SDOF Lectures 1 To 6 For Stds

ME445: Noise & Vibration
Course Teacher: Dr. Muhammad Ashiqur Rahman

Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET
Lecture Number 1 to 6
(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 1

ME 445 : Noise and Vibration 3.00 Credit Hours
Introduction to Mechanical Vibration, Vibration isolation, machine

foundation design; Vibration absorption; Random vibration; Beam and
plate vibrations.
Sound waves; Sound sources; Sound transmission through walls and
structures; Acoustics of large and small rooms; Mechanism of sound
absorption; Design of silencers.

• Reference Texts:
1. Theory of vibration with applications by Thomson
2. Mechanical vibration by S S Rao
3. Mechanical vibration by Seto (To see solved problems)

• The study of vibration is concerned with the oscillatory motions of bodies and the
forces associated with them. All bodies possessing mass and elasticity are capable
of vibration. Thus, most engineering machines and structures experience vibration
to some degree, and their design generally requires consideration of their
oscillatory behavior.
• Oscillatory systems can be broadly characterized as linear or nonlinear. For linear

systems the principle of superposition holds, and the mathematical techniques
available for their treatment are well-developed. In contrast, techniques for the
analysis of nonlinear systems are less well known, and difficult to apply. However,
some knowledge of nonlinear systems is desirable, since all systems tend to
become nonlinear with increasing amplitude of oscillation.

• There are two general classes of vibrations-free and forced. Free vibration takes
place when a system oscillates under the action of forces inherent in the system
itself, and when external impressed forces are absent. The system under free
vibration will vibrate at one or more of its natural frequencies, which are properties
of the dynamical system established by its mass and stiffness distribution.
• Vibration that takes place under the excitation of external forces is called forced
vibration. When the excitation is oscillatory, the system is forced to vibrate at the
excitation frequency. If the frequency of excitation coincides with one of the
natural frequencies of the system, a condition of resonance is encountered. and
dangerously large oscillations may result. The failure of major structures, such as
bridges, buildings, or airplane wings, is an awesome possibility under resonance.
Thus, the calculation of the natural frequencies is of major importance in the
study of vibrations.

• Vibrating systems are all subject to damping to some degree because energy is dissipated
by friction and other resistances. If the damping is small, it has very little influence on the
natural frequencies of the system, and hence the calculations for the natural frequencies
are generally made on the basis of no damping. On the other hand, damping is of great
importance in limiting the amplitude of oscillation at resonance.
• The number of independent coordinates required to describe the motion of a system is
called the degrees of freedom of the system. Thus, a free particle undergoing general
motion in space will have three degrees of freedom, while a rigid body will have six
degrees of freedom, i.e., three components of position and three angles defining its
orientation. Furthermore, a continuous elastic body will require an infinite number of
coordinates (three for each point on the body) to describe its motion; hence its degrees of
freedom must be infinite. However, in many cases, parts of such bodies may be assumed to
be rigid, and the system may be considered to be dynamically equivalent to one having
finite degrees of freedom. In fact, a surprisingly large number of vibration problems can be
treated with sufficient accuracy by reducing the system to one having a single degree of
freedom.

ME445: Noise & Vibration
Course Teacher: Dr. Muhammad Ashiqur Rahman

Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Degrees of freedom (DOF):
The minimum number of independent coordinates required to determine completely the positions of all parts of a
system at any instant of time defines the number of degrees of freedom of the system.
Systems with a finite number of degrees of freedom are called discrete or lumped parameter systems, and those
with an infinite number of degrees of freedom are called continuous or distributed systems.

OSCILLATORY MOTION
1.1 Harmonic Motion
1.2 Periodic Motion
1.3 Vibration Terminology
HARMONIC MOTION
Oscillatory motion may repeat itself regularly, as in the balance wheel of a
watch, or display considerable irregularity, as in earthquakes. When the
motion is repeated in equal intervals of time r, it is called periodic motion. The
repetition time T is called the period of the oscillation, and its reciprocal,
f = 1/ τ , is called the frequency. If the motion is designated by the time
function x(t), then any periodic motion must satisfy the relationship
x(t) = x(t + τ).

