REFRESHER COURSE

BUILDING MATERIALS
DECEMBER 2011

UNITED ARCHITECTS OF THE PHILIPPINES

3F UAP HEADQUARTERS BUILDING
53 SCOUT RALLOS STREET, BARANGAY LAGING HANDA
DILIMAN, QUEZON CITY 1103

Arch. Angelito S. Soriano, uap

REVIEW SPECIALIST

ANSWER BOOK
 REFRESHER COURSE 2011

OVERVIEW

A. Site Preparation and Development

B. Carpentry & Joinery, Hardware

C. Masonry

D. Roofing Materials

E. Structural Steel

F. Reinforced Concrete

G. Waterproofing/Sound/Thermal Insulation

H. Glass & Glazing, Hardware

I. Painting & Varnishing

J. Doors & Hardware

K. Windows & Hardware

L. Exterior & Interior Finishes

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SITE PREPARATION AND DEVELOPMENT

ACRONYMS
AASHTO - American Asssociation of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ANSI - American National Standards Institute
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
DPWH - Department of Public Works and Highways (Philippine Government)
USCS - Unified Soil Classificatory SystemACRONYMS

ATTERBERG LIMITS are tests performed on soils passing the No. 40 sieve as follows:
a. Liquid Limit (LL) – the moisture content at which a soil changes from the liquid state
to the plastic state, measured when soil in a shallow dish flows to close a 12.5 mm
grove after 25 drops from 1cm.
b. Plastic Limit (PL) – the water content at which a silt or clay material will just begin to
crumble when rolled into a tread approx 3.2 mm (1/8 inch) in diameter.
c. Plastic Index (PI) – is defined as the Liquid Limit minus the Plastic Limit: LL – PL =
PI, that is the range of water content over which sediment behaves.

FILL MATERIALS
a. Fill materials - soil, crushed stone, and sand used to raise an existing grade, or as a
man-made-deposit, generally used under spread footings, pavers, or concrete slabs
on grade. They are classified under the United Soil Classification System (USCS) as:

 GW, GM, GP – Gravels with > 50% retained on No.200 sieve, and 50% of coarse
fraction retained on No. 40 sieve.

 SW, SM – Sands with > 50% retained on No.200 sieve and 50% or more of
coarse fraction passes the No.40 sieve.

b. Granular Fill or Filters - soil materials conforming to above General Fill

requirements and to ASTM C33, size 67, with a sand equivalent of not < than 50%,
used to prevent the movement of fine particlesout of soils and other natural materials
through seepage.

c. Borrow Fill – soil materials suitable as fill or sub-grade, selected laboratory-approved

pit-run gravel, disintegrated granite, sand, shale, cinders or other similar materials
with not more than 35% fraction passing the No.200 sieve.

d. Base Course Materials are hard durable fragments of stone and a filler of sand or
other finely divided mineral matter, free from vegetable matter and lumps of clay,
complying with the following AASHTO METHODS T-11 and T-26 Grading
Requirements.

RIPRAP
Also known as rock lining is a constructed layer of stone, placed to prevent erosion, scouring
or sloughing of a structure or embarkment.

GABION SYSTEMS
In simplest terms, gabions are stone-filled wire baskets used to stabilize soil and prevent
erosion.

PAVEMENTS
Paving is a material that provides a wearing surface for pedestrian or vehicular traffic in the
environment.

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PAVEMENT TYPES

a. Flexible Pavements – pavements that consist of concrete, brick or stone unit pavers
laid out on a sand setting bed that is somehow resilient and which distributes loads to
the sub-grade in a radiating manner. In order to restrain its horizontal movement, it
will require wood, steel, stone or concrete edging.

b. Rigid Pavements – pavements made of reinforced concrete slabs or paving units

mortared over a concrete slab. It distributes the loads internally, transferring them to
the sub-grade over a large and broad area. This type of pavement requires
reinforcements and extension of the base materials along their edges.

c. Turf Pavements – pavements made of unit pavers with spacing in between to

accommodate grass or ground covers over a top soil mix.

QUESTIONNAIRES

1. Classifies inorganic soils for suitability as sub-grade materials in terms of good drainage and
bearing capacity:

a) AASHTO Soil Classification System

b) USCS United Soil Classification System
c) All of the above
d) None of the above

2. Tests performed on soils passing the No. 40 sieve are called:

a) Atterberg Limits
b) Liquid Limit
c) Plastic Limit
d) None of the above

3. The term defined as the Liquid Limit minus the Plastic Limit: LL – PL = PI, that is the range
of water content over which sediment behaves is called:

a) Plastic Limit b) Plastic Index c) None of the above d) All of the above

4. Any soil, crushed stone, and sand used to raise an existing grade, or as a man-made-
deposit, generally used under spread footings, pavers, or concrete slabs on grade is called:

a) Fill materials b) Granular Fill c) Borrow Fill d) All of the above

5. ASTM C33 refers to:

a) Cement b) Aggregates c) Water d) Concrete

6. These are hard durable fragments of stone and filler of sand or other finely divided mineral
matter, free from vegetable matter and lumps of clay, complying with the AASHTO
METHODS T-11 and T-26 Grading Requirements:

a) Base Course Materials

b) Borrow Fill Materials
c) All of the above
d) None of the above

7. The Tagalog equivalent of earth fill is:

a) estaka b) banda y banda c) escombro d) larga masa

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8. The horizontal boards usually of lumber used to establish the height of the finish
foundationand to support the guidelines for the excavation of the footing trenches is
called:

a) batter boards b) stake outs c) level boards d) none of the above

9. The determination of the character of the materials, study of sub-surface irregularities done
by an architect is called:

a) site investigation b) test borings c) all of the above d) none of the above

10. The specie of the timber usually used for piles is:

a) kamagong b) lauan c) apitong d) narra

11. Before staking and lay-outing, the first thing to do is:

a) Check slope b) check points c) check elevation d) check road elevation

12. These are stone-filled wire baskets used to stabilize soil and prevent erosion:

a) Geo-synthetics b) geonets c) gabions d) geomembranes

13. Also known as rock lining placed to prevent erosion, scouring or sloughing of a structure or
embankment:

a) riprap b) gabion system c) all of the above d) none of the above

14. The three methods of levelling batterboards are the following:

a) By using transit, a line level or a carpenter’s level

b) By using a plumb bob, level hose, or mason’s level
c) All of the above
d) None of the above

15. To determine the bearing capacity of the foundation-bed, the following are applied:

a) test pits b) test borings c) load tests d) all of the above

16. The soil material not recommended for foundation-bed because of the danger of flowing or
moving is:

a) sand b) decayed rock c) loose rock d) quicksand

17. What is the vertical location of a ground surface often use as a reference point with respect
to vertical height?

a) Batter board b) grade c) elevation d) bench mark

18. This is the process of increasing soil density by reducing the volume of air within the soil
mass:

a) soil compaction b) soil screeding c) soil tempering d) soil contracting

19. What is the usual degree of repose of soil materials lo lessen the probability of erosion:

a) 45 degrees b) 60 degrees c) 32 degrees d) 25 degrees

20. What is the minimum depth of excavation of soil from its natural level?

a) 1 meter b) 0.60 meter c) 0.40 meter d) 0.90 meter

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21. What is the key factor in determining what would give the most benefits in good site
development plan?

a) topography
b) building and its links
c) local government laws
d) users and

22. What is used as reference line in establishing a floor elevation or height?

a) natural grade line b) street level c) FFL of NGL d) GFL

23. These are metal or concrete rigid posts that can be arranged in a line to close off a road or
path to vehicles above a certain width and to separate traffic from the pedestrians:

a) fence b) railings c) bollards d) none of the above

24. A bank of earth placed against one or more exterior wall of a building which serves as a
protection against extremes in temperature is called:

a) drum wall b) trombe wall c) berm d) sun control

25. What is the excavation or filling of earth or of any sound material or combination thereof in
preparation for a finishing surface such as paving?

a) cut and fill b) grading c) site preparation d) benching

26. A generic name applied to a semi-solid mixture of complex hydrocarbons derived from coal
or petroleum:

a) tar b) pitch c) asphalt d) none of the above

27. In layouting the road system in a subdivision with slopes of more than 30 degrees, what is
the most economical method to use?

a) grading b) cut and fill c) all of the above d) none of the above

28. In grading the site, the most advisable method is:

a) grading parallel with the slope

b) grading perpendicular/against the slope
c) none of the above
d) all of the above

29. The correct Filipino term for “stake out” the plot or site is:

a) estaka b) estakahan c) iiestaka d) none of the above

30. In layouting the cranes in a site, what is considered in their installation?

a) diameter of reach b) maximum height c) all of the above d) none of the above

31. In construction, what is the most efficient and more hygienic method of the workers’ waste
disposal?

a) latrines b) portalets c) open pit d) none of the above

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 32. In green architecture, what is the preferred site for a community?

a) green site b) brown site c) all of the above d) none of the above

33. What is not an assessing body for green architecture?

a) leeds b) bca green mark c) breeam d) nabers

CARPENTRY & JOINERY, HARDWARE

Wood – a traditional building material, it is easily worked, has durability and beauty. It has
great ability to absorb shocks from sudden load. In addition, wood has freedom from
rust and corrosion, is comparatively light in weight, and is adaptable to countless
variety of purposes.

Classification of Trees:

1. Hardwoods – ‘deciduous’ trees that have broad leaves which are normally shed in
the winter time.
2. Softwoods – ‘conifers’ trees that have needles rather than leaves and that bear
their seeds in cones.

Moisture Content of Wood – expressed as a percentage of the oven-dry weight and can
be determined by the oven-dry method or by an electric-moisture meter method.

Three categories of Lumber:

1. Yard Lumber – used for ordinary light construction and finishing work and consists
of 1 and 2 inches material manufactured into common boards, shiplap, shelving
dimension lumber, center match, flooring, roof plank, siding, v-joint, trim and
molding of all kinds. These are usually found in retail lumberyards.
2. Shop Lumber – usually left in 1 and 2 inches rough thickness often containing
knots or defects not ordinarily permissible in other categories. It is intended for
use in shops or mills making sash, doors and cabinets where it will be cut into
relatively short pieces and the defective material discarded.
3. Structural Lumber – in intended for use in heavy construction for load-bearing
purposes and is cut into timbers of large size than yard lumber, 3 inches or more
thick and 4 inches or more wide. It is made from the heartwood of the log.

Finishes of Wood:
S1S – surfacing or planning of one side
S2S – two sides planed
S4S – four sides planed
Rough – as sawn and not planed

Wood Grain:
1. Edge Grain – annual rings run approximately at right angle to the face.
2. Flat Grain – when the annual rings run more or less parallel to the surface.
3. Angle Grain – when the annual rings are at about 45 degrees to the face.

Seasoning of Lumber:
1. Air-Drying – lumber is strip-piled at a slope on a solid foundation. This allows air to
circulate around every piece while the sloping allows water to run off quickly.

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 2. Kiln-Drying – more expensive lumber which is required for more refined uses so
as wood will not move, such as furniture. Flooring and general interior use.

Pressure treated lumber – when lumber is subjected to pressure and injected with
chemicals or salts to insure it from rots.

Specification when buying lumber:

Indicate no. of pieces, thickness, width, length, total bd. Ft. kind of lumber and finish.
Example: 6-2” x 8” x 14’-0” = 112 bd. Ft. tanguile S4S

Glue laminated timber – term used to describe a wooden member built up of several
layers of wood whose grain directions are all substantially parallel, and held together
with glue as fastening commonly used for beams, girders, posts, columns, arches,
arches, bowstring truss chords, usually softwoods are commonly used because of
their low cost, lightness and strength.

Glue use in laminating:

1. Casein glue – satisfactory for use in dry locations not exposed to rain or water.
2. Urea-formaldehyde-resin – cheap and well cure at from 70 degrees Fahrenheit
up. Will withstand soaking in cool water.
3. Phenol-formaldehyde-resin glues – not usually recommended because of the
high temperature needed to cure them. Useful for combining timber and plywood
and are very water-resistant.
4. Resorcinol-phenol-formaldehyde – resin glues are expensive but have excellent
qualities of durability and water resistance.

RECYCLED WASTE PRODUCTS, BUILDING BOARDS AND PAPERS

Building Boards – a group of sheets of building materials often faced with paper or vinyl,
suitable for use as a finished surface on walls, ceiling, etc.

Kinds of Building Boards:

1. Plywood – made by bonding together thin layers of wood in a way that the grain of
each layer is at right angles to the grain of each adjacent layer.
Veneer - each layer of plywood
Rotary Cutting – a method of cutting wood veneer in which a log is fixed in a
lathe and rotated against a knife so that the veneer is peeled from the log in
a continuous sheet.
2. Hardboard – made from processed wood chips.
Three grades of board:
a. Standard – flexible to be quite easily bent
b. Tempered hardboard – made by impregnated standard board with a
tempering compound of oils and resin and baking it to polymerize the
tempering material.
c. Low-density hardboard – not as strong and durable as standard
hardboard.
3. Insulating Fiberboard – made from three types of fiber – wood, sugar cane, and
asbestos, and binder, formed into a board.
4. Chipboard – a large class of building board made from wood and particles and a
binder, often faced with veneer.
5. Particle Board – a hardboard made from relatively small particles.
6. Gypsum Board – a wall board having a gypsum core.
7. Straw Board – a hardboard made of compressed wheat straw, processed at 350 to
400 degrees Fahrenheit and covered with a tough kraft paper.

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 8. Asbestos-cement Board – a dense, rigid board containing a high proportion of
asbestos fibers bonded with Portland cement, resistant to fire, flame, and
weathering, has low resistance to heat flow.
9. Corkboard – from the outer bark of the cork oak tree, cork granules is mixed with
synthetic resin, compressed and formed into sheet from 1 to 6 inches thick and
baked under pressure into rigid boards.
10. Paperboard – made into two different types: a paper pulp pressed into boards
3/16, or ¼in. thick, 4 ft. wide, and 6, 7 or 8 ft. long. Usually one surface is primed
for easier finishing. The other is a layer of stiff paper folded into corrugated from
and faced on both sides with a thick paper backing, cemented to the core.
11. Mineral Fiberground – thick mats of mineral fibers, usually glass or rock wool are
covered with a backing of stiff paper on one or both sides to form rigid boards,
ranging in thickness from ½ to 2 in. The usual board size is 24 x 48 inches.
12. Plastic Foamboards – polystrene and polyurethane plastics are formed by a
patented process to about 40 times their original volume. Used for perimeter
insulation for concrete floor slabs, for wall and roof deck insulation, and for roof
decks when properly supported.

Building Papers – in building construction, paper is used for sheathing, roofing and
insulation, in making asphalt shingles, laminated and corrugated building products,
and concrete form materials, as a moisture and vapor barrier; as cushioning material;
as wallpaper; as an envelope or sheath for other materials; and as a fireproofing
material.

Type of Wood Pulp:

1. Mechanical Pulp – or groundwood, is produced by grinding blocks of wood against
a revolving abrasive stone or by grinding steamed wood chips in a grinding mill.
2. Chemical Pulp – produced by digesting wood chips in various chemicals to free
the cellulose fibers from the liquid binding.
3. Semi-chemical Pulp – wood chips are first subjected to a mild chemical treatment
and then mechanically disintegrated in rotating disk refiners.

Types of Paper:
1. Sheathing Paper – used to provide an airtight barrier over walls, floors, etc.
2. Roofing Paper – A. roofing felts - used in making a built-up roof and are usually
produced in 36 in. wide rolls, in various weights from 3 to 20 lb/square. B. Rolled
roofing – a heavy, mineral surfaced paper used as a final roof covering, made 18
and 36 in. wide, in various weights from 45 to 120 lb/square.
3. Insulating Paper – used to secure bulk and entrapped air with as much strength
as possible. Insulating papers are made from both wood-fiber insulating paper and
asbestos fibers.
4. Cushioning Paper – similar to wood-fiber insulating paper, but less attention is
paid to strength. Its chief use is for cushioning under linoleum, carpets, or slate
roofing.
5. Vapor Barrier Paper- intended to prevent the passage of moisture vapor through
walls, ceilings and floors.
6. Laminating Paper – a special, high strength kraft paper made for use in the
production of plastic laminates. The thin, strong paper is impregnated with liquid
plastic resin and several sheet are laminated together under heat and pressure to
form the base for the plastic sheet.
7. Concrete Form Paper – made from strong kraft paper in the form of a spiral tube
and boxlike from made from corrugated container paper.
8. Wallpaper – paper from which decorative wallpaper is made.
9. Envelope Paper – used as an outer covering or envelope for a number of building
materials. One of these is gypsum board, composed of a layer of calcined gypsum
covered in both sides by a sheet of kraft paper.
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 10. Fire Proofing Paper – made from asbestos fibers, since this is an incombustible
material. This material maybe in the form of matted paper, similar to asbestos
insulating or roofing paper, or it may be in the form of a cloth woven from thread
spun from asbestos fibers.

