaunal
organisms live hidden within sediments stabilized by the seagrass roots and rhizomes. Biodiversity
generally appears to be higher in seagrasses compared to nearby environments, although the
magnitude of this difference depends on the species composition and biomass of the seagrass.

Seagrass communities are important in both temperate and tropical marine food webs,
providing for a diversity of marine animals. Some animals feed directly on the seagrass roots and blades
while others scrape off epiphytes from the blades. Large predators also visit seagrass beds in search of
prey.

Once seagrasses are established, they greatly influence sedimentation in their area. Their blades
cause fine particles to settle to the bottom while their root and rhizome systems stabilize the substrate.

1.3. Geological Distribution

More than 55 species of seagrass exist in the

world with over half of these found off the Australian
coast. Thirteen species of seagrass are found in the
Philippines.

Fig. 1.3. Geological Distribution

1.4. Species profile

1.4.1. TURTLE GRASS (Thalassia testudinum)

blades are ribbon-like growing to 35.5 cm long and 1.3 cm wide. Blades have 9 -
15 parallel veins and are densely colonized by epiphytes. These long, broad blades
distinguish the turtle grass from other
species of seagrasses. Every rhizome node
has 2 - 5 blades. The rhizomes may grow as
deep as 25 cm below the substrate surface.
Turtle grass is usually found from the low
tide level to depths of about 10m on sand
and rubble-covered substrates. Turtle grass
grows in extensive meadows throughout its
range. It derives its name from the green
sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) that graze on
large fields of this seagrass. Fig. 1.4.1. Turtle Grass

1.4.2. MANATEE GRASS (Syringodium filiforme),

as well as turtle grass, is found in

tropical coastal waters with salinities of 20 -
36 parts per thousand. Its blades are
cylindrical and can grow to 50 cm in some
locations. Two to four blades are found on
each rhizome node. Its roots hardly go
below the substrate surface. It may grow
alone in small patches or with other
seagrass species. It is commonly referred to
as manatee grass because it is a favorite Fig. 1.4.2. Manatee Grass
food of the manatee.

1.4.3. SHOAL GRASS (Halodule wrightii)

colonizes disturbed areas where

turtle and manatee seagrasses cannot grow.
It is commonly found in estuarine waters
where salinity is 10 - 25 parts per thousand,
but it also forms densely in high-salinity areas
exposed to waves and in tidal flats. The flat,
narrow blades are clustered from a single
rhizome node. They have notched tips and
grow to 10 - 15 cm in length and only 2 - 3
mm in width.
Fig. 1.4.3. Shoal Grass

1.4.4. PADDLE GRASS (Halophila decipiens)

may be indentified by its finely-serrated leaf
margin and a paddle-shaped green blade
terminating in a rounded tip. Two opposite
blades extend directly from the rhizome node
and grow 10 - 25 mm long and 3 - 6 mm wide.
The rhizomes grow through soft substrates
and form areas of paddle grass in shallow
waters.
Fig. 1.4.4. Paddle Grass
1.5. Zonation

Salinity, light, and air exposure are environmental factors that affect seagrass distribution. Shoal
grass tolerates exposure and high salinities better than other seagrasses, thus, it is found in the
shallowest waters. Turtle grass may be found next at depths nearly as shallow as shoal grass. Deeper
than 12 m, manatee grass forms large meadows, replacing turtle grass. Star grass (Halophila
engelmanni) and paddle grass may grow deeper than 40 m as long as there is enough sunlight for
photosynthesis.

1.6. Adaptations

1.6.1. SALTWATER. Seagrasses descended from terrestrial plants but they have evolved

adaptations to survive in the marine environment. This adaptation to saltwater is most

important given that land plants cannot tolerate even small amounts of salt. Different
species of seagrasses have different levels of salinity tolerance, resulting in zonation
patterns.

1.6.2. WAVE ENERGY. To survive the wave action in their habitat, seagrasses evolved

strong horizontal stems called rhizomes. Blades grow directly from the rhizome or
branches radiating from the rhizome. Roots attached to the rhizome also help in
anchoring and taking up nutrients. Flexible, ribbon-shaped grass blades bend with any
water movement. Air spaces are also present throughout the blades, rhizomes, and
roots to provide flotation and respiration mechanisms.

1.7. Inhabitants

1.7.1. Bacteria and Fungi

Dead seagrass blades are decomposed by bacteria and fungi. Microfauna and meiofauna
settle on the dead seagrass blades and feed on the bacteria, fungi, and the dissolved
organic matter resulting from decomposition. This organic material also sustain
phytoplankton and zooplankton which are consumed by other organisms further up the
food web.

1.7.2. Algae

BENTHIC ALGAE are found within seagrass beds attached to sediments, exposed rocks,
and the seagrasses themselves. Calcareaous algae live among the seagrasses and
produce calcium carbonate which eventually becomes part of the surrounding
sediments. Drift algae form large free masses along the bottom which drift along the
water current. Also common in the seagrass habitats are red and brown algae.