The simplest form of periodic motion is harmonic motion. It can be demonstrated by a mass
suspended from a light spring, as shown in Fig. 1.1-1. If the mass is displaced from its rest
position and released, it will oscillate up and down. By placing a light source on the oscillating
mass, its motion can be recorded on a light-sensitive filmstrip, which is made to move past it at a
constant speed. The motion recorded on the film strip can be expressed by the equation
X = A sin 2π t/τ
where A is the amplitude of oscillation, measured from the equilibrium position of the mass,
and r is the period. The motion is repeated when t = τ. Alternative form of the above equation is,
x = A sin ωt (c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 11
Exponential form
For the rotating vector A, the quantity z is referred to as the complex sinusoid, with x and y as the
real and imaginary components, respectively. The quantity z = x + i y also satisfies the
differential equation (1.1-6) for harmonic motion.
Figure 1.1-5 shows z and its conjugate z* = Ae -i ωt

which is rotating in the negative direction with angular speed - ω. It is evident from this diagram, that the real
component x is expressible in terms of z and z* by the equation
x = (z + z*)/2 = A cos ωt = Re Ae i ωt
where Re stands for the real part of the quantity z. We will find that the exponential form of the harmonic
motion often offers mathematical advantages over the trigonometric form.
PERIODIC MOTION
It is quite common for vibrations of several different frequencies to exist simultaneously. For example, the
vibration of a violin string is composed of the fundamental frequency f and all its harmonics, 2f, 3f, and so
forth. Another example is the free vibration of a multidegree-of-freedom system, to which the vibrations at
each natural frequency contribute. Such vibrations result in a complex waveform, which is repeated
periodically as shown in Fig. 1.2-1. The French mathematician J. Fourier (1768-1830) showed that any periodic
motion can be represented by a series of sines and cosines that are harmonically related. If x(t) is a periodic
function of the period τ, it is represented by the Fourier series,

With a mathematical operations, the coefficients an and bn are as given,
The Fourier series can also be represented in terms of the exponential function. Substituting,
Fourier spectrum is expressed in terms of, 2cn = √(an2 + bn2 ), tan 𝝋n = bn / an

Problem: Determine the Fourier series of a series of rectangular vibration pulses shown in Fig. Pl-16
for k = 1/3. Plot the Fourier spectrum.
Solution: τ= 2π /ω. Let fundamental frequency = ω1 = ω.

Diving by ω , the transformed pulse is shown.
The coefficients an and bn can be written in two different forms
t
t kπ /ω
/ /
Or, an = (𝜔/𝜋)∫ cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 and, bn = (𝜔/𝜋)∫ sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The vibration signal/pulse is, x (t) = 1

= 0 0≤ 𝑡 ≤ k𝜋/𝜔 (k =1/3)

/ /
an = / ) = / )
/
= / ) = (1/n ) [ sin ]
/ /
And, bn = / ) = / )
= (-1/n ) [ ]
n an bn 2cn = √(an2 + bn2 ) 𝜑n

(Degree)
1 o.2757 0.159 0.318 30
3 0 0.212 0.212 90
H.W. Complete the table to plot the spectrum shown.

1.3 VIBRATION TERMINOLOGY
Certain terminologies used in the vibration need to be represented here. The simplest of these are the peak
value and the average value. The peak value generally indicates the maximum stress that the vibrating part is
undergoing. It also places a limitation on the “rattle space” requirement. The average value indicates a steady or
static value, somewhat like the dc level of an electrical current. It can be found by the time integral a shown.
Examples are shown for x = A sin ωt.

The square of the displacement generally is associated with the energy of the vibration for which the mean
square value is a measure. The mean square value of a time function x(t) is found from the average of the
squared values, integrated over some time interval T:
The root mean square (rms) value is the square root of the mean square value. From the previous example,
the rms of the sine wave of amplitude A is A / √2= 0.707A.