NAILS
Nails are slender and straight pieces of metal fasteners with one end pointed and the
other end flared, enlarged or flattened for hammering into wood or other materials. They
are usually made of mild steel but can also be of aluminum, copper, zinc, brass or
stainless steel. For greater strength specially in masonry construction, tempered high
carbon steel are used.

KINDS OF NAILS
Based on the process of manufacture, there are three kinds of nails in common use. They
are the cut nails, wire nails, and clinch nails.
A. Cut Nails - These are made from a strip of rolled iron or steel of the same
thickness as the finished nail and a little wider than its length. Machinery cuts the
nails in alternate wedge-shaped slices and the heads are then stamped on them.
Cut nails have greater holding power than wire nails.
B. Wire Nails – These are stronger for driving than cut nails but not so pliable to
bend or break characteristics, specially when driven to hardwoods and less likely
to split the woods, thus are generally preferred by the carpenters. Wire nails are
made from the same section-diameteras the shank of the nail by a machine which
cuts the wire in even lengths, heads and points them and when desired, barbs
them.
C. Clinch Nails – Nails made from open-hearth or Bessemer steel wire and are used
only in place where it is desired to turn over the ends of the nails to form a clinch,
as in the case of battens and cleats.

VARIOUS TYPES OF NAILS

1. Common Wire Nail (CWN) – a cut made of a low-carbon steel wire with a slender
plain shank and medium diamond point usually used for framing where finish
is not important. Use for general construction work and are usually availble
from 6d to 20d sizes (d is the symbol of penny).
2. Finishing Nail – made from a finer wire than the common wire nail, more slender
with a brad-type head that allows it to be set below the surface of the wood,
usually used in finishing work. Its head leaves a small hole that can be easily
covered with putty.
3. Brad Nail – has a head that projects slightly to one side almost flushed with the
sides with the same thickness. These are very light finishing nails and are
used for light, finished construction and to hold mouldings. While most nails
are rated by their d-sizes and are sold by the kilos, wire brads are measured
by their lengths (which varies from 5 millimeters [3/16”] to 7.5 millimeters [3”])
and are usually sold by the box.
4. Box Nail – a thinner version of the common wire nail with a long shank usually
barbed or smoothed.
5. Casing Nail – a slender nail with a slightly flared head for finishing work. These
have finishing head and are use for flooring, matched ceiling, interior trim.
6. Ring-Shank Nail – a nail consisting of a series of ring-like grooves around the
shank for increased holding power.
7. Roofing Nail – short nail with barbed or ringed shank and diamond point with a
large flat head provided with neoprene, lead or plastic washer for securing
roofing felt or shingles to a roof deck or roof boards. It is either galvanized or
bright (metal finish using a dip, usually a mixture of hydrocloric, nitric, sulfuric
acids and water.

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 8. Metal Lath Nail – designed for securing metal lath (a base fabricated either by
slitting metal and strenching it to form a diamond-shaped mesh or by punching
or forming sheet metal classified as rib lath, diamond-mesh lath sheet lath or
wire lath).
9. Staple Nail – also known as Electrician’s Staple Nail, it is a U-shaped piece of
metal or heavy wire with pointed ends driven into a surface to hold a hasp or
sheet of metal.
10. Concrete Nail/Masonry Nail – used for nailing to concrete or masonry made of
hardened steel with a flat countersunk head and diamond point with knurled or
fluted shank.
12. Coated Nails – these are usually common or box nails which have been given a
coating for a particular purpose. Usually the purpose is to keep them from
rusting. Common examples of these are the galvanized nails, cement-coated
nails and the blued nails.

NAIL CONSTRUCTION METHODS

1. Toe-Nailing – also known as tusk or skew nailing where one hammers the nail
obliquely to the surfaces being joined.
2. Face-Nailing – the nails are driven or hammered perpendicular to the face of the
material.
3. Blind-Nailing – also known as secret or concealed nailing where the nail heads
are not seen on the face of the work. The use of nails that are not exposed to
the weather when use in finished roofing.

II. SCREWS
Metal fasteners that have tapered, externally helically-threaded shanks with slotted
heads, use for driving into wood and other materials by turning with the use of a
screwdriver. They have greater holding strength and can be easily removed than
nails. The more number of threads per inch in a screw, the greater is its gripping
strength. It can be made of aluminum, brass, bronze, stainless steel or steel. Its
length varies from 1.3 mm (1/2”) to 15 mm (6”) with diameters of up to 24 gauge.

Types of Drive
a. These are the basic drive design:
1. Slotted
2. Crosshead
3. Socket
4. Combination

Head Shapes
a. Countersunk Heads – can be concealed below the wood surface.
b. Raised Heads – countersunk screws with a slight domed head protruding from the
wood surface.
c. Round/Domed Heads - heads rest on the wood surface.

Head Types

a. Flat (FH) – a countersunk head with a flat top

b. Oval (OH) or (OV) – a countersunk head with a rounded top
c. Pan (PN) – a slightly rounded head with short vertical sides
d. Round (RH) – a domed head, the most universally used design in the past
e. Truss – an extra wide, low, large diameter head with a rounded top. Also
known as oven head, stove head, and oval binding head

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 f. Hexagon [Trimmed] (HH) or (HX) – a standard type of wrench-applied
hexagonal head characterized by clean, sharp corners trimmed to
closed tolerances, recommended for general commercial applications
g. Hex Washer – a hexagonal head with built-in washer
h. Slotted Hex Washer – a hexagonal head with built-in washer and a slot
i. Socket Cap – a small cylindrical head using a socket drive
j. Button – a low profile rounded head using socket drive
k. Fillister – has a smaller diameter than the round head but is higher with a
deeper slot
l. Binding Head (Straight Side) – generally used in electrical and radio work with
the identifying undercut beneath the head which binds and eliminates
fraying of stranded wire.
m. Hex Flange – similar to hex washer with the exception that the top of the
washer flange shall be conical or slightly rounded.
n. Square Shoulder – a truss head on a square shank which resist rotation when
located or driven into place

Thread Types
a. Coarse Threads – more commonly available and have fewer threads per inch.
They are more tolerant to slight damage or corrosion. It is usually specified
as UNC or Unified Coarse.

b. Fine Threads – slightly stronger because the smaller fine threads take up less
of the available area. They provide finer adjustments since they advance
less per rotation than coarse threads. It is specified as UNF or Unified
Fine.

These thread types are available in the American inch-based United Thread
Standards designation or the ISO metric thread designation.

KINDS OF SCREWS
1. Wood Screws – are usually used for millwork and finishing rather than for
structural framing. They are used in fastening millwork where resistance to
withdrawal is a requirement. Screws are designed to be much better at
resisting withdrawal than nails. Wood screws have coarser pitch (few threads
per inch) and often have an unthreaded shank.
2. Metal Screws – usually threaded all the way to their head and are self-tapping in
that they only require a pre-drilled hole or come with self-drilling or self-tapping
tips.
3. Drywall Screws – use to secure drywall to wood (the coarse thread version) or
metal studs (the fine thread version). The head-to-shaft junction is more
curved to prevent tearing of the drywall. They also come with self-drilling tips.
4. Lag Screw, Lag Bolt, Coach Screw – a bolt with thin, coarse-pitched thread and a
square head.
5. Screw Anchors – an anchor having a metal shell with a screw along its central
axis (similar to an expansion bolt), where a shell is placed in a hole and a
screw is driven into it thereby expanding it and securing tightly the anchor into
the hole. It is locally called as tux screw usually provided with a plastic shell.
6. Tekscrew – a kind of screw that is used to fasten metal roofing sheets to the roof
purlins.

III. BOLTS
Bolts are threaded metal pins or rods with one end having the head and with the
external thread on the other end that accepts a mating nut (a metal block with a
central threaded hole to receive a bolt or other threaded material) and is used for
holding together or securing different members or materials after being inserted
through holes. The two (2) categories of bolts used in steel frame construction are the
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 carbon steel bolts and the high-strength bolts. The former are known as common
bolts made of carbon steel with minimum copper content not mor than 0.40% similar
to ordinary machine bolts. While the latter is made either of high-strength carbon steel
or tempered alloy steel meaning heat treated during manufacture in order to attain the
necessary strength. Pneumatic or Electric Impact wrench are used in tightening these
bolts.

TYPES OF BOLTS

1. Machine Bolts – a bolt having a straight shank and a conventional head such as a
square, button, countersunk or hexagonal. They are used for heavy
assemblies such as anchoring to a post.
2. Carriage Bolts – a bolt having a circular head, an oval or flat bearing surface with
a square collar and tightened with a nut only. The collar prevents the bolt
from turning. It is also known as a coach bolt.
3. Stove Bolt – small bolt with slotted heads, either round or flat, which is
countersunk into the work piece with the entire length of shank threaded. It
is used for light assemblies.
4. Eye Bolt – a bolt with a looped head.
5. Plow Bolt – is a bolt similar to a carriage bolt except the head is flat or concave,
and the underside is a cone designed to fit in a countersunk recess.
6. Set Bolt – a bolt that is threaded all the way to the head. Also known as tap bolt.
7. Tension Control Bolt – is a heavy duty bolt used in steel frame constructions. The
head is usually domed and is not designed to be driven. The end of the shank
has a spline on which it is engaged by a special power wrench which prevents
the bolt from turning while the nut is tightened. The spline shears off once the
appropriate torque is reached.
8. Toggle Bolt – a bolt having a nut with pivoted flanged wings that close against a
spring when it is pushed through a hole and open after emerging from the
hole. It is used to fasten objects to a hollow wall which is assessible only from
one side. It is used to fasten materials to plaster, gypsum boards and other
thin wall materials.
9. Expansion Bolts – an anchoring device having an expandable socket (called
expansion shields) that swells as the bolt is tightened into it usually used for
attaching timber in masonry or concrete walls.

TYPES OF NUTS
Nuts are short metal block having a central hole which is threaded to receive a bolt or
other threaded part or material.

1. Hex – a six-sided nut and also referred to as a finished hex nut.

2. Nylon Insert Lock - a nut with a nylon insert to prevent backing off and also
referred to as a Nylock.
3. Jam – a hex nut with a reduced height.
4. Nylon Insert Jam Lock – a nylock nut with a reduced height.
5. Wing – a nut with “wings” for hand tightening.
6. Cap – a nut with a domed top over the end of the fastener.
7. Acorn – a nut with a high crown used for appearance.
8. Flange – a nut with a built-in washer like a flange.
9. Tee – a nut designed to be driven into wood to create a threaded hole.
10. Squre – a four sided nut.
11. Prevailing Torque Lock – a non-reversible lock nut used for high temperature
applications.
12. K-Lock or Kep – a nut with an attached free-spinning external tooth lockwasher.
13. Coupling – long nut used to connect pieces of threaded rod or other male threade
fasteners.

14
 14. Slotted – are used in conjunction with a cotter pin on drilled shank fasteners to
prevent loosening.
15. Castle – similar to slotted nut but with the slots in arounded section above the
main nut.

TYPES OF WASHERS
Washers are perforated disks of metal, rubber or plastic, used under the head of a nut or
bolt or at a joint to distribute pressure, prevent leakage, relieve friction or insulate
incompatible materials.

1. Flat – a washer used to distribute load.

2. Fender – an oversize flat washer to further distribute load specially on soft
materials.
3. Finishing – a washer used to obtain a “finished look” and usually used with an oval
head screw.
4. Split Lock – the most common style of washer used to prevent nuts and bolts from
backing out.
5. External Tooth Lock – another type of washer with external “teeth” to prevent bolts
and nuts from backing out.
6. Internal Tooth Lock - another type of washer with internal “teeth” to prevent bolts
and nuts from backing out.
7. Square – a square shaped washer.
8. Dock – washer that has a large outside diameter and thicker than the standard.
9. Ogee – thick, large diameter, cast iron washer with a curved or sculpted
appearance used in dock and wood construction.

IV. RIVETS
Rivets are are short pins made of malleable metal such as steel, copper or iron,
having a head at one end. They are metal pins that are used for permanently joining
two or more structural steel members by passing a headed shank through a hole in
each piece and hammering down the plain end to form a second head.

When a joint is assessible only from one side, explosive rivets are used where the
explosive-filled shank is hammered to detonate and expand the shank on the other
end. However, their use has been largely superseded nowadays by bolting or welding
which are less labor-intensive methods.

Types of Rivet Heads:

1. Countersunk, raised
2. Countersunk, flat
3. Button, coned neck
4. Button, straight neck
5. Pan, coned neck
6. Pan, straight neck

V. HINGES
Hinges are those finish hardware elements on which doors and windows, cabinets,
etc. turn, swing or slide, and open or close. They are movable joints used to attach,
support and turn a door about a pivot consisting of two plates joined together by a pin
which support the door and connect it to the frame.

Classification of Hinges:

1. Full Mortise Hinges – hinges that are countersunk into both the door and jamb.
Hinges that are used for most doors
2. Half Mortise Hinges – hinges that have one joint countersunk into the door and
the other attach to the jamb.
15
 3. Full Surface Hinges – hinges that are applied to both door and jamb surfaces
without mortise or being countersunk.
4. Half Surface Hinges – applied to the surface of the door without being mortise
but are countersunk or mortise into the jamb. These are used for
lightweight doors such as screen and storm doors.

Types of Hinges:

1. Butt Hinge – the most commonly used type. They are referred to as butts
because they are attached to the butt edge of the door. They consist of two
(2) leaves with an odd number of knuckles on one leaf and even numbers of
knuckles on the other leaf. These knuckles are attached with a pin. Both the
knuckles and the pin form the barrel of the hinge which is finished with a tip.
The pins are made in several styles: flat button tip, ball tip, oval head, cone
tip, steeple tip, bullet tip, hospital.

Varieties of Butt Hinge:

a. Loose Pin Hinge- also known as removable pin hinge which allows its
two parts to be separated.
b. Loose Joint Pin – hinge having two knuckles, with one of which has a
vertical pin that fits into the corresponding hole in the other. The
door may be removed by unscrewing the hinge or lifting the
door off the vertical pin.
c. Fast Pin Hinge – a hinge in which the pin is permanently fastened in
place, either riveted, driven in, or welded at both ends. The use
of these variety makes hanging of doors difficult.
2. Olive-Knuckle Hinge – also known as Paumelle Hinge in which the knuckles
form an oval shape. A type of loose pin hinge equipped with a ball bearing.
Only the knuckles are visible when the door is closed.
3. Invisible Hinge – Also known as Soss Hinge (a famous brand name) that is
so constructed that no parts are exposed when the door is closed.
4. Spring Hinge – Used for swing doors containing one or more spring in which
the hinge returns to its closed position automatically after the door is opened.
It may act on one or both directions.

Three (3) Types:

a. Spring Tension Hinge
i. Adjustable Tension
 Half Surface Adjustable Tension
 Full Surface Adjustable Tension
ii. Non-Adjustable Tension
 Full Surface Non-Adjustable Tension
b. Spring Butt Hinge
i. Double Acting Spring
ii. Single Acting Spring
c. Spring Pivot Hinge
i. Top Pivot
ii. Bottom Pivot
 Horizontal Type
 Vertical Type

FURNITURE HINGES

Types:
1. Standard Butt – usually made of brass for general use.
2. Back Flap Hinge – hinge with wide plates for table leaves and rabbeted full
flaps.
16
 3. Strap Hinge – hinge use for narrow sections.
4. Lift-off Butt – hinge used on cabinet doors for easy removal without disturbing
the settings.
5. Loose Pin Hinge – also known as ball-tipped hinge.
6. Stopped Hinge – usually used for box lids, opens at 90 degrees only.
7. Piano Hinge – also known as continuous hinge, having the same length as the
moving parts to which it is attached.
8. Clock Case Hinge – hinge where one plate is wider to allow a projecting door.
9. Concealed Hinges –
10. Pivot Hinge –
11. Tee Hinge, T-Hinge –
12. Glass Door Hinge –

CABINET CATCHES
1. Friction Catch – A catch in which when it engages a strike is held by friction.
2. Magnetic Pressure Catch – hinge held in place by magnetic pressure.
3. Ball Catch – also known as bullet catch which holds a door in place by means
of projecting spring-actuated steel ball which is depressed when the door is
closed.