EPIPHYTIC ALGAE flourish in seagrasses because of the increased surface area for
attachment. In fact, over 100 species of epiphytic algae have been documented on
turtle grass alone. More epiphytes cover the tips of seagrass blades than the base in
order to capture more sunlight. However, epiphytes reduce the growth of seagrass due
to shading. Along with seagrass blades, epiphytes eventually contribute to the detritus.

1.7.3. Invertebrates

A diverse group of invertebrates inhabit

the seagrass habitat which provides them with a
rich source of food, primarily in the form of
epiphytes. Some epibenthic organisms, which
reside on the surface of the bottom sediments,

Fig. 1.7.3. Crab (Invertebrate)

feed on both epiphytes living on the seagrass blades and the blades themselves.

Other epibenthic species and different gastropods feed on infaunal organisms living
within the sediments. At night, sea urchins move in from nearby reefs to feed on detritus,
epiphytes, and seagrass blades. Ingesting sand grains and algae are sea cucumbers which move
across the surface of the sediments. Pink shrimp and juvenile spiny lobsters find shelter among
the seagrass blades.

Turtle and shoal grass habitats are host to epiphytic organisms dominated by gastropods.
Among these are anemones, bryozoans, and sponges that live attached to seagrass blades. This
enormous diversity of epiphytes is made possible by the dramatic increase in surface area
provided by the seagrasses.

Small patches of stony corals are common in shallow seagrass communities. At greater
depths, sponges growing among seagrasses or attached to coral skeletons become more
common. Less obvious are the thriving infauna communities which include bivalves living within
the sediments of seagrass beds.

1.7.4. Fishes

Seagrass beds are nursery areas and

feeding grounds for many fish species. They
are also home to many resident species. Year-
round residents are usually small in size and
hide among the blades. Seasonal residents
spend part of their life in seagrass beds,
mainly as a nursery area for spawning and/or
juvenile development. When coral reefs are
adjacent to seagrass beds, reef fishes would
also forage among the seagrasses during the
night and return to the reefs for shelter at
Fig. 1.7.4. Fishes
day. Offshore migrants such as sharks and
stingrays visit seagrasses in search of prey

1.7.5. Reptiles

The green sea turtle mainly feeds on

turtle grass. Crocodiles are also known to feed
in seagrass areas, although it is unknown to
what extent they utilize seagrasses.

1.7.6. Birds

Fig. 1.7.5. Sea Turtle

Many birds use seagrass beds, especially
wading birds which search for food. The three common feeding modes of birds are
waders, swimmers, and plungers.

1.7.7. Mammals

Manatees frequent shallow seagrass

meadows feeding on aquatic vegetation
including seagrasses. Bottlenose dolphins also
feed over seagrass beds, even in waters less
than 1 m deep. They mostly feed on fish,
squid, and invertebrates.

Fig. 1.7.7. Sea Cow

1.8. Threats to Seagrasses

1.8.1. DREDGING AND FILLING activities seriously damage seagrass habitats. Dredging

is done to deepen channels and canals as well as collecting sediments for landfilling in
construction projects. This destroys seagrasses and impacts other habitats nearby.
Dredging suspends sediments in the water, increasing turbidity. This reduces light
penetration into the water and reduces seagrass growth and survival.

1.8.2. PROPELLER SCARRING is mostly caused by large numbers of small boats,

although large boats cause much more damage when they run aground. The damage
occurs when the boats enter shallow waters causing the propellers to come in contact
with the seagrasses and slashing the bottom substrate. Recovery may take years, but if
the damage is repeated, the seagrass beds may never completely recover. Scarred
seagrass beds are also vulnerable to wave action and erosion. This resuspends
sediments into the water, further inhibiting seagrass growth.

1.8.3. EUTROPHICATION is an increase in chemical nutrients - compounds containing

nitrogen or phosphorus - in an ecosystem. A moderate increase in nutrients might

increase seagrass growth but dramatic increases are usually harmful. High nutrient
inputs results in excessive growth of epiphytes and phytoplankton blooms, reducing the
amount of sunlight reaching the seagrasses.

1.9. Conservation of Seagrasses

A decrease in seagrass habitats have recently been documented through aerial

photography and geographical information systems (GIS) as coastal areas become more
populated. In response, Efforts are being to protect and manage these areas though water
quality improvement, boating restrictions, legislation, and education.

1.9.1. WATER QUALITY issues can be dealt with by government agencies through appropriate
regulations. Industries must be required to follow regulations on discharges to meet
acceptable water quality conditions. Improvement of sewage treatment plants and
septic systems will result in the reduction of pollutants entering coastal waters.

1.9.2. BOATING RESTRICTION ZONES will help protect seagrass habitats from propeller
scarring as well as the manatees that reside in the area.

1.9.3. LEGISLATION in the form of environmental regulations should control dredging and
filling activities and establish aquatic preserves protected from extensive coastal
development.

1.9.4. EDUCATION is key to local residents, tourists, and boaters in their awareness and
appreciation of all marine habitats including seagrasses. Posters, brochures, maps, signs,
and classes are all useful in communicating the importance of seagrass habitats to the
public.