Vibrations are commonly measured by rms meters. The decibel is a unit of measurement that is
frequently used in vibration measurements. It is defined in terms of a power ratio.
The second equation results from the fact that power is proportional to the square of the amplitude or
voltage. The decibel is often expressed in terms of the first power of amplitude or voltage as

Problem: An rms voltmeter specifies an accuracy of ±0.5 dB. If a vibration of 2.5 mm rms is measured, determine the millimeter
accuracy as read by the voltmeter.
Solution: x = 2.5 mm rms corresponds to 20 log 2.5 dB = 7.95 dB.
With an accuracy of ±0.5 dB , the reading will range 7.95 ± 0.5 dB = L dB to U dB
Taking antilog, xmax = 10U/20 mm = 2.648mm, error = xmax - x = 0.148mm
And , xmin = 10L/20 mm, error = xmin - x = - 0.148mm
The error will be ±0.148mm

Problem: The calibration curve of a piezoelectric accelerometer is
shown in Fig. Pl-22 where the ordinate is in decibels. If the peak is
32 dB, what is the ratio of the resonance response to that at some
low frequency, say, 1000 cps?
Solution: 20 log x peak/x2 = 32 dB
That gives, x peak/x2 = 39.81

In Appendix A, the graph is often used to specify bounds for the vibration.
Specifications for vibrations are often based on harmonic motion.
The velocity and acceleration are then available from differentiation and the
following relationships for the peak values can be written.
These equations can be represented on log-log paper by rewriting them in the

Forms shown.
By letting x0 = constant, the plot of ln 𝒙̇ 𝟎 versus ln 2πf
is a straight line of slope equal to +1.
By letting = constant, the plot of the plot of ln x0̈ versus ln 2πf
is again a straight line of slope - 1. These lines are shown graphically in Fig. A-1.
The graph is often used to specify bounds for the vibration. 𝑥̇ 0

H.W. Using coordinate paper similar to that of Appendix A, outline the bounds for the following vibration
specifications. Max. acceleration = 2 g, max. displacement = 0.08 in., min. and max. frequencies: 1 Hz and 200 Hz.
x0 = Maximum displacement =0.08 in

x0̈ = Maximum acceleration =2g
ln 𝒙̇ 𝟎
ln 2πf 1 Hz 200 Hz
More classification of Vibration (Deterministic & Random): If the value or magnitude of the
excitation (force or motion) acting on a vibratory system is known at any given time, the excitation is
called deterministic. The resulting vibration is known as deterministic vibration. In some cases, the
excitation is nondeterministic or random; the value of the excitation at a given time cannot be
predicted. In these cases, a large collection of records of the excitation may exhibit some statistical
regularity. It is possible to estimate averages such as the mean and mean square values of the
excitation. Examples of random excitations are wind velocity, road roughness, and ground motion
during earthquakes. If the excitation is random, the resulting vibration is called random vibration. In
this case the vibratory response of the system is also random; it can be described only in terms of
statistical quantities. Figure 1.15 shows examples of deterministic and random excitations.

Vibration analysis procedure (1.6 Rao)
A vibratory system is a dynamic one for which the variables such as the excitations (inputs) and responses (outputs) are
time dependent. The response of a vibrating system generally depends on the initial conditions as well as the external
excitations. Most practical vibrating systems are very complex, and it is impossible to consider all the details for a
mathematical analysis. Only the most important features are considered in the analysis to predict the behavior of the
system under specified input conditions. Often the overall behavior of the system can be determined by considering
even a simple model of the complex physical system. Thus the analysis of a vibrating system usually involves
following steps.
Step 1: Mathematical Modeling

Step 2: Derivation of Governing Equations
Step 3: Solution of the Governing Equations
Step 4: Interpretation of the Results

Mathematical model of a motorcycle: Develop a sequence of three mathematical models of the system for
investigating vibration in the vertical direction. Consider the elasticity of the tires, elasticity and damping of
the struts (in the vertical direction), masses of the wheels, and elasticity, damping, and mass of the rider.