CABINET KNOBS
1. Screw-in Knob
2. Bolt-on Knob
3. Flush Knob
4. Flush Ring
5. Pull

LID STAYS
Drawer Runners
1. E-Single Extension – the withdrawal distance is designed to be less than the
installation length.
2. V-Full Extension – has a pull-out distance equal or greater than the installation
length.
3. T-Telescopic Extension – full extending runners.

CABINET LOCKS
1. Rim Locks
2. Mortise Locks
3. In-Laid Flap Locks
4. Lever Locks
5. Locker Locks
6. Glass Door Locks

SHELF SUPPORTS
1. Pin Mounted
2. Plug-In
3. Screw-In
4. Screw-Mounted
5. Surface Mounted
6. Glass Shelf Supports

QUESTIONNAIRES

1. Splice are not allowed for timber piles shorter than:

a) 10 feet b) 10 meters c) 25 feet d) 25meters

17
2. Woods that come from the conifers which have needles for leaves are called:

a) Hardwood b) softwood c) sapwood d) heartwood

3. This refers to the finished lumber which is further cut and processed at a lumber mill which
includes doors, trim and other ornamental forms of wood:

a) Millwork b) mouldings c) cabinetry d) caps

4. Absorbed water in wood that is held in the cell walls is also called:

a) Moisture b) hydroscopic water c) free water d) all of the above

5. Wood that is surfaced by a planer on all four sides is known as

a) S4S b) dressed lumber c) rough lumber d) S2S

6. Which is not a brand name of a medium density fibreboard (mdf)?

a) Celotex b) hamosote c) masonite d) bonotex

7. Also known as tusk or slew nailing where the nail is hammered obliquely to the surface being
joined is called:

a) Face nailing b) toe nailing c) blind nailing d) none of the above

8. Small metal fabrications provided with rubber bumpers attached to a door to prevent harm
and damage to the adjacent constructions are called:

a) Pulls b) door stops c) push bar d) none of the above

9. What do you call the perforated disks of metals, rubber or plastic placed under the head of a
nut or bolt or at a joint to distribute pressure, prevent leakage, relieve friction or insulate
incompatible materials?

a) Rubber inserts b) locks c) washers d) fenders

10. An invisible hinge that is so constructed that no parts are exposed when the door is closed is
also known as:

a) Soss hinge b) paumelle hinge c) loose pin hinge d) olive-knuckle hinge

11. The oldest type of latch that is simple to install but difficult to adjust and is usually padlocked
is:

a) Rim latch b) tubular latch c) mortise latch d) thumb latch

12. A type of mortise and tenon wood construction joint where the tongue and groove meets
halfway making the connection clean of joint traces:

a) Ship or open b) through c) keyed d) blind and stub

13. What is a type of wood end joint where both wood are cut at equal angles diagonally?

a) Plain miter b) lap c) scarf d) finger

14. A type of handless lockset key that is operated to give double security is called:

a) Barrel bolt lock b) cylindrical lock c) mortise lock d) dead bolt lock

15. Wall boards or plywood may be applied over studs and also over masonry wall by using:
18
 a) wood battens b) studs c) sheathing d) furrings

16. What is the most common alternative to plywood that is made from silica with binders
and is highly weather-proofed:

a) gypsum board b) ficem board c) ceramic board d) particle board

17. Which among the following has the most rigid frame?

a) rabetted b) tenon and mortise c) mitered d) half lap

18. In a heavy panel door, what is the most appropriate hardware to use so that the door will
close automatically without pushing or pulling?

a) gravity hinge b) door closer c) key operated lock d) automated door controller

19. What sealant is usually used for self-tapping screws?

a) epoxy b) silicon c) polybutylene d) vulcaseal

20. What is expressed as a percentage of the oven-dry weight of wood and can be determined
by the oven-dry method and by electric-moisture meter method?

a) moisture content
b) hydroscopic content
c) absorbed water content
d) none of the above

21. Lumber that is subjected to pressure and injected with chemicals or salts to ensure it from
rot is called:

a) pressure treated lumber

b) kiln-dried lumber
c) air-dried lumber
d) all of the above

22. A traditional building material that is easily worked, has durability and beauty and has
freedom from rust and corrosion and is comparatively lightweight is:

a) stone b) wood c) all of the above d) none of the above

23. Wood grain where the annual rings run more or less parallel to the surface:

a) edge grain b) angle grain c) flat grain d) none of the above

24. Usually 1 or 2 inches in rough thickness often containing knots or defects intended for use
in mills making it into sash, doors and/or cabinets:

a) yard lumber b) shop lumber c) structural lumber d) none of the above

25. A type of wood pulp produced by grinding blocks of wood against a revolving abrasive
stone or by grinding steamed wood chips in a grinding mill:

19
 a) chemical pulp b) semi-chemical pulp c) mechanical pulp d) semi-mechanical pulp

26. Paper used as an outer covering for gypsum board by a sheet of kraft paper is called:

a) sheathing paper b) laminating paper c) envelope paper d) none of the above

27. Resin glues that are somewhat expensive but have excellent qualities of durability and
water resistance used in laminating timber or wood is called:

a) casein glue
b) urea-formaldehyde resin
c) phenol-formaldehyde resin
d) resorcinol-phenol-formaldehyde

28. What part of the wood serves as the food of subterranean termites?

a) cellulose b) sapwood c) heartwood d) all of the above

29. Door bolt that is used for doors opening in or out but operated from the inside only but with
knob outside is called:

a) espagnolette bolt b) cremone bolt c) rim bolt d) latch bolt

30. Bolt with a round unslotted head with a square collar beneath the head is called as:

a) machine bolt b) carriage bolt c) drift bolt d) all of the above

31. The tagalog term for floor joist is:

a) madre de escalera b) pie de gallo c) soleras d) kusturada

32. A dense, rigid board containing a high proportion of asbestos fibers bonded with Portland
cement which is resistant to fire, flame and weathering and has low resistance to heat flow
is called:

a) straw board b) asbestos cement board c) particle board d) chip board

33. In connecting an 8”x 8” wood post to a 12”x 12” concrete pedestal, what rough hardware
will you use?

a) anchor bolts b) WI straps with bolts c) carriage bolts d) none of the above

34. What do you call trees that grow endwards?

a) exogenous b) softwoods c) endogenous d) hardwoods

35. What is the term applied to the operation performed in preparing wood for commercial
purposes?

a) lumbering b) logging c) sawing d) drying

36. What are the methods of artificial drying of timber?

a) forced air drying

b) kiln drying
c) radio frequency dielectric drying
20
 d) all of the above

37. Besides decay, what is another cause of defects in wood?

a) deterioration b) dry rot c) fungi d) none of the above

38. What hardware is used to fasten wood directly to the concrete?

a) concrete nail b) masonry shield c) masonry anchor d) all of the above

39. What type of hinge is countersunk into both door and jamb and are used for most doors?

a) full mortised hinge b) spring hinge c) soss hinge d) none of the above

40. What is not a brand name of faucet?

a) hansgrohe b) delta c) lafarge d) pozzi

41. What material is not used for doors?

a) gypsum board b) plywood c) PVC panel d) steel sheet

42. Examples of parquet wood flooring:

a) bird’s eye b) batten c) fillister d) all of the above

43. This is use to fasten drywall to wood studs:

a) tekscrew b) drywall screw c) screw anchors d) wood screw

44. Doors that consist of vertical board sheathings nailed at right angles to ledgers or cross
strips provided with diagonal brace are called:

a) Solid doors b) wood framed flush doors c) batten doors d) panel doors

45. Nails made of low-carbon steel wire with slender plain shanks and medium diamond points
usually used for framing where finish is not important are called:

a) Finishing nails b) brad nails c) Casing Nails d) common wire nails

46. This is the part of a lock or latch that acts as the protective plate surrounding a door
keyhole:

a) escutheon b) knob rose c) lip strike d) none of the above

47. These are devices that provide sounds or lights seal that are surface mounted to the
bottom of the door wherein the seal is up when the door is open and down when the door
is close:

a) flush bolt b) foot bolt c) automatic door bottoms d) automatic door bolts

48. These are devices that are not supplied for standard window and door package but use to
open or close them:
21
 a) rack and pinion operators
b) lever operators
c) hand chain control operators
d) all of the above

49. This is a type of operating mechanism required for safe egress or exit during emergency or
panic situations:

a) lockset b) panic hardware c) door holder d) espagnolette

50. In local construction works, carpenters when they refer to purlin, they call it:

a) barakilan b) tahilan c) ruestra d) guililan

51. An example of timber connector is the:

a) split rings b) toothed rings c) claw plates d) all of the above

52. Lumber measure equivalent to 144 square inches of 1” thick lumber is:

a) board feet b) board inch c) board yard d) board meter

53. The Filipino construction term for collar plate is:

a) ruestra b) sinturon c) sumbrero d) panwelo

54. Movable panels used to open or close an entranceway and as a means of egress or ingress:

a) window b) vent c) door d) all of the above

55. For door hand location specification, this refers to a door that opens outwards going to the
right with the hinges located at the right:

a) RH b) RHR c) LHR d) LH

56. When installing plywood on wood studs, the carpenter uses what system of measurement?

a) English system b) metric system c) iso system d) none of the above

MASONRY

Masonry is a built-up construction or combination of building materials as clay, concrete, or

stone set in morta; or plain concrete.

MASONRY TERMS. The following terms are commonly used in masonry work:

1. Bed – The horizontal surfaces on which the stones or bricks of walls lie in the
courses.
2. Course – A continuous layer of bricks, stones, or other masonry units
3. Wythe or Tier – A continuous, vertical section of the wall, one masonry unit thick.

22
 4. Bond – That connection between bricks, stones or other masonry units formed by
lapping them one upon another carrying up the work, so as to form an inseparable
mass of building, by preventing the vertical joints falling over each other (also called a
breaking joint).
5. Stretcher – A brick or block masonry laid lengthwise of a wall
6. Header – A brick or block masonry extending over the thickness of the wall.
7. Heading course – A course in which the bricks or other masonry units are all headers.
8. Soldier – A unit laid on its end with its face perpendicular to the face of the wall.
9. Quoins – The corner stones at the angles of buildings, usually rusticated so as to
project from the normal surface of the wall.
10. Bond Stones – Stones running through the thickness of the wall at right angles to its
face, in order to bind it together.
11. Blocking or Blocking Course – A course of stones placed on top of cornice crowning
the walls.

Masonry walls are classified according to the following:

 Unreinforced masonry walls (also known as plain masonry walls) – incorporate

horizontal joint reinforcement and metal wall ties to bond the wythes of a solid or
cavity walls.
 Reinforced Masonry Walls – are walls that utilize steel reinforcing bars embedded in
grout filled joints and cavities to aid the masonry in resisting stresses.

MASONRY WALLS - Walls that consist of modular building blocks or units bonded with mortar
to form walls that are fire-resistant, durable and structurally efficient in compressive action.
They can be constructed as solid walls, cavity walls or veneered walls.

Concrete Products – made of lightweight and heavyweight materials for use in exterior and
interior load-bearing walls, firewalls, curtain and panel walls, partitions etc.

Concrete Block:
1. Hollow load-bearing concrete block – an 8” x 8” x 16” will approximately weigh
40 to 50 lb. Made with heavyweight aggregate and 25 to 35 lb. when made with
lightweight aggregate.
2. Solid load bearing block – defines as one having a core area of not more than 25
percent of the gross cross-sectional area.
3. Hollow; non-load bearing concrete block – one in which the core area exceeds
25 percent of the cross-sectional area.
4. Concrete building tile
5. Concrete brick

Common Sizes:
1. 4” x 8” x 16” – for non-load bearing partitions
2. 6” x 8” x 16” – for load bearing walls

Quality:
1. Hand made – backyard industry
2. Machine made – commonly sold
3. Steam cured – manufactured by big and nationally known factories for load
bearing walls. They are usually specified for government and multi-storey
buildings.

Cellular Concrete Blocks – lightweight block which is outstanding in thermal and sound
insulation qualities. Basic ingredients are cement-made from silica-rich sand and
lime-water, and aluminum powder.

23
Brick – basic ingredient in clay.

Three Principal Forms:

1. Surface Clay – found near the surface of the earth
2. Shales – clay which have been subjected to high pressure until they have become
relatively hard.
3. Fire Clay – found at deeper levels and usually have more uniform physical and
chemical qualities.

Two Classes of Clay:

1. Calcareous Clays – contains about 15 percent calcium carbonate and burn to a

yellowish color.
2. Non-calcareous Clays – composed of silicate of alumina, with feldspar and iron oxide.
These clays burn buff, red or salmon depending on the iron oxide content which
vary from 2 to 10 percent.

Standard Brick Size is 2 ¼ x 3 ¾ x 8 inches

Structural Clay Tiles – are hollow units as opposed to brick which is sold. Tiles are
made from the same material as brick, but all clay tiles are formed by extrusion in
the stiff-mud process.

Types of Tiles:

1. Load bearing wall tile – used for bearing walls of light buildings, the height usually
restricted to four stories. Structural load bearing wall tile are made in 4, 6, 8, 10
and 12 inches thickness.
2. Partition tile – non-load bearing
3. Back-up tile – intended for use in both bearing and non-bearing walls which will be
faced with brick or facing tile.
4. Furring tile – used on the inside of exterior walls to provide air spaces for
insulation to prevent the passage of moisture and to provide a suitable plastering
surface. Classified as non-load bearing.
5. Fireproofing tile – structural steel must be insulated in fireproof construction. One
method of doing this is to cover it with fire-proofing tile.
6. Floor tile – manufactured in both load-bearing and non-load bearing grades in
standard thickness raging from 3 to 12 inches in standard length and widths of 12
inches.
7. Structural Clay Facing tile – unglazed tile and may have either a smooth or a
rough textured finish. They are designed to used as exposed facing material on
either exterior or interior walls and partitions.
8. Structural Glazed Facing tile – produced from high-grade light burning clay which
is suitable for the application of ceramic or salt glaze.

Terra Cotta – means “fired earth” is a clay product which has been used for architectural
decorative purposes, since ancient Greece and Rome. Modern terracotta is
machine-extruded and molded or pressed. The machine-made product is usually
referred to as ceramic veneer, and is a unit with flat face and flat or ribbed back.

Two Types of Ceramic Veneer:

1. Adhesion Type – held to the wall by the bond of the mortar to the ceramic veneer
back and to the backing wall.
2. Anchor type – are held y mortar and by wire tiles between the terracotta and the
wall behind.

24
Building Stones –usually of blocks or pieces of the basic material which is rock.

Classification:
1. Three general categories:
a. Igneous – formed as a result of the cooling of molten matter.
b. Sedimentary – formed by the action of water either by depositing materials at
the bottom of a water body or depositing them on the earth’s surface.
c. Metamorphic – rocks changed from their original structure by the action of
extreme pressure, heat, or various combinations of these factors.

2. Classified according to form:

a. Rubble – includes rough fieldstone which may merely have been broken into
suitable sizes, or it may include irregular pieces of stone that have been
roughly cut to size, usually used for and filling material. (escombro and
lastillas)
b. Dimension (Cut stone) – consists of pieces that have been cut or finished
according to a set or drawing. (for facing walls)
c. Flagstone (Flat slabs) - consists of thin pieces (1/2 in. and up which may or
may not have had their face dimensions cut to some particular size. (for walks
and floors)
d. Crushed rock – consisting of pieces varying I size from 3/8 to 6 in. and is used
to a large extent in concreting.

Building Stones:
1. Argilite – one formed d\from clay, commonly dark-blue with faint shades of green,
used for floor tile, stair treads, coping stones, interior wall base, interior window
stools of exterior window sills.
2. Granite – igneous origin and composed of quartz, feldspar, hornblende and mica.
Its generally very hard, strong durable and capable of taking a high polish.
3. Limestone – a sedimentary rock which is either oolitic, or calcite cemented
calcareous stone formed of shells fragments, particularly non-crystalline in nature,
it has no cleavage lines and uniform in structure and composition.
4. Travertine – a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of calcium carbonate. It has
been formed at the earth’s surface through the evaporation of water from hot
springs.
5. Marble – metamorphic rock, one that has been changed from its original structure
in this case, limestone and dolomite have been recrystallized to form marble.
6. Serpentine – igneous rock with the mineral serpentine. The mineral is olive green
to greenish black, but impurities may give the rock other colors.
7. Sandstone – a class of rock composed of cemented silica grains. Colors include
gray, buff, light brown and red.
8. Slate rock – formed by metamorphosis of clays and shales deposited in layers. A
unique characteristic of the rock is the relative ease with which it may be
separated into thin tough sheets, called slates, ¼” or more thick.

Stone Construction:
1. Paneling – consists of using slabs of stone cut to dimension and thickness to cover
backup walls and provide a finished exterior.
2. Ashlar – work requires the use of cut stone and includes broken ashlar, irregular
coursed ashlar, regular coursed ashlar.
3. Rubblework – used as random when no attempt is made to produce either
horizontal or vertical course lines. Small spaces are filled with spalls, small stones
and used as course rubble work, horizontal course lines are maintained but no
vertical course lines used.
4. Trim – involves use of stones cut for a specific purpose and include Quoin – stones
laid at the intersection of two walls.
25
 5. As jambs – stones which form the sides of window and door openings.
6. As sills – stones which form the bottom of window and door openings
7. As belts – special stone courses which are built into a wall for a particular purpose.
One reason is to provide architectural relief to a large wall of one material or to
provide a break I the vertical plane of the wall, another reason is to
hide a change in the wall thickness.
8. As copings – one which is cut fit on the top of a masonry wall. It prevents the
passage of water into the wall, sheds water to either inside or outside, and gives a
finished appearance to the wall.
9. As cornices – specially cut stones which are built into and project from a masonry
wall near the top to provide the appearance of a cave.
10. As lintels – stones which bridge the top of door and window openings.
11. As stone steps – made to fit over an inclined concrete slab or to cap steps cast in
concrete.
12. As an arch stone – cut to form some particular type of arch over a door or window
opening.
13. As stone flooring – walks and patios, made by covering a base of stone concrete,
brick or tile with flagstones, trimmed flagstone, trimmed rectangular and square.

Gypsum – a soft mineral consisting of a hydrated calcium sulfate from which gypsum plaster is
made (by heating); colorless when pure used as a retarder in Portland cement.

QUESTIONNAIRES

1. This is a proportioned mixture of cement, fine aggregate and water:

a) Cement mortar b) concrete c) lean concrete d) none of the above

2. This is a mortar of cementitious material ( lime, gypsum or cement), sand and water which is
applied in coats (layers) to masonry surfaces, lath or various types of plaster board to give a
hard finish surface to interior or exterior walls and ceilings:

a) plasterette b) plaster c) none of the above d) all of the above

3. A course of stones placed on top of cornice crowning the walls is called:

a) stretcher b) header c) blocking course d) heading course

4. A built-up construction or combination of building materials as clay, concrete, or stone set in

mortar or plain concrete is known as:

a) Masonry b) Wall c) Riprap d) Fence

5. This is the coating laid on floors to receive finishes like tiles, marbles, carpet, etc.:

a) cement screed b) cement render c) cement plaster d) cement mortar

6. A masonry finish using pure cement mixed with flexible synthetic latex-based additive like
Plexibond to form a tacky consistency applied by using an applicator roller to give a
remarkable finish is:

a) plain cement finish b) stucco finish c) anay finish d) cement textured finish

7. This type of technique consists of applying two or three thin coats of plaster of different
colors and then cutting away certain areas of one or two coats to produce a three-
dimensional colored design.

26
 a) sgraffito b) stippling c) cut-away d) overlay

8. A masonry term that refers to the continuous layer of bricks, stones, or other masonry units
is called:

a) Course b) header c) wythe d) quions

9. Stone cut to specific size, squared to dimensions and to a specific thickness is called:

a) rubble stone b) dimension stone c) all of the above d) none of the above

10. A hollow masonry unit with two or three cells or cores made from Portland cement, water,
and various types of aggregates:

a) concrete hollow block b) structural brick c) all of the above d) none of the above

11. A masonry unit laid on its end with its face perpendicular to the face of the wall:

a) Soldier b) quoins c) course d) bond

12. Together with wood and clay, are the basic building materials of man:

a) stone b) soil c) pig iron d) none of the above

13. It is also known as gypsum partition blocks, are usually made of gypsum, vegetable fibers as
binders and reinforcement. It is used for lightweight, fire-resistant interior partitions and for
furring and fireproofing columns:

a) Plaster block b) clay block c) shale block d) mortar block

14. These types of brick have smooth outer surface with a dull satin or high gloss finish, are load
bearing, fire resisting, and impervious and are usually formed with vertical hollow cores
through the body with scouring on the back:

a) Glazed brick b) structural brick c) common brick d) fire brick

15. When laying bricks in pattern of alternate headers and stretchers in each course, it is called :

a) common bond b) herring-bone c) flemish bond d) english bond

16. A two-core block made from fiber and cement and is lightweight is called:

a) jackbilt block b) durisol block c) concrete hollow block d) ramrod block

17. A concrete block course that does not extend beyond 200 mm height that accepts storefront
panels is called:

a) wall footing b) zocalo c) beam block d) spandrel

18. This is a type of metamorphic rock, characterized by its vein structure which is actually a
recrystallized limestone used for facades, floors and walls:

a) marble b) travertine c) granite d) slate

19. Stone delivered from the quarries in rough and irregular shape that has at least one good
face for exposure in wall is called:

a) dimension stone b) rubble stone c) ashlar d) none of the above

20. Which among the following is not a brick joint?

27
 a) flush joint b) weathered pointing joint c) raked out joint d) beam joint

21. Which among the following is not a classification of stone?

a) igneous rock b) obsidian rock c) metamorphic rock d) sedimentary rock

22. Igneous rock is formed by the crystallization of:

a) shale b) molten magma c) sediments d) volcanic ash

23. A generic term that refers to any of a number of cementitious substances that are applied to
a surface in paste form after which it hardens into a solid material:

a) gypsum b) concrete c) plaster d) mortar

24. A kind of masonry finish which utilizes a chamfered wood blockout usually 1”x 1” distanced
at 2” o.c. which serves as a form and when removed gives the design lines. Then texture is
added by chisel is called:

a) pebble washout finish

b) corduroy or tool finish
c) chisel finish
d) synthetic adobe finish

ROOFING MATERIALS
TYPES OF ROOFING MATERIALS
Basically, roofing materials are of four types:

 Sheet Metal roofing

The three types of sheet metal roofing are:

 Galvanized iron
Corrugated galvanized iron sheets are manufactured in
lengths of 5 to 12 ft. in 1 ft. increments, the 8 ft length being
the most commonly used.
Width of sheets is 32 inches (8130 mm). Each sheet has 10
corrugations with a pitch of 3 inches (76 mm).
For roofing, Ga.26 is generally specified, Ga. 24 is preferred.
Galvanized iron sheets are also sometimes used as siding for
industrial buildings. When used as siding, courses shall be
lapped at least 6”.
 Aluminum
Corrugated aluminum is rigidized sheet fabricated of special
aluminum alloys specifically developed for this purpose/
Has a high insulating value and is about one-sixth lighter than
similar materials.
Is silvery in color, strong and does not stain adjoining
materials.
It reacts, however, with dissimilar materials, lead-base paints
green or dampwood, certain wood preservatives, lime mortar,
concrete, and other masonry materials and must be insulated
from contact with these materials.
Widths of sheets are 32-5/8”, 32”, 31-1/2”, 31-1/8”, and 30-
5/8”, lengths are from 6 to 12 ft. in 1 ft increments. Number of
corrugations for 32” sheets and wider is 12; sheets of
narrower width have 10 corrugations.

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  Pre-formed and Pre-painted Sheet Metal

 Tile Roofing
 Clay
 Concrete
 Slate
 Metal
 Porcelain Enamel
 Shingles
 Wood
 Tar/Asphalt
 Asbestos-Cement
 Membrane roofing
 Built-up Bituminous Roofing
These are roofing with continuous weather surfaces of alternating
layers of bitumen and felt or other fabric, bituminous base flashings,
special base sheets, cants and edge strips including embedded
toppings of gravel, crushed stones or other suitable aggregates.
 Prepared Roll Roofing
These encompasses mineral-surfaced asphalt and other roll roofings.
 Elastic Sheet Roofing
These are elastic roofing sheets made of chlorosulfonated
polyethylene, polyvinyl fluoride, butyl rubber, silicone rubber and other
similar substances.
 Elastic Liquid Roofing
These are made of elastic roofing compounds in liquid form, including
chlorosulfonated polyethylene, butyl and silicone rubbers and other
similar substances

SKYLIGHTS
These are horizontal glazed openings on the roof which allow penetration of daylighting in
an interior space loocated above. The type ofr glazing used may be made of acrylic or
polycarbonate plastic or of wired, laminated, heat-strengthened or fully tempered glass.

The installation of skylights is subject to the following conditions:

 The Building Code of the locality dictates the maximum area to be covered by it.
 If and when glass is used, wire screens are required to be installed below the
glazing to prevent broken glass from falling down to the building users. Wired
glass is a preferred material.
 The minimum slope set for flat or corrugated plastic skylight is 4:12 ratio. Plastic
domes must rise at least 10% of the span or at the least a rise of 5 inches (125
mm)
 Framings for skyligths and sloped glazing syatems must include an internal gutter
system to collect and drain any infiltrating water and condensation to be discharge
through weep holes to the exterior.

TYPES OF SKYLIGHT FORMS

Skylights are available in different forms such as the following:

 Vault type
 Ridge type
 Hipped type
 Circular Dome type
 Square Dome type
 Pyramid type
29
JOINT SEALANTS
Bituminous cement is a black substance available in solid, semi-solid, or liquid states at
normal temperatures. It is composed of a mix of indeterminate hydrocarbons appreciably
soluble only in carbon disulfide or other volatile liquid hydrocarbons. It is a sealant used
for sealing built-up roofing, and joints and cracks of concrete pavements.

 Bituminous Cement
 is a black substance available in solid, semi-solid, or liquid states at
normal temperatures.
 Composed of mixed indeterminate hydrocarbons, appreciably soluble
only in carbon disulfide or other volatile liquid hydrocarbon.
 Used for sealing built-up roofing, and joints and cracks of concrete
pavements.

 Silicone Sealant

QUESTIONNAIRES

1. Roofing tile that has the shape of an “S” laid on its side is a:

a) mission tile b) pantile c) french tile d) none of the above

2. Choose a brand name of a ribbed aluminum roofing from the following:

a) FURAL b) V-CORR c) RIBCORR d) all of the above

3. The material used and the process of making water-tight the roof intersections and other
places on the outside of the house is called the:

a) flashing b) siding c) all of the above d) none of the above

4. The hardware used to fasten metal roofs to purlins is:

a) texscrew b) brad nails c) carriage bolt d) all of the above

5. These are horizontal glazed openings on the roof which allow the penetration of daylighting
in an interior space usually located in the roof:

a) vent b) skylight c) atrium d) ridge roof

6. Which among the following do not belong to the types of roofing materials?

a) sheet metal roofing b) tile roofing c) shingles d) terra cotta

7. The brand name of sheet metal roofing includes the following:

a) steeltech b) metalex c) archidex d) gyproc

8. What do you call a thermoplastic material that combines the transparency of glass though
not scratch-proof used principally for skylights, skydomes, safety glass, etc.?

a) polyethelene b) acrylics c) polysterene d) none of the above

9. What is the minimum size provided for both flaps of the G.I. ridge roll?

a) 12 inches b) 10 inches c) 6 inches d) 8 inches

10. The material that holds the clay tile in a straight pattern is the:
30
 a) cleat b) jack rafter c) tile strip d) none of the above

11. What do you call the material that covers the ends of the ridge roll?

a) ridge end rolls b) ridge end caps c) all of the above d) none of the above

12. What is the use of a gap in skylight construction?

a) for air venting b) for heat escape c) for temperature expansion d) for filtering

13. A wood ceiling joist substitute for dropped ceiling, this is usually made of aluminium or pre-
painted GI used to hang lightweight boards such as fiber glass boards, acoustic boards, and
cork boards installed for institutional use but if properly designed can be used for residential
purposes. What is it?

a) Channel runners suspension system

b) Channel hangers suspension system
c) Main/cross tee and wall angle suspension system
d) Angle hangers suspension system

14. Who is the highly trained worker that installs metal roofs and gutters?

a) carpentero b) tubero c) latero d) alahero

STRUCTURAL STEEL

Ferrous – metal in which iron is the principal element

Nonferrous – containing no, or very little iron.

Ferrous Metal:
1. Steel – a malleable alloy of iron and carbon produced by melting and refining pig iron
and/or scrap steel, graded according to the carbon content.
2. Pig Iron – used to make cast iron which is high in compressive strength but low in
tensile strength, and has little use for construction.
3. Wrought Iron – produced when pig iron is melted in such a way as to remove nearly
all of the carbon and other impurities.
4. Alloy Steels – made by containing other elements with the molten steel. Nickel,
chromium copper and manganese are used.
5. Nickel Steel – stronger than carbon steel and is used to make structural members for
building chromium steel is very hard and corrosion-resistant.
6. Stainless Steels – made with chromium or a combination of nickel and chromium
used in buildings for exterior wall panels, frames for doors, expansion joints,
flashings, copings, fascia and gravel stops.
7. Copper – bearing steel has high resistance to corrosion and is used for making sheet
steel and metal lath.
8. Manganese Steel – offers great resistance to abrasion and finds important use in the
cutting edges of heavy digging tools.
9. Weathering Steel – recently developed grade of steel. It forms its protection against
atmospheric corrosion and thus requires no painting.

Nonferrous Metal:
1. Aluminum – a lustrous, silver-white nonmagnetic, lightweight metal which is very
malleable; has good thermal and electrical conductivity; a good reflector of both
heat and light.
2. Aluminum Foil – used as a vapor barrier on walls and ceilings and as reflective
insulation.

31
3. Copper – a lustrous reddish metal, highly ductile and malleable; has high tensile
strength; is an excellent electrical and thermal conductor; is available in a wide
variety of shapes; widely used for downspout, electrical conductors, flashings,
gutter, roofing, etc.
4. Lead – a soft, malleable, heavy metal; has low melting point and a high coefficient of
thermal expansion. Very easy to cut and work, enabling it to be fitted over uneven
surfaces, used for roofing, flashing and spandrel wall panels.
5. Tin – a lustrous white, soft and malleable metal having a low melting point; relatively
unaffected by exposure to air; used for making alloys and solder and in coating
sheet metal.

STEEL
Steel refers usually to plain carbon steels, which is defined as alloys of iron and carbon
which do not contain more than 2% carbon and which are made in malleable or ingot
form. In the plain or straight carbon steels, the iron is always in excess of 95%.
Phosphorus, sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen are present, the last three as impurities.
Manganese, silicon, aluminum, copper and nickel may also be present either as residual
impurities or as elements deliberately added in small quantities to control the properties of
the steel. Carbon steel can be wrought, rolled, cast, and welded, but not extruded.

a. Wrought Carbon Steels:

 Structural steel
This is a medium carbon steel with its carbon content controlled to give
both the strength and ductility necessary for its use. Structural steel is
available in angles, channels, I-beams, H columns, T shapes, Z shapes,
plates, round pipe columns, sheet piling, open web joists, and light steel
framing shapes.
 Reinforcing Bars
These are usually used for reinforcing concrete and are available in
commercial sizes. .
 Sheet and Strip
Steel sheet is made from low carbon steels generally containing about
0.15% carbon and not exceeding 0.25% carbon. Strip by definition is sheet
material that is 12” or less wide. It is used in fabricated form as decking
galvanized sheet, expanded metal, panels and sandwich panels, and as a
base metal for porcelain enamel.
 Corrugated steel
This is rigidized sheet fabricated from low-carbon cold or hot-rolled steel
sheets which are either galvanized or covered with some type of
bituminous coating. If galvanized, corrugated steel is silvery in color and
has a glittering frosted surface. It is generally available in 18, 20, 22. 24,
and 26 gauge sheet and strip.
 Steel Mesh and Wire Cloth
They are used for concrete reinforcement, lath for plaster, stucco, and
cement, fence, insect screens.
 Steel Windows and Doors
They are used for windows and doors for residential, commercial,
industrial, institutional and other types such as for fire-rated materials.
 Hardware
They are used for finish hardwares and other miscellaneous accessories
such as nails, screws, rivets, etc.

b. Alloy Steels:
These are steels to which various elements such as manganese, silicon,
aluminum, titanium, and molybdenum have been added in sufficient quantity to

32
 produce properties unobtainable in carbon steels in cast, rolled or heat-treated
form.