Analysis of Free Vibration without damping:
Purpose: To find natural frequency 𝑛) of a mechanical system
𝑛 can be calculated in a number of methods. We shall discuss

following methods applied to free Vibration without damping
1. Newton’s 2nd law of motion 2. Energy method

3. Virtual work method 4. Rayleigh method
5. Lagrange’s method

Newton’s 2nd law of motion
Equivalent mass (meq) and Equivalent stiffness (keq) terms are

useful in complex systems to define natural frequency as
𝜔𝑛2 = keq / meq

Example 2.2-4 Figure 2.2-4 shows a uniform bar pivoted about point O with springs of equal stiffness
k at each end. The bar is horizontal in the equilibrium position with spring forces shown - Determine the equation of
motion and its natural frequency.
Solution: Under rotation θ, the spring force on the left is decreased and that on the right is increased. With Jo as the
moment of inertia of the bar about o, the moment equation about O is

ENERGY METHOD
In a conservative system, the total energy is constant, and the differential equation of motion can also be
established by the principle of conservation of energy. For the free vibration of an undamped system, the energy
is partly kinetic and partly potential. The kinetic energy T (= ½ m v2 ) is stored in the mass by virtue of its
velocity, whereas the potential energy U (= ½ k x2 ) is stored in the form of strain energy in elastic deformation or
work done in a force field such as gravity. The total energy being constant, its rate of change is zero, as illustrated
by the following equations:
However, if the system is undergoing harmonic motion, then v = 𝑥̇ = 𝜔𝑛x
Tmax= ½ m vmax2 = ½ m (𝜔𝑛 X )2
Umax = ½ k X2
Equating, Tmax = Umax leads directly to the natural frequency 𝜔2𝑛 = k/m

Determine the natural frequency of the system shown in Fig. 2.3-1.

RAYLEIGH METHOD: EFFECTIVE MASS
The energy method can be used for multimass systems or for distributed mass systems, provided the motion of
every point in the system is known. In systems in which masses are joined by rigid links, levers, or gears, the
motion of the various masses can be expressed in terms of the motion x of some specific point and the system is
simply one of a single DOF, because only one coordinate is necessary. The kinetic energy can then be written as
where is the ejfective mass or an equivalent lumped mass at the specified point. If the stiffness at that point is also
known, the natural frequency can be calculated from the simple equation
In distributed mass systems such as springs and beams, a knowledge of the distribution of the vibration amplitude
becomes necessary before the kinetic energy can be calculated. Rayleigh showed that with a reasonable assumption
for the shape of the vibration amplitude, it is possible to take into account previously ignored masses and arrive at a
better estimate for the fundamental frequency.

Example 2.4-1
Determine the effect of the mass of the spring on the natural frequency of the system shown in Fig. 2.4-1.
Solution: With x equal to the velocity of the lumped mass m, we will assume the velocity of a spring element located
a distance y from the fixed end to vary linearly with y as

The engine-valve system of Fig. P2-26 consists of a rocker arm of moment of inertia J, a valve of mass mv
and a spring of mass ms. Determine its effective mass at A and natural frequency.

Principle of virtual work
The principle of virtual work (scalar method) was first formulated by Johann J. Bernoulli. It is
especially important for systems of interconnected bodies of higher DOF.
The principle of virtual work (δW) is associated with the equilibrium of bodies, and may be
stated as follows: If a system in equilibrium under the action of a set of forces is given a virtual
displacement, the virtual work done by the forces will be zero.
The terms used in this statement are defined as follows: (1) A virtual displacement or is an
imaginary infinitesimal variation of the coordinate given instantaneously. The virtual
displacement must be compatible with the constraints of the system. (2) Virtual work is the
work done by all the active forces in a virtual displacement. Because there is no significant
change of geometry associated with the virtual displacement, the forces acting on the system
are assumed to remain unchanged for the calculation of δW.
The principle of virtual work as formulated by Bernoulli is a static procedure. Its extension to
dynamics was made possible by D’Alembert* (1718-1783), who introduced the concept of the
inertia force. Thus, inertia forces are included as active forces when dynamic problems are
considered.
Lagrange’s formulation
So far we formulated the equations of motion by three different methods. Newton’s vector method offered a simple approach for
systems of a few degrees of freedom. The necessity for the consideration of forces of constraints and free-body diagrams in this
method led to algebraic difficulties for systems of higher degrees of freedom. The energy method overcame the difficulties of the
vector method. However, the energy principle in terms of physical coordinates provided only one equation, which limited its use to
single-DOF systems. The virtual work method overcame the limitations of both earlier methods and proved to be a powerful tool
for systems of higher DOF. However, it is not entirely a scalar procedure in that vector considerations of forces are necessary in
determining the virtual work.
Lagrange’s formulation is an entirely scalar procedure, starting from the scalar quantities of kinetic energy (T), potential energy (U)
and work, forces (Q), expressed in terms of generalized coordinates qi.
It is presented here as
Generalized coordinates qi’s are any set of independent coordinates equal in number to the degrees of freedom of the
system. Thus, the equations of motion of the previous chapter were formulated in terms of generalized coordinates.