High-strength low-alloy steels are a group of trade name steels with improved
mechanical properties and resistance to atmospheric corrosion, They are being
increasingly used as reinforcing for pre-stressed concrete, high strength bolts,
special structural steels and cables for elevators, etc.

Stainless steels generally used in architecture are highly alloyed steels that
contain more than 10% chromium. They are characterized by their resistance to
heat, oxidation and corrosion. They are used where corrosion resistance,
durability, and minimum of maintenance is necessary principally for exterior and
interior wall finishes, doors, windows, trims, railings, signs and letters, appliances,
etc.

METHODS OF JOINING METALS

The four methods of joining metals are:
 by soldering
 by brazing
 by welding
 by rivetting

SOLDERING
Soldering is a method to join metals, to make electrical connections, to seal joints
hermetically with another lower melting metal or alloy called the solder.
a. Metal Bath Dip
Metal Bath Dip defined as a metal-joining process where the workpieces to be
joined are immersed in a pot of molten solder and because of the relatively low
melting temperature of the solder (between 350 and 600 degrees F), only
adhesion between the solder and the workpieces results. Typically, dip soldering
is an automated process used extensively in the electronics assembly industry.
b. Soldering Iron
In this method the iron piece is preheated and applied to the joint along with the
solder and the flux (the flux is a substance used in soldering to clean the surfaces
of the metals to be joined and to aid fluidity); the heat from the iron forms the
soldered joint.
c. Torch
The parts to be soldered are heated by the torch flame and then the solder and
flux are applied. This method is limited to metals which can be heated without
altering their characteristics.
d. Sweat Method
The heating of the metals to be joined causes the solder to run into the joint. This
is the method used for joining copper tubing and fittings. Fluxes for soldering are
generally of three types: corrosive, neutral and non-corrosive.
 Corrosive fluxes are known as acid type and salt type fluxes and include
chlorides of zinc, ammonium, calcium, magnesium, aluminum and other
metal. Care should always be taken with the corrosive fluxes. The residue
must be quickly removed, as it is not only corrosive to the metal being
joined, but it is also electrically conductive as a rule and therefore cannot
be used for most electrical work.
 Neutral fluxes are mild in type and are used for easily soldered metals
such as copper, brass, lead, and tin plate. Stearic acid is a typical neutral
flux.
 Non-corrosive fluxes leaves residues which are noncorrosive and
nonconductive and therefore need not be removed. Rosin is the principal

33
 flux of this type. Noncorrosive fluxes are weak with their fluxing action and
their use are limited to the easily soldered base metals.

BRAZING
Brazing is a type of soldering in which the operating temperatures are higher (but
lower than in welding) and in which stronger and higher-melting alloys are used to fill
the joints, which consequently are stronger than ordinary soldered joints. The bond is
obtained by alloying between the brazing material and the surface of the joined
metals. Brazing is generally used where the shape and position of the joint or the
composition of the metal or metals are not adaptable to welding. In brazing the type of
metal to be joined, the brazing material, and their color are equally important because
galvanic action, strength of the joint, matching of colors play a significant part in the
finished product.

WELDING
Welding is the process by which two metals are so joined that there is an actual union
of the interatomic bonds. This may be brought about by close contact, heating,
pressure, adding molten metal, or combinations of these methods. The resulting joints
are as strong or stronger than the metals joined. Welding may be divided into two
general types: pressure welding in which pressure and heat make the weld; and
fusion welding, in which the heat and added metal make the weld. In fusion welding
the methods of heating are gas flame and electric arc. The gas flame now generally
used is acetylene mixed with oxygen. It will deliver about 5500˚F of heat which is
sufficient to melt the welding rod and the surrounding metal and then fuse them
together. In electric-arc method, when the welding rod (or electrode) is brought near
the joint of the metals to be welded, an electric arc is formed which melts and fuses
the metal and the welding rod.

ALUMINUM FINISHES
Aluminum products can and are often given a wide range of finishes for both decorative
and/or protective purposes. Aluminum can be surface finished in four types:

 Mechanical Finishes
 Chemical Finishes
 Electrolytic Oxide Finishes
 Organic Finishes

QUESTIONNAIRES

1. What is the standard weight of a 25 mm diameter hot-rolled weldable deformed or plain steel
bar per meter length?

a) 343 kilos b) 3.853 kilos c) 4.833 kilos d) 2.466 kilos

2. In welding stainless steel, the type of rod to used shall be:

a) SS welding rod b) GI welding rod c) WI welding rod d) BI welding rod

3. What is the standard weight of a 16 mm diameter hot-rolled weldable deformed or plain steel
bar per meter length?

a) 1.578 kilos b) 0.888 kilos c) 1.872 kilos d) 2.466 kilos

4. Ga. 26 is the standard specification for metal roofing, but what is the preferred gauge for use
in actual construction?

a) Ga. 32 b) Ga. 24 c) Ga. 30 d) Ga. 22

34
 5. What metal is made with chromium or a combination of nickel and chromium used in buildings
for exterior wall panels, frames for doors, expansion joints, flashings, copings, fascia and
gravel stops?

a) Aluminum b) Steel c) Stainless Steels d) Chromium

CONCRETE

CEMENTING MATERIALS

LIME
Lime is one of the oldest manufactured building materials which is used both as a mortar
and plaster by early civilizations. The Greeks used it extensively for mortars and plasters
in their structures and sculptures. However, the Romans were the first to develop the first
real cement by mixing lime putty and volcanic ash.
Hydraulic Lime - A type of lime which will set under water.
Stalking or Hydration
The process of mixing quicklime with water during which water is absorbed and heat is
energetically evolved, driving off much of the excess water in the form of steam.
Cement was first developed by the Romans by mixing slaked lime with pozzolana (volcanic
ash) which hardened under the water, but the art was lost with the fall of the Roman
Empire. In 1756, Smeaton, an Englishman, rediscovered hydraulic cement, but it was not
until 1824 that Aspdin, an English bricklayer and mason, invented and patented Portland
cement.
Portland Cement – made from materials which must contain the proper proportions of lime,
silica, alumina and iron components.
Blended Cement - In the Philippines, this is the type of bagged cement sold commercially in
hardwares, and is not pure portland cement because pure portland cement is distributed in
bulk.

Special Cements:

1. White Portland cement – same materials as normal Portland except in color (also
called stainless cement because it is free of iron impurities which stain porous
marbles, some granites and limestone and other light-colored stones).
2. Masonry Cement – designed to produce better mortar than that made with normal
Portland cement or with a lime-cement combination.
3. Air-entraining Portland Cement – small amounts of this is added to the clinker and
ground with it to produce air-entraining cements, effective use for resistance to severe
frost.
4. Oil Well Cement – special Portland cement used for sealing oil wells.
5. Waterproofed Portland Cement – normally produced by adding a small amount of
stearate, usually calcium or aluminum to the cement clinker during the final grinding.
6. Alumina cement - Utilizes bauxite, the ore from which aluminium is made, as the
major raw material and is also known as a quick-setting cement.
7. Masonry cements - these are prepared mixtures of Portland cement with hydrated
lime, granulated slag, silica, etc. Small additions of calcium stereate, petroleum,
colloidal clays and other admixtures with the ingredients and proportions varying
widely and usually patented.
8. Natural cements - these are cements made of natural raw materials found mixed in
the correct proportions, needing only grinding and burning in a kiln to produce a
cement. Their use today has largely been replaced by Portland cement. Natural
cements sets more rapidly than Portland cement and are slower in developing
strength.

35
 9. Pozzolanic cement - is the type of cement made of lime mortar and pozzolanic
material. Various natural materials contain active silica, among them pozzolan
(volcanic ash), granulated slag and pumice. Slag cement is a pozzolanic cement.

Warehouse set occurs from the tendency of cement at bottom layers to harden due to the
pressure above when cement is stored in high piles for long periods.

Types of Aggregates Used in Concrete:

Aggregate – sand, gravel crushed stone, cinder, crushed furnace slag, burned clay, expanded
vermaculite, and perlite.
Sand – found in riverbends, free of salt and must be washed.
Fine aggregate – smaller than ¼” diameter stones.
Coarse aggregate – bigger than ¼” diameter stones.

Concrete – the resulting product when a large aggregate of more than 6mm (1/4”) in size is
added to cement, water and fine aggregate.
Reinforced Concrete - concrete strengthened by having steel embedded in it.
Plain or Mass Concrete - Concrete without reinforcement.

Concrete Mixes:
Class “AA” - 1:1 ½ :3 - concrete under water, retaining walls
Class A - 1:2:4 - footings, columns, beams, RC slabs
Class B - 1:2 ½:5 - slab on fill, non-bearing walls
Class C - 1:3:6 - concrete plant boxes, etc.

Control of Concrete Mixes:

Slump Test – when freshly mixed concrete is checked to ensure that the
specified slump is being attained consistently. A standard slump cone is 12 inches
high (0.30) and 8 inches (0.20) in diameter at the bottom and 4 inches (0.10) on
top which is open on both ends.

Compressive Strength Test – common quality-control test of concrete, based on

7 and 28 day curing periods.

Concrete Additives – materials often added to the concrete or applied to the surface
of freshly placed concrete to produce some special result.
Accelerators – an admixture which is used to speed up the initial set of concrete.
Such a material maybe added to the mix to increase the rate of early-strength
development for several reasons.
Retarders – to delay or extend the setting time of the cement paste in concrete.
Air-entraining agents – air-entrained concrete contains microscopic bubbles of air
formed with the aid of a group of chemical called surface active agents, materials
that have the property ofreducing the surface tension of water intended for use
when better resistance to frost action is concerned.
Concrete Hardeners – applied on concrete surface to increase hardiness and
toughness.
Waterproofing (permeability-reducing) compounds – these reduce the capillary
attraction of the voids in the concrete or mortar.
Colored pigments - are mainly used to give color to concrete floors. Two types, the
Dry-cast, broadcast or dust-on, for surface coloring and Integral colors used
for body coloring and are incorporated in the mortar topping.

Two Types of Concrete hardeners:

1. Chemical Hardeners – liquids containing silicofluorides or fluosilicates and a
wetting agent which reduces the surface tension of the liquid and allows it to
penetrate the pores of the concrete more easily.
36
 2. Fine Metallic Aggregate – are specially processed and graded iron particles
which are dry-mixed with Portland cement, spread evenly over the surface of
freshly floated concrete, and worked into the surface by floating.

Water Reducing Admixtures – material used to reduce the amount of water necessary
to produce a concrete of given consistency or to increase the slump for a given
water content.

Damproofers – materials used to reduce or stop the penetration of moisture through the
concrete. Reduces permeability.

Bonding Agents:
Paste Slurry – often applied to such an old surface immediately prior to pouring new
concrete to increase the amount of paste.

Two Types of Bonding Agents:

1. Metallic Aggregate – iron particle are larger, but with same materials as the
permeability reducer. Bonding takes place through the oxidation and subsequent
expansion of the iron particles.
2. Synthetic Latex Emulsion – consists of highly polymerized synthetic liquid resin
dispersed in water.

Set-Inhibiting Agents – prevent the cement paste from bonding to the surface aggregate
but will not interfere with the set throughout the remainder of the pour.
Pozzolanic Admixtures – materials sometimes used in structures where it s desirable to
avoid high temperature or in structures exposed to seawater or water containing
sulfates. Pozzolans maybe added to concrete mixes-rather than substituting for part
of the cement to improve workability, impermeability, and resistance to chemical
attack.

The water-cement ratio - the amount of water used per bag of cement.
Traditional materials used for form construction are Lumber, Plywood, and Steel.

METAL REINFORCEMENT FOR CONCRETE

a. Steel Bars or Rods
Reinforcement for concrete construction is mostly in the form of steel bars and rods of
round or square cross section. The bars may be plain or deformed (with lugs or
projections for better bonding to the concrete). They are called billet-steel bars or rail-
steel bars.
b. Wire Fabric
Wire fabric made of cold-drawn steel wire is widely used for the reinforcement of
concrete slabs and floors, as well as for stuccoed work.
c. Welded Wire Fabric
Fabric consists of a series wires welded together to form a grid pattern. It comes in
various sizes and spacings and gauges, e.g. 4”x4” – 6/6, 6” x 6: - 8/8 etc. Welded wire
fabric is available in rolls 5 or 6 ft. wide, 150, 200, and 300 ft. long
b. Triangle-mesh Wire Fabric
This is built up of either single or stranded longitudinal wires with cross wires or bond
wires running diagonally across the fabric. The longitudinal wires are spaced at
4inches on centers and the cross wires 4” or 8” apart.
c. Expanded Mesh
This is manufactured from solid steel sheets, where the sheet is first cut or pierced in
staggered slots or patterns; then the sheet is held by the two sides parallel to the slots
and stretched by pressure until the desired openings of forms are obtained. Expanded
mesh is therefore free from mechanical and welded joints. e.g. STEELCRETE.
37
 d. LATHS
Permanent centering or self-centering laths are produced in many forms. These laths
are furnished either in flat or segmental sheets, pressed into a series of solid ribs,
between which the metal is stamped, perforated or deformed into an open mesh-
work. These laths are furnished painted or galvanized, and in open-hearth mild steel
or in special copper-bearing or alloy steels, e.g. “RIBPLEX” , “HYRIB”.

TYPES OF PROCESSED CONCRETE

a. “AEROCRETE”
This is a light–weight, expanded structural concrete produced by adding a small
amount of metallic aluminum powder to the mixture of Portland cement and sand of
cinders. On the addition of water, a gas is generated which expands the wet mix and
forms small air cells throughout the material. It is used for structural floor and roof
slabs, partition blocks for sound proofing, wall insulation, in rooms of refrigerator
plants, lightweight fill on top of structural floor and roof slabs. In addition to its light
weight, it has excellent fire-resistive qualities.
b. “GUNITE”
This is the mixture of sand and cement deposited under high pneumatic pressure with
a machine manufactured under the trade name CEMENT GUN, to which the required
supply of water is added just before the dry constituents emerge from nozzle.
GUNITE is used for encasing structural steel, when reinforced, for floor and roof slabs
and curtain walls. Ideal for swimming pool construction.
c. “PORETE”
A Portland cement concrete to which a chemical foam is added to generate gases in
the process of deposition, resulting in light weight precast or shop-made unit in both
hollow and solid forms. It is manufactured in solid slabs for short spans roofs and
siding of industrial buildings.
d. “HAYDITE”
This is processed concrete added with lightweight aggregate.

Lightweight aggregates can be divided into four general classifications :

a. Aggregates of volcanic origin
 Pumice, weighing from 25 to 60 lbs.per cu. ft. is well qualified as a lightweight
aggregate when dry and well graded. Undesirable feature, however, is its water
absorption. This can be mitigated by wetting the aggregate before it is mixed with
cement .
 Perlite is composed of stable silicates, and is inert and thus durable for use as a
lightweight aggregate or for insulation and is use in precast slabs and blocks and
in floor fill, fireproofing and plaster .
b. Micaceous minerals
 Vermiculite is a micaceous mineral which expands on application of heat to as
much as 30 times its original volume. It is used as an aggregate in concrete
fireproofing steel, for floor and roof fill, and for acoustic and fireproof plaster.
c. Expanded shales and clays
 Lightweight aggregates from shales and clays require heating the material in a kiln
to a temperature near its fusion point. The material softens and coalesces to a
sticky mass; escaping gases are trapped, forming cellular structures and
expanding the volume of the material about 50%. Examples of clay, shale
aggregates are “AIROX”, “ROCKLITE”, Diatomite, “HAYDITE”.
d. By-product Aggregates
 Expanded Slag. Expanded Slag or “foamed” slags are made by treating molten
blast furnace slag with controlled quantities of water or steam.
 Foamed slag has been used for precast blocks, cast-in-place walls of houses and
for panel filling of steel-framed buildings.

38
Cinders are composed of the ash components of the coal along with the various quantities of
unburned or partially burned combustible matter.

QUESTIONNAIRES

1. The hardening of concrete is called:

a) setting b) caulking c) drying d) curing

2. Upon hydration of the cement, concrete becomes stone-like in:

a) Strength b) Hardness c) Durability d) All of the above

3. When cement is mixed with water and a fine aggregate or less than 6mm (1/4”), it is known
as:

a) mortar b) cement plaster c) all of the above d) none

of the above

4. When a large aggregate of more than 6mm (1/4”) in size is added to cement, water and fine
aggregate, the product is:

a) concrete b) reinforced concrete c) lightweight concrete d) lean concrete

5. Concrete strengthened by having steel embedded in it is called:

a) reinforced concrete b) concrete c) mass concrete d) lean concrete

6. Concrete without reinforcement is called:

a) lean concrete
b) plain or mass concrete
c) lightweight concrete
d) none of the above

7. Concrete qualities required in both massive and reinforced construction are, that it shall be:

a) Strong, Durable, of uniform quality and thoroughly sound

b) Hard setting, uniform aggregates, hardness and waterproofed
c) All of the above
d) None of the above

8. Good quality concrete is obtained through:

a) Careful selection of materials

b) Correct proportioning
c) None of the above
d) All of the above

9. The kind of cement sold commercially in the market packed in bags is called:

a) blended cement b) portland cement c) pozzolan cement d) white cement

10. Inert mineral fillers used with cement and water in making concrete are called:

a) fine aggregates b) coarse aggregates c) aggregates d) none of the above

11. The mixture formed by combining water and cement which coats and surround the inert
particles of aggregates and, upon hardening binds the entire mass together is called:

a) paste b) concrete c) mortar d) none of the above

39
12. The test used for measuring the consistency of a concrete mix defined as the state of fluidity
of the mix is called:

a) cone test b) slump cone c) slump test d) none of the above

13. The strength of a workable concrete mix depends upon its:

a) cement-water ratio
b) proper proportioning
c) fineness modulus
d) all of the above

14. The delivery of concrete from the mixer to the forms must not exceed:

a) 15 minutes b) 30 minutes c) 45 minutes d) 60 minutes

15. The methods of proportioning concrete are:

a) Proportioning by arbitrary proportions

b) Proportioning by the water-ratio and slump test
c) Proportioning by water-ratio, slump and fineness modulus
d) all of the above

16. Mixing of concrete by this method because it is generally less expensive is called:

a) machine mixing b) hand mixing c) batching plant mixing d) all of the above

17. In proportioning concrete, one bag of cement is taken as:

a) 1 cubic meter b) 1 cubic foot c) 1 cubic yard d) none of the above

18. The three main factors that affect hardening of concrete are age or time, temperature, and:

a) moisture b) water c) all of the above d) none of the above

19. The most common concrete mixer is the:

a) gravity mixer b) drum mixer c) trough mixer d) pneumatic mixer

20. What is the usual time for concrete to initially set after mixing?

a) 30-120 minutes b) 60-180 minutes c) 15- 60 minutes d) 1-15 minutes

21. The addition of water to make the concrete mix attain its plastic consistency is called:

a) regaging b) retempering c) none of the above d) all of the above

22. The manufacturers’ specifications do not permit the use of concrete that has been allowed to
stand for more than:

a) ½ hour b) 1 hour c) 2 hours d) 1-1/2 hours

23. When chutes are use in transporting concrete, the slope of the chute must not exceed:

a) 1 vertical length to 2 horizontal length

b) 3 vertical length to 1 horizontal length
c) 1 vertical length to 1 horizontal length
d) 3 vertical length to 3 horizontal length

40
24. The cause of cracks in concrete due to hardening and contraction from temperature
changes is due to:

a) exposure to intense heat from the sun

b) shrinkage of concrete
c) lack of proper moisture
d) vibration of forms

25. Free fall or drop of concrete for unexposed work should not exceed:

a) 3 feet b) 8 feet c) 5 feet d) 9 feet

26. Large cracks in long, continuous length of concrete can be prevented by inserting or placing
reinforcement and by placing:

a) shrinkage joints b) contraction joints c) all of the above d) none of the above

27. Concrete should never be allowed to drop freely over __________ for exposed work:

a) 3 feet b) 8 feet c) 5 feet d) 9 feet

28. Besides using curing compounds and covering with moist burlap or sack, another way to
keep concrete from drying out too rapidly is by:

a) covering with steel plates

b) spraying or sprinkling with water
c) all of the above
d) none of the above

29. Concrete proportions for “Class B” is:

a) 1 : 2: 4 b) 1 : 2.5 : 5 c) 1 : 3.5 : 6 d) 1 : 3 : 6

30. This is the mixture of sand and cement deposited under high pneumatic pressure with a
machine and is used for encasing structural steel and is ideal for swimming pool
construction:

a) GUNITE b) FLORHAND c) CELITE d) ARTROC

31. After 28 days, the minimum required ultimate compressive strength on concrete test
specimen on a cube 150mm X 150mm X 150mm for “”CLASS AA”” shall be:

a) 1200 psi b) 2000 psi c) 2800 psi d) 2400 psi

32. What is reduced by mixing waterproofing compounds in concrete or mortar?

a) capillary action b) retarding action c) accelerating action d) none of the above

33. What brand name is not a hardener?

a) FLORHAND b) ARTROC c) METALICRON d) CELITE

34. The maximum slump or consistency of concrete for reinforced foundation walls and footings
is:

41
 a) 150mm (6”) b) 75mm (3”) c) 100mm (4”) d) 125mm (5”)

35. The time required for curing of concrete for cantilever footing is:

a) 120 hours b) 24 hours c) 36 hours d) 96 hours

37. The categories of admixtures are concrete, mortar and _______________________:

a) surface application finishes

b) integral application finishes
c) none of the above
d) all of the above

38. What is the correct term used for plasticizing agent?

a) water-proofing agents
b) water-reducing agents
c) water-integrating agents
d) water-borne agents

39. This is a rather slow process in which the cement and water unite to form compounds that
give strength and durability to the concrete.

a) hardening b) curing c) all of the above d) none of the above

40. One type of processed concrete is:

a) CELLUCRETE b) AEROCRETE c) GUNCRETE d) PERROCRETE

41. Lumber used for forms of concrete is:

a) kiln-dried lumber b) green lumber c) all of the above d) none of the above

42. Special aggregates used to produce a lightweight, nailable concrete or to control its thermal
insulating properties are:

a) perlite b) vermiculite c) all of the above d) none of the above

43. Forms for concrete require a coating to prevent concrete from adhering to the wood such as:

a) crude oil b) lacquer paint c) latex paint d) weatherproofing paint

44. Steel forms usually used for concrete joist construction is:

a) pan b) steel decking c) corrugated steel d) plain G.I. sheet

45. Steel bars used for reinforcement of concrete are:

a) structural steel bars b) billet steel bars c) zee bars d) tee bars

46. Brand name for lath is:

a) Z-RIB b) STEELCRETE c) HYRIB d) PORETE

47. Aggregates that reduce dead loads that have high insulating values and good acoustical
properties are:
42
 a) fine aggregates
b) lightweight aggregates
c) coarse aggregates
d) banda y banda bulik

48. This is processed concrete added with lightweight aggregate:

a) HAYDITE b) PORETE c) GUNITE d) AEROCRETE

49. The minimum required ultimate compressive strength for test specimens in cylinders for
“CLASS C” concrete is:

a) 2400 psi b) 1600 psi c) 1300 psi d) 1000 psi

50. The material used for reinforcement of concrete slab and floors and stuccoed work made of
cold-drawn steel wire is:

a) welded wire b) wire fabric c) triangle mesh wire fabric d) expanded mesh wire

WATERPROOFING/ SOUND / THERMAL INSULATION

Three ways of heat transfer:
1. Conduction – the inside of a concrete wall which has one side exposed to outside
winter temperatures feels cold to the touch. Heat is being conducted from the side of
higher temperature to that lower temperature.
2. Radiation – from this point, it is transferred to the outside air by radiation.
3. Convection – when air is heated, it expands and begins to circulate, during the
circulation it comes in contact with cooler surface, some of its heat is given up to
them. It is therefore important to try to prevent air currents from being set up in the
walls and ceiling of our buildings.
Kinds of Thermal Insulation:
1. Loose Fill:
a. fibrous type – made from mineral woolrock wool, glass wool, or slag wool – or
vegetable fiber – usually wood fiber.
b. Granular insulation – made from expanded minerals such as vermaculite and perlite
or from ground vegetable matter such as granulated coork.
c. Fibrous loose fill – used to insulate walls of buildings built without insulation.
d. Granules – are graded into four sizes, 1, (3/8 in. to no. 16 sieve) and sizes 2 (no.
4 to no. 30 sieve) used as loose-fill insulation for sidewalls and ceilings over
suspended ceilings, between wood sleepers over a concrete floor slab, as fill for the
cores of concrete blocks, and sizes 3 (no. 8 to no. 100 sieve) size 4 (no. 16 to 100
sieve).
2. Blanket Insulation – made from some fibrous materials such as mineral wool, wood
fiber, cotton fiber, or animal hair, manufactured in the form of a mat, 16, 20 or 24 in.
width, in 8 ft. lengths or put up in rolls of from 40 to 100 linear feet, with controlled
thickness of 1, ½, 2, 3 and 4 inches.
3. Batts – similar to blankets but they are restricted to 48 inches long more or less they are
always covered with paper, and made especially for installation between stud spacings.
4. Structural Insulation Board – made from organic fiber-wood, cane, straw or cork. The
wood and cane raw material is first pulped, after which it is treated with water proofing
chemicals.
a. Strawboard – made from carefully selected straw, fused under heat and pressure
into a panel 2 inches thick and 4 ft. wide.
43
 b. Corkboard – made from granulated cork mixed with resin and pressed into
sheets of several thickness, depending on the use to which they will be put.
5. Block or Rigid Slab Insulation – type of insulation is so called because the units are
relatively stiff and inelastic. In most cases inorganic materials are used in their
manufactures.
6. Reflective Insulation – made from such materials as aluminum or copper foil or sheet
metal, with bright surfaces that reflect heat rather than absorbing it.
7. Foamed-In-Place Insulation – this is polyurethane product made by combining a
polyisocyanate and a polyester resin.
8. Sprayed-on-Insulations – materials used are polyurethane foam asbestos fiber mixed
with inorganic binders, vermiculite aggregate with a binder such as Portland cement or
gypsum and perlite aggregate using gypsum as binders.
9. Corrugated Insulation – usually made from paper foamed into shapes that produce
enclosed air pockets. One type is produced by shaping heavy paper into a series of small
regular semicircular corrugations and covering a both sides with a sheet of flat paper to
give strength and produce the air pockets.

WATERPROOFING, DAMPPROOFING, SOUND AND THERMAL INSULATION

 Types of Waterproofing & applications:

 Torch Applied, Integral and Membrane

 Cementitious
 Sprayed Polyurethane Foam
 Elastomeric

 Types of Damp-roofing & its applications

 Damp-roof Membrane
 Asphalt & Bitumens
 Plastic sheets

 Sound and Thermal Insulation

 Types of Sound Insulation Applications & Materials:

SPF (Sprayed Polyurethane Foam)

Plaster Type
Fiberglass Type

 Types of Thermal Insulation Applications & Materials:

SPF (Sprayed Polyurethane Foam)

Foil type
Blanket & Fiberglass Type

Waterproofing Coatings and Washes

The materials employed as surface coatings may be classified as follows:

 Alum and soap mixtures applied in alternate mixtures (known as the Sylvester
process), which penetrates the pores of the concentrate forming insoluble
compounds due to chemical action between the alum and soap solutions, and these
compounds prevents percolation. The proportions used about ¾ gal. of soap to 1
gal. of water, and 2oz. of alum to 1 gal. of water both substances to be perfectly
dissolved in water before using. Both solutions should be applied with a soft, flat
brush (one for each solution), the soap boiling hot and the alum solution of 60 to
70°F. The soap solution is applied first and allowed to dry - usually for 24 hours.

44
 Then the alum is applied and allowed to dry for the same length of time. This
constitutes one treatment, as many treatments may be applied as necessary. The
solutions should be well rubbed in, but care should be taken to avoid frothing when
applying the soap wash.
 Alum, lye and cement washes.
 Cement grout, with or without the addition of water – repellants.
 Paraffin and other mineral bases, applied cold in solution or prepared in melted.
 Miscellaneous materials of unknown composition sold under various trade
names.
 Specially prepared bituminous products, e.g., “FLINT-KOTE”, “JOHN-
MANSVILLE”, etc.

Asphalt emulsions. Minute asphalt particles dispersed in water and

maintained in suspension (until applied) by a mineral colloid emulsifying agent.
The product is generally called Asphalt Base Clay Emulsions. When the water
vehicle evaporates, resilient reinforced weatherproof film remains. Such
coatings resist passage of free water but allow movement of water vapor
through the film and are classed as breathing films.
Cutback Asphalts. These are composed of a wide variety of products from thin
liquids to heavy paste. Often one or more asphalts dissolved in solvent are filled
with minerals and fibers to meet requirements of different coating uses. Cutback
asphalts provide tough, durable films resistant to the passage of water vapor.

Integral Waterproofing Compounds

These are waterproofing compounds that are manufactured and sold under various trade
names and are available in either powder or liquid form, e.g.,
 “SAHARA”
 “POZOLITH”
 Truscon “ZILICON”
 “AQUELLA”
 “ANTI-HYDRO”

 Membrane Waterproofing
The layers of waterproofing materials used in this method range from the ordinary
tar paper laid with coal-tar pitch to asbestos or asphalted felt laid in asphalt. In this
method, all concrete surfaces to be waterproofed should be as smooth as possible
and should be cleaned and dry. The concrete should be allowed to set thoroughly
and all uneven surfaces should be leveled up with a coat of cement mortar. All sharp
projections on the concrete or masonry should be removed or they will puncture the
waterproofing.

QUESTIONNAIRES

1. A mortar or concrete is considered waterproofed if it does not permit the passage of water or
moisture through its pore or veins and thus making it:

a) permeable b) impermeable c) none of the above d) all of the above

2. What is the transfer of heat from a higher temperature to a lower temperature?

a) convection b) radiation c) conduction d) none of the above

3. Which of the following is not a brand of an integral waterproofing compound?

a) SAHARA b) AQUELLA c) FLINT-COTE d) ZILICON

4. This is an ordinary tar paper laid with coal-tar pitch laid in asphalt, usually used for
waterproofing floors of toilet and baths on the second floor:

45
 a) membrane waterproofing b) integral waterproofing

c) elastomeric waterproofing d) waterproof coatings

GLASS & GLAZING, HARDWARE

Glass – a hard, brittle inorganic substance, ordinarily transparent or translucent; produced by
melting a mixture of silica, a flux and a stabilizer.
Glazing - in architectural specifications is the term used for the installation of glass. It is the
setting of glass in an opening.
Glazing Materials - The materials used for making a weathertight joint between the glass and
the frame into which the glass sets.

Major types of Glass are:

1. Window and Sheet Glass – a soda-lime type of glass used for general glazing,
mirrors, insulating and laminated glass.
Classification of Sheet Glass:
a. Window Glass – used for glazing windows doors and storm sash in residential
buildings where good light and vision are required at moderate cost.
b. Heavy Sheet Glass – used for glazing windows and doors where greater
strength is required but where slight distortion is not objectionable.
c. Picture Glass – used for covering pictures, photographs, maps, charts
projector slides and instrument dials.
2. Plate Glass – the distinguishing feature of this glass is its surface rather than the
composition and thickness. It is formed by rolling molten glass into a plate that is
subsequently ground and polished on both sides to a perfectly flat plane after cooling.
It provides a virtually clear and indistorted vision.
There are two kinds
 one with thickness up to 8 millimeters (5/16”)
 the heavy plate glass from 16 millimeters (5/16”) to 32 millimeters (1-1/4”).
3. Float Glass – is produced by pouring molten glass into a surface of molten tin and
allowing it to cool slowly and the resulting flat and parallel surface minimize distortion
and eliminate the use of grinding and polishing. Float glass is manufactured for
majority of flat glass production.

Other Types of Glass:

1. Reflective Glass – used to control glare and reduce solar heat. It the product of a
glasscoating process which is carried out in a large, rectangular vacuum chamber.
Manufactured in two types, silver and gold, the glass can be specified in any one of
three nominal light transmittance of 8, 14, or 20 percent.
2. Rolled and Rough Cast Glass – used where clear vision is not required, such as by
factory roofs and walls, windows for halls and staircases, skylights, and partitions in
offices. Cast glass diffuses light, and because of its low reflecting and absorption
index, transmits 90 to 93 percent of light rays striking it.
3. Cathedral and Figured Glass – manufacturing is similar to rolled and rough-cast glasses.
However, they contain a pattern or texture impressed usually on one surface by a
patterned roller.
4. Wired Glass – simply a rolled glass into which diamond-shaped wire mesh is inserted
during the proces of manufacture.
5. Heat –Absorbing Plate Glass – made by adding ingredients to the mix used in making
regular slate glass so that the finished product is pale bluish-green or gray.
46
 6. Tempered Plate Glass – three to five times as strong as regular plate of the same
thickness – and area in resisting compressive forces and fracture due to strain or
thermal shock.
7. Vitreous Colored Plate – polished plate glass can be heat-strengthened and coated on
one side with vitreous color which is fire-fused to the surface.
8. Laminated Safety Glass (Bullet Proofing) – widely used in the automotive industry and
transportation, but now finding some uses in the building industry, like glass that can
withstand firearm attack and explosions.
9. Insulating Glass – consists of two sheets of plate or sheet glass, separated by an air
space, and joined around the edges to produce a hermitically sealed unit.
10. Annealed Glass – type of glass that is cooled slowly to relieve internal stresses.
11.Heat Strengthened Glass – is annealed glass that is partially tempered by the process of
reheating and sudden cooling. This has the about twice the strength of annealed
glass with the same thickness.
12.Heat Absorbing and Glare-Reducing Glass (Tinted Glass) – Any type of glass that
absorbs percentages of the total radiant energy of the sun and includes glass that has
been made translucent by surface treatment.
13.Patterned Glass – is semi-transparent glass with distinctive geometric or linear designs
that was formed during the rolling process that diffuse light and obscure vision.
14. Structural Glass – is a specially ground and polished, opaque colored glass obtained
bythe addition of metallic oxides. It is used for facing material for vertical and
horizontal surfaces of walls, partitions and narrow flat surfaces.
15. Tempered Glass – annealed glass that has been reheated to just below the softening
point and then suddenly cooled by subjecting both surfaces to jets of air. This process
induce compressive stresses in the outside surfaces and edges of the glass (which
cools faster) with the inner portion to be under the state of tensile stresses, the two
forces/stresses being balanced. This glass cannot be drilled or cut, that is why all
dimensions, holes, hardwares must be designed before its manufacture. When
fractured, the glass breaks up into relatively harmless, pebble-sized pieces.
16. Obscure Glass – has one or both sides acid-etched or sandblasted to obscure vision.
Both process, however weaken the glass and makes it difficult to clean.
17. Spandrel Glass – opaque finish use for concealing the structural elements in a
curtainwall construction. It is produced by fusing a ceramic frit to the interior surface of
tempered or heat-strengthened glass.
18. Low-Emissivity Glass – or Low-E glass is produced by depositing a low emission
coating either on the glass itself or over the transparent plastic film suspended in the
sealed air space of the insulating glass. This glass selectively reflect the longer
wavelengths of the radiant heat while transmitting visible light.

Glass products:
1. Glass Blocks – comparable in many ways to unit masonry but have the added feature of
transmitting light.
2. Solid Glass Brick – also made to admit light into a building, because of its solid
construction, it offers greater protection against vandalism than conventional window
glass or glass blocks. The ability of the brick is to allow undistorted passage of light.

Glazing materials in general use are as follows:

1. Wood Sash Putty – is the cement composed of fine powdered chalk (whiting)
or lead oxide (white lead) mixed with boiled or raw linseed oil. It may contain
other drying oils such as soybean and perilla. As the oil oxidizes, the putty
hardens; and if rapid hardening is desired, litcharge or special dryers may be
added. Putty is also used to fill up holes and cracks in woodwork. The wood
47
 should be treated with boiled linseed oil or a priming paint before putty is
applied. Putty should never be painted unless it is thoroughly dry.
2. Metal Sash Putty – is made of materials that adhere to non-porous surfaces.
It should always be applied as per recommendation of the manufacturer. In
general, it should be painted two (2) weeks after application. Metal sash putty
is made in two types: a.) exterior glazing and b.) interior glazing.
3. Elastic Glazing Compound - is made from selected processed oils and color
pigments compounded so that iot will remain plastic and resilient over a long
period of time. They are generally used where vibration and twisting occurs.
4. Polybutane Tape – a non-drying mastic made in extruded ribbon shapes of
various widths and thicknesses and must be applied with pressure for proper
adhesion. It remains plastic over extremely long periods of time and is also
used as a continuous bed material with polysulfide sealing compound.
5. Polysulfide Elastomer Sealing Compound – is a compound composed of
two-part synthetic rubber. The activator and the base compound are generally
mixed at the job site and applied with a caulking gun or spatula. The use of
this material requires that the surrounding areas be protected by masking with
tape and any spillage shall be removed immediately because once the mixture
sets, it will be almost impossible to remove.
6. Compression Materials – are extruded or molded shapes made of rubber,
neoprene, vinyl, or other plastics. In order to achieve a weathertight joint, the
shape must be compressed not less that 15%.
7. Gaskets – are used between the glass and extruded aluminum and wood-
framed windows. They are made of non-hardening materials such as vinyl,
rubber.
8. Stabilizers and Metal Joining Units – are used between two large glass
panels, as used in glass curtainwalls wher wind velocities are normally higher
than the glass can withstand without this protection.

GLAZING SYSTEMS

1. Face Glazing – refers to the setting of small glass panels or panes in a rabetted
frame, held in place with glazier’s points and sealed with beveled head of putty
glazing compound.
 Glazier’s points – these are metal points that hold a glass pane in a
sash until the face putty has hardened.
 Putty – is a mixture or compound of whiting and linseed oil, of dough-
like consistency when fresh, used in securing window panes or patching of
woodwork defects.
 Face Putty – is the putty or glazing compound formed on the exterior
side of a glass pane.
 Glazing compound – is an adhesive compound used as putty,
formulated so as not to become brittle with age.
2. Wet Glazing – is the setting of glass in a window frame with glazing tape or a liquid
sealant.
 Glazing tape – is a preformed ribbon of synthetic rubber such as butyl
or polyisobutylene, having adhesive properties used in glazing to form
watertight seal between glass and frame.
 Cap bead or sealant – an adhesive liquid of synthetic rubber injected
into the joint between a glass pane or unit and a window frame, forming a
watertight seal upon curing.
 Glazing bead or stop – is the wood molding or metal section secured
against the edge of a glass pane or unit to hold it in place.
48
  Heel Bead – is an adhesive liquid of synthetic rubber injected between a
glass pane or unit and a glazing bead that forms an airtight seal upon
curing.

3. Dry Glazing – is the setting of glass pane in a window frame with a compression
gasket instead of glazing tape or liquid sealant.
 Compression gasket – a pre-formed strip of synthetic rubber or plastic
compressed between a glass pane or unit and a window frame to form a
watertight seal and cushion for the glass pane.
4. Structural Gasket Glazing – are pre-formed synthetic rubber or other elstomeric
materials to secure a glass pane or unit in a window frame or opening. The gaskets
are held in compression by forcing a keyed locking strip into a groove in the gasket.
The glass pane must be supported on at least two sides by the frame or a support
gasket.

Setting blocks – made of lead or synthetic rubber placed under the lower edge of a glass pane
or unit to support it within the frame.

QUESTIONNAIRES

1. A type of glass used in constructing a vision type of door, which must be shatter-proof so as
to be accident-free.

a) figured wire glass b) bevel grind glass c) clear plate glass d) laminated glass

2. A hard, brittle, chemically inert substance produced by fusing silica together with a flux and
a stabilizer that cools to a rigid condition without crystallization is:

a) glass b) weld c) solder d) silaceous compound

3. What do you call the support of the lower edge of the glass pane within the window frame?

a) structural gasket b) setting block c) dry glazing d) sash putty

4. This glass cannot be drilled or cut, that is why all dimensions, holes, hardwares must be
designed before its manufacture:

a) plate glass b) patterned glass c) annealed glass d) tempered glass

5. A type of glazing system is:

a) face glazing b) dry glazing c) wet glazing d) all of the above

6. What type of glass is used for general glazing, mirrors, insulating and laminated glass?

a) picture glass b) window glass c) all of the above d) none of the above

7. In architectural specifications, it is the term used for the installation of glass and is also
known as the setting of glass in an opening:

a) glazing b) placing c) all of the above d) none of the above

8. In party walls, the correct installation of glass blocks is:

a) 9 mm reinforcements every block and course

b) 10 mm reinforcement every block and every third course
c) 10 mm reinforcement every block and course
d) none of the above
49
PAINTING AND VARNISHING

PAINT FINISHES

A. Transparent Finishing Materials

1. Wood Stains
Wood stains are composed of pigments (coloring ingredients) and liquid solvents
of water, oil or alcohol. When applied, the coloring matter penetrates the surface,
remaining transparent to display the beautiful grain effect to advantage.

Three types of wood stains:

 Oil Stains – the pigments are obtained from various earth clays. After they are
dissolved in linseed oil, the coloring particles remain suspended between the
oil molecules. For spreading the color particles over large surfaces, the ground
oil color is thinned with turpentine.
 Water Stains – made from anilyne dyes and mineral extracts which have
been dissolved in hot water.
 Spirit (Alcohol) Stains – Stains that are mixed with alcohol-solution anilyne
powders and warm alcohol.
2. Wood Fillers
 Paste Fillers – composed of silex (stone dust), japan-drier, linseed oil,
turpentine and sometimes colors ground in oil by adding color to a filler (both
wood filling and staining is done simultaneously). Filler is applied with the grain
and allowed to dry “flat” for about ten (10) minutes. It is then wiped off across
the grain with burlap or some other coarse material. Paste fillers requires
about 24 hours for drying before it can be sanded.
 Crack Fillers – plastic wood putty, stick shellac, etc. They are used for filling
nail holes, cracks and dents.
 Shellac – made by refining seed lac and its natural color is orange; white
shellac is obtained by bleaching. Lac is a resin exuded by certain insects in
India in the twigs of trees. These twigs with the resin attached are called
sticklac and are crushed and washed to produce seed lac. Shellac is an under
or a preparatory coat for varnish and wax finishes, but is not satisfactory as an
independent finish because it is not durable and turns white from contact with
water. It is also used to cover wood knots before a priming lead and oil coat is
applied because it kills the resin in the knot and prevents discoloration.
 Varnish – is a resolution of resin in drying oil (oil varnish) or in a volatile
solvent such as alcohol or turpentine (spirit varnish). It contains no pigment
and hardens into a smooth, hard and glossy coat by the oxidation of the oil or
by the evaporation of the alcohol. The chief resins used in varnishes are copal
or African fossil gums; dammar or resins from Singapore and the East Indies;
rosin, the residue left under the extraction of turpentine from pine resins and
rosin esters, obtain by treating rosin with glycerine to make it waterproof when
dry. In general, oil varnishes are more durable than spirit varnishes. Spirit
varnishes are either dammar varnish, made by treating dammar resins with
turpentine or shellac varnish, made by dissolving white or orange shellac in
grain alcohol. They dry by evaporation of the solvent. Drying time is from 4 to
24 hours. Varnish should never be applied when the weather is moist or
humid.
 Lacquer – is made synthetically and is closely related to rayon or nylon
fabrics. It requires a special thinner sold by each manufacturer for his own
brand. Average drying time is 1-1/2 hours. For fine lacquer finishes, a special
undercoat of lacquer sealer is applied over a wash coat of shellac. After the

50
 sealer has dried, it is sanded or steel-wooled to give the lacquer a gripping
surface.

B. Opaque Finishing Materials

1. Paint
Paint is the dry film formed from a mixture of a pigment (solids) and a vehicle
(liquids or fluids) spread on a surface as a decorative or protective coating.
 Pigment – is that solid, finely ground portion which gives to paint the power to
obscure, hide or color the surface. Pigments may be divided into white and
colored pigments. The white pigments can in turn be divided into active
(hiding) pigments and extender pigments.
 Active (hiding) pigments are those that when mixed with the drying
oil produces an opaque finishing material. The most widely used active
pigment is the white lead which when used alone with linseed oil, will
produce an excellent, durable paint. Other active white pigments
include zinc oxide (used with white lead to give increased hardness,
greater durability, reduced caulking, greater color retention and
elasticity), lithopone, titanium dioxide.
 Extender pigments are inert pigments which when mixed with the
drying oils possess very little hiding power. They are often referred to
as fillers, extenders or suspenders. They serve to prevent the primary
ingredient from setting in a hard mass at the bottom of the paint can.
The extender pigments include calcium carbonate, silica and mica. All
paints other than white paints also contain color pigments in addition to
white pigments. A good exterior paint shoul contain not less than 65%
pigment by weight. High quality exterior paints contain not more than
10% of extender pigments. Example of extender pigment is talc.

 Vehicle – is the liquid or fluid portion of the paint which carries the
particles of the pigment in suspension and by the oxidation deposits and
hardening binds them to the painted surface or by evaporation, deposits
them thereon. A good paints vehicle will contain from 85% to 95% drying
oil and the rest thinners and driers. The vehicle or liquid portion of the paint
consists of the following:
 Binder – forms the film.
 Driers – to speed up formulation of the film. Driers may be classified
into two types:
(a) oil driers are used in powdered or crystalline form such
as litharge (monoxide of lead), manganese dioxide, borate
and;
(b) liquid driers are inorganic compounds of lead,
manganese and cobalt, which are dissolved in turpentine
or benzene and which mix readily with the oil at ordinary
temperatures.
 Volatile Solvent – known technically as the thinner. The volatile solvent
facilitates application and contributes, through its eveporation, the
drying of the paint, but is not a permanent part of the film.
Types of Paints
 Oil Paint – is the principal paint for exterior wood surfaces. It contains
white lead as the white paint pigment, together with color pigments and
extenders in a vehicle consisting of drying oil (usually linseed oils), dryers
and the solven t or thinner (turpentine).
 Alkyd-Resin or Oil-Resin Emulsion Paints – oil and resin emulsified in
water makes a heterogeneous finishing material by an emulsifying agent

51
 such as casein. A great advantage of oil-resin paint is that its viscosity can
be easily reduced by the addition of water.
 Synthetic Latex (Rubber-Base) Paints – paints made from synthetic
latex which acts as the pigment binder and the film forming material for the
paint. A careful balance of synthetic latex and alkyd resins gives a solution
that can thinned with water for application as a continuous film with
excellent adhesion and wash ability. Latex paint is the preferred paint for
plaster, cement, concrete and masonry.
 Portland Cement-Base Paints – is a water-based paint (where the
solvent is water) used for painting concrete and masonry surfaces.
 Enamel Paints – are generally paints which use varnish as a vehicle.
They have the ability of levelling brush marks, are more resistant to
washing and rough usage and have a harder and tougher film. They can
have either a glossy, semi-glossy or matt finish.
 Rust-Inhibiting Paints – are protective paints for ferrous metal and are of
two types:
 Priming Paint: e.g. red lead, litharge, lead chromate
 Finish Paint: e.g. lead sulfate, zinc dust

2. Paint Behavior and Defects

Well-formulated paint, skillfully applied over a properly prepared surface wears by
gradual “chalking” and maintains a smooth, tough and durable film that constitutes
a satisfactory surface for repainting. Such a paint film will remain an effective
protective coating for a period of three to five years depending upon the locality
and the characteristics of the original surface. It requires little treatment beyond
surface dusting in preparation for repainting.

Defective paint behavior and surface failures are traceable to three main causes:
 Improper paint formulation.
 Inadequate surface preparation and careless application of paints.
 Faulty construction or building materials.

The following are the various paint defects, their causes, prevention:

 Excessive or premature chalking – this is evidenced by surface dusting

and rapid thinning of the film, sometimes to bare wood. The cause may be
due to improper formulation or paint application. Paints containing too high
a percentage of volatile thinner forms a porous film subject has completely
worn away. Prevention requires merely a strict adherence to high
standards of paint formulation and application.

 Sagging and Running – is marked by irregular wavy lines that texture an

otherwise smooth finish film. The cause is usually paint formulation with
too low a pigment volume or too heavy and careless application of a thin-
consistency paint. It occurs sometimes when repainting an interior if an
original gloss surface has not been cut by sanding. Curing the condition
necessitates sanding the irregularities and repainting. Prevention involves
maintaining proper proportions of pigment and linseed oil as to formulation
and careful brushing of properly thinned paint as to application.

 Storm Spotting – usually occurs after continuous rains and electric storms
are characterized by unsightly and irregular color changes. Rain
sometimes absorbs nitrates and peroxides firmed by electrical discharges
and penetrates the paint film, changing the refractive index of the coating.
The cure of the condition can sometimes be accomplished by rubbing the
52
 spots with alcohol. Subsequent weathering usually restores the original
color within a month or two.

 Washing – is characterized by streaking on the surface, fading color, the

final exposure of the original surface and accumulation of pigment particles
below the painted area. This is caused by water-soluble compounds which
develop by chemical reactions in the paint dissolved during rain storms
and was out of the film.Also, when paints are applied during periods of
high humidity and low temperatures, the film structure may be injured
during the drying period.

 Stains – are surface discolorations which often disappear gradually as the

paint film wears. Sometimes, however, they go through the film
necessitating its removal and subsequent repainting. Metal stains are
sometimes caused by water dripping from exposed metal. Prevention
involves the coating of the metal. Galvanized iron should be painted while
metallic zinc dust in spar varnish or paint containing zinc oxide. Mildew
stains are caused by air-borne fingi that feed on oil and multiply rapidly.
They cannot be easily removed. Old growth should be removed before
repainting by washing with 1 lb. of tri-sodium phosphate or sodium
carbonate with 1 gallon of water. For prevention, the paint can be treated
with about ¼ ounce of mercuric chloride per gallon of water.

 Checking – is characterized by minute cracks on the surface of elastic

paint films. Usually it is not a serious film defect, for checks do not extend
through the film. The cause is improper application or improper formulation
of undercoats. The finish film is applied over a body coat not quite enough
for a proper foundation. Unequal tensions occur in drying and small
surface checks result. The cure of condition involves wire brushing the
affected areas and repainting it, if checking does not disappear under the
influence of normal wear. Prevention involves the allowance of sufficient
drying time between coats and the formulation of the body coat with a
minimum amount of oil in order to develop a hard foundation for finish
coat.

 Alligatoring - is an advance state of checking, varying in degree to a

coarse texturing of the finish film. The cause involves application of a
harder drying finish over soft or slow-drying undercoats. As in checking,
formulation with too much linseed oil in the priming or body coat may result
in alligatoring. The cure of condition, if extensive, requires the removal of
the film and repainting. Prevention necessitates precautions noted above
to prevent checking.

 Cracking and Scaling – are characterized by irregular cracks that

subsequently curl at the edge, flake and finally scale off. Over wood,
scaling is usually most marked in direction of or across the grain. Cracking
is a wear characteristic of hard-drying paints that contain large proportions
of zinc oxide pigment. Scaling comes from the water pressure when
moisture seeps through the crack to the original surface. The condition is
common to any surface coated with paint improperly formulated to
withstand local conditions. The cure of the condition at an early stage
requires vigorous brushing and recounting with a less brittle film.
Prevention involves the formulation to produce a tougher, more elastic film.
Usually this means an increased percentage of white lead.

53
  Blistering and Peeling – is characterized by swelling of the entire film
which is usually followed by a break in the film and subsequent peeling.
The cause is water pressure from behind the film due to faulty construction
that allows moisture seepage or abnormal condensation. This is a
mechanical damage that may occur whatever the type or quality of paint
used. It sometimes also results when damp surfaces are covered by quick-
drying paints. This type of damage may be evident on wood, stucco or
masonry surfaces. The cure of condition requires the complete removal of
the paint and repainting as for new work. Prevention necessitates the
permanent removal of sources, often involving extensive repairs and
waterproofing.
the moisture

 Spot Fading – is characterized by color changes and flatting of gloss in

irregular patches on the film. The cause is from uneven oil absorption,
usually a result of insufficient coats or a priming coat improperly formulated
to penetrate and adequately seal surface pores. It may be emphasized
when “skimping” is attempted, that is, application of two coats when three
are needed, or the use of a cheaply formulated paint. The cure of the
condition is repainting. Prevention requires merely the exercise of proper
painting technique.

 Wrinkling – should not be confused with alligatoring, for wrinkling is

marked by a tough, leather-like texturing. The cause is usually when paint
is put on too thickly and not well brushed out and may be contributed to by
formulation, if too high a proportion of oil is used in finish coats. The cure
of the condition requires only sanding and repainting if texture is slight.
Otherwise, the film removal is indicated with subsequent painting as for
new work. Prevention requires strict adherence to high standards of paint
formulation and thorough brushing out in application.

QUESTIONNAIRES

1. A paint defect by discoloration of a coat caused by soluble color in the underlying surface:

a) spotting b) blistering c) deadening d) bleeding

2. A paint defect that occurs on inferior brands where the paint’s soluble pigments softens and
dissolves by water or by chemicals after sufficient drying:

a) wrinkling b) fading c) washing d) bleeding

3. A decorative coating especially prepared to penetrate deep into unfinished wood where its
clear, true tones emphasize the grain and bring out the natural beauty of wood:

a) oil wood stain b) clear gloss lacquer c) lacquer sanding sealer c) finishing oil

4. A construction technique for color production and reproduction using the Munsell color
principle, a color has its degree of colorfulness or intensity because of its:

a) chroma scale b) value scale c) hue scale d) none of the above

5. Paint color that reflects the most light is:

a) white b) beige c) yellow d) blue

6. A mixture consisting of vehicles or binders, with or without coloring pigments, adjusted

54
 and diluted with correct amounts and types of additives and thinners, which when applied on
a surface, forms an adherent continuous film which provides protection, decoration,
sanitation, identification and other functional properties:

a) Paint b) lacquer c) waterproofing paint d) eleastomeric paint

7. A group of more-or-less transparent liquids which are used to provide a protective surface
coating and at the same time to allow the original surface to show but also add a lustrous
and finish to it is known as:

a) Paint b) Varnishes c) Turpentine d) lacquers

8. This is used on all non-painted concrete, synthetic finishes, rubble, and wash-out finishes as
a protection from absorption of water and prevents moss, alkali, fungi to appear on the
surface is known as:

a) Silicone Water Repellant

b) waterproofing paint
c) elastomeric paint
d) none of the above

9. When pigment is added to a varnish, the result is:

a) lacquer b) enamel c) turpentine d) paint

10. A method of protecting the ferrous materials like steel, iron from rusting or corrosion:

a) Rustproofing b) galvanizing c) chrome plating d) painting

11. The component of the paint present in every can is:

a) vehicle b) pigment c) none of thew above d) all of the above

12. This is the principal paint for exterior wood surfaces. It contains white lead as the white paint
pigment, together with color pigments and extenders in a vehicle consisting of drying oil
(usually linseed oils), dryers and the solvent or thinner (turpentine).

a) Oil Paint b) elastomeric paint c) enamel paint d) none of the above

13. The pigments used are obtained from various earth clays after which they are dissolved in
linseed oil and the coloring particles remain suspended between the oil molecules:
a) varnish b) Oil Stains c) all of the above d) none of the above

14. For spreading the color particles over large surfaces, the ground oil stain color is thinned
with what material?

a) thinner b) lacquer thinner c) turpentine d) drier

DOORS & HARDWARE

DOORS - are movable panels used to open or close an entranceway. They are the means of
access or approach (ingress) to and exit (egress) from a room, building or passage.

I. Kinds of doors according to operation:

1. Swinging Doors – normally swing on hinges fixed on a side jamb, either pulled or
pushed. Some may be pivoted from its head jamb and threshold.
55
 2. By-pass Doors – glide on an overhead track and long bottom guides/rails fixed
on the floor. They may be used for exterior and interior purposes.
3. Surface Sliding Doors – mounted on exposed overhead tracks, usually used for
interior and exterior purposes. These doors usually provide access through the
full width of the doorway.
4. Pocket Sliding Doors – glides on an overhead track and vanishes into a pocket
or recess within a wall. Pockets may be built on both sides, each to take one
of thedoor panels. They are generally for interior use only but may be
designed for exterior wall locations.
5. Folding Doors – usually used to subdivide large interior spaces with door panels
hinged to fold against each other when opened.

II. Classification of Door Frames:

1. Wooden Door Frame

2. Aluminum Door Frame
3. Iron Door Frame
Three Types:
a). Angle Iron Door Frame – made from angle iron 40mm X 40mm X 6mm
with iron hinges welded to frame. Joints should be flushed welded and
ground smooth with grinder.
b.) T Iron Door Frame - Frames are made from T Iron sections.
c.) Pressed Steel Door Frame – Manufactured from mild steel sheet 1.25 mm
thick.

A. METAL DOORS AND FRAMES

I. Types of Metal Doors

1. Steel Doors
2. Aluminum Doors
3. Stainless Steel Doors
4. Bronze Doors

A. Steel Doors
A.1. Types of Design
1. Flush
a. Full Flash
b. Flush Panel
b.1. Stile and Rail Construction
b.2. Stile and Panel Construction
c. Recessed Panel
2. Glass
a. Half Glass
b. Half Glass with Muntin
c. Full Glass
3. Vision Lite
4. Narrow Lite
5. Louvered
a. Bottom Louvered
b. Full Louvered
c. Full Louvered with Vision Lite
6. Dutch

A.2. Finishes
1. Galvanized and primed for painting
2. Baked Enamel paint
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 3. Vinyl Cladded
4. Aluminum or Stainless Steel Cladded (maybe polished or textured)

A.3. Types of Door Edges

1. Beveled Edge
2. Double Beveled Edge
3. Overlapping Astragal
4. Split Astragal

B. Steel Door Frames

1. Nomenclature for Steel Door Frames

a. Single Rabbet Frame
b. Standard Double Rabbet Frame
c. Covemold Frame
d. Cased Open Frame

2. Types of Steel Frame Installations

a. Butt-Frame Installation
b. Wrap-Around Installation

3. Types of Steel Frame

a. Knocked Down – frames that are field assembled and shall be of rigidly
interlocked frame joints so as to maintain alignment and
assure performance of completed frames when field
assembled.
b. Welded
b.1. Face Welded – the joint between the head and the jamb faces are
completely arc welded along their length either internally or
externally. The remaining frame profile, like the soffit, stops,
rabbets are not welded.
b.2.Full Profile Welded – specified also as Fully Welded or Continuously
Welded. The joints of all the elements of the head and jamb
profiles, i.e., soffit, stops, rabbets, faces and returns are
completely arc welded internally and externally.
c. Slip-on Drywall – frames use for installation in existing drywall
construction. Not available with welded corners.

C. Steel Fire Doors – A door assembly of a fire-resistant door, doorframe and door
hardwares needed to protect the openings of a fire-rated wall in a building.
The doorframe and the hardwares are required to have a fire-resistance
rating similar to the door. The door (with a maximum size of 1.22 meters x
3.050 meters) must be equipped with self-latching closers.

ALUMINUM DOORS

Doors generally fabricated from extrusions and rolled shapes.

B. WOOD DOORS

Types of Wood Doors:

1. Batten Doors
2. Panel Doors
3. Flush Doors

I. Wood Flush Doors

57
 Doors with no visible seams on both sides or faces.

A. Types of Design
1. Plain flush door
2. Flush door with glass inserts
3. Flush door with louvered inserts

B. Construction – there are three types of flush door according to their construction:
1. Hollow Core Flush Door – contains a framework consisting of stiles and rails
which bordered the expanded honeycombed core of corrugated fiberboard or
of a grid of interlocking horizontal and vertical wood strips. This type of door is
usually covered with plywood on both faces and has little inherent thermal or
acoustic insulation characteristics. It is lightweight and is generally use for
interior applications.
2. Solid Core Flush Door – contains a core consisting of bonded staved lumber
blocks, particle boards or of mineral composition. It is primarily use for exterior
applications and may also be used as sound insulation. Solid core door is also
chosen whenever increased fire resistance or stability is required. The bonded
staved lumber core is always used because it is the most economical unlike
the mineral composition core who has a low-holding strength for hardwares.

3. Wood Framed Flush Door – contains a framework of stile and rail covered on
both faces with veneer of manufactured boards such as plywood.

II. Wood Panel Doors

Doors which consist of a framework of horizontal rails and vertical stiles that may be
either made of veneered hardwood or solid softwood. This framework holds in place
solid wood panels, glass lights inserts or louvers.

A. The available designs for Wood Panel Doors are;

1. Panel
2. Panel with sash
3. Louvered Panel
4. French door
5. French door with divided lights

B. Construction - A framework consisting of the rail and stiles whose joints are
doweled or dovetailed with mortices and tenons. The rail is composed of the
top rail, lock rail and the bottom rail. The stile is made up of the hinge stile
(from which the door is hung) and lock stile which holds the lockset. Door
heights range from 2.030 meters – 2.440 meters and widths up to 0.915
meter. Thickness is usually 35 millimeters or 45 millimeters.

III. Batten Doors

Are doors consisting of vertical board sheathing nailed at right angles to ledgers or
cross strips. Diagonal brace is nailed and notched between and into the ledgers.

IV. Sliding Doors

These doors may either be of the bypass, surface or pocket sliding type. Their panels
may be made of wood, glass or polysterene with flush, louver or panel designs.

SPECIAL DOORS

1. Metal Covered Doors

2. Coiling Doors and Grilles
3. Plastic-Faced Doors
58
 4. Folding Doors
5. Overhead Doors
6. Sliding Glass Doors
7. Tempered Glass Doors
8. Revolving Doors
9. Flexible Doors
10. Hangar Doors

1. Metal Covered Doors

Doors composed of metal facings of relatively light gauge wrapped around a core of
wood or other material. It serves a decorative or protective function rather than a
structural one. Kalamein doors and other metal-covered swinging fire doors are
samples of this type.

2. Coiling Doors and Grilles

Also known as rolling doors consisting of horizontal and interlocking metal slats that
have rollers guided by a track on either or both sides and is open by a coiling motion
about an overhead drum located at the head of the door opening. The door maybe
operated manually or through the use of hoist or lever and/or automatically through
the use of electric motor. These doors are available with vision panels, thermal
insulation and other options.

A. Types of Coiling or Rolling Door Designs;

1. Wood or Aluminum Panel Doors

2. Wood or Steel Flush Doors
3. Steel or Fiberglass Ribbed Doors
4. Steel or Aluminum Slatted Sections

3. Plastic-Faced Doors
Doors constructed of various materials and faced with melamine plastic sheets, vinyl
sheets, polyvinylflouride films, or other special-duty or decoratrive plastics.

4. Folding Doors
Doors made of panels or leaves of various widths and thickness that are hinged
together that fold together when open, use to subdivide large interior spaces. For
exterior use, the most common type is the steel accordion door which is made of steel
pleats that folds like an accordion.

5. Overhead Doors
Doors that are constructed of one or several leaves of wood, steel, aluminum or
fiberglass and is open by swinging or rolling up to a position above the door opening.
The door may be open manually or operated by a chain hoist or electric motor. Also
known as canopy doors

Three types:
A. Canopy Door
Operates in vertical tracks on the door side frame and when fully opened forms
a canopy of about one-third of the door’s height above the opening.
i. Balanced -the door is suspended at its center and balanced
throughout its operation by counterweights.
ii. Cantilevered – door supported by bracing member on both sides
operated through counterbalance. The three kinds of
cantilevered doors are; inward folding, telescoping and
outward folding.

B. Retractable
59
 Guided by horizontal tracks inside and recedes completely when opened.

C. Sectional Door
Opened by vertical lift action guided by fixed vertical and horizontal tracks.

6. Sliding Glass Doors

Doors of narrow stile sliding type usually made of aluminum extrusions. Some are
made of steel, wood, or other materials.
Two types: a.) slide at straight line or parallel straight lines and
b.) slide around corners in a building (have a hinged door at the jamb).

7. Tempered Glass Doors

Doors made of either figured or polished tempered glass.

8. Revolving Doors
Doors that