When external forces act on the system, its configuration changes. The new configuration of the system can be
obtained by changing the generalized coordinates qj by dqj, j = 1, 2, c, n, where n denotes the number of
generalized coordinates (or degrees of freedom) of the system. If Uj denotes the work done in changing the
generalized coordinate qj by the amount dqj, the corresponding generalized force Qj can be defined as
a function R, known as Rayleigh’s dissipation function,

corresponding term in Lagranges equation is

1
𝑇 = 𝑚1 𝑞̇
2
1
𝑈= 𝑘 𝑞
2 1
T for this problem is a function of only and not of qi
By substituting into Lagrange’s equation for i = 1,
m1𝑞1̈ + k1q1 =0

SDOF Lectures 1 To 6 For Stds

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ME445: Noise & Vibration

Course Teacher: Dr. Muhammad Ashiqur Rahman

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 1

Introduction to Mechanical Vibration, Vibration isolation, machine

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 2

1. Theory of vibration with applications by Thomson

2. Mechanical vibration by S S Rao

3. Mechanical vibration by Seto (To see solved problems)

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 3

• Oscillatory systems can be broadly characterized as linear or nonlinear. For linear

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 4

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 5

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 6

Course Teacher: Dr. Muhammad Ashiqur Rahman

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 7

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 8

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 10

Figure 1.1-5 shows z and its conjugate z* = Ae -i ωt

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 14

Fourier spectrum is expressed in terms of, 2cn = √(an2 + bn2 ), tan 𝝋n = bn / an

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 15

Solution: τ= 2π /ω. Let fundamental frequency = ω1 = ω.

The coefficients an and bn can be written in two different forms

The vibration signal/pulse is, x (t) = 1

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 16

n an bn 2cn = √(an2 + bn2 ) 𝜑n

H.W. Complete the table to plot the spectrum shown.

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 19

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 20

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 21

Solution: x = 2.5 mm rms corresponds to 20 log 2.5 dB = 7.95 dB.

With an accuracy of ±0.5 dB , the reading will range 7.95 ± 0.5 dB = L dB to U dB

Taking antilog, xmax = 10U/20 mm = 2.648mm, error = xmax - x = 0.148mm

And , xmin = 10L/20 mm, error = xmin - x = - 0.148mm

The error will be ±0.148mm

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 22

Solution: 20 log x peak/x2 = 32 dB

That gives, x peak/x2 = 39.81

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 23

Specifications for vibrations are often based on harmonic motion.

These equations can be represented on log-log paper by rewriting them in the

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 24

x0 = Maximum displacement =0.08 in

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 26

Step 1: Mathematical Modeling

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 27

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 29

Purpose: To find natural frequency 𝑛) of a mechanical system

𝑛 can be calculated in a number of methods. We shall discuss

1. Newton’s 2nd law of motion 2. Energy method

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 30

Equivalent mass (meq) and Equivalent stiffness (keq) terms are

𝜔𝑛2 = keq / meq

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 31

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 32

However, if the system is undergoing harmonic motion, then v = 𝑥̇ = 𝜔𝑛x

Tmax= ½ m vmax2 = ½ m (𝜔𝑛 X )2

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 33

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 34

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 35

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 36

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 39

(c) Dr. M. Ashiqur Rahman, ME Dept., BUET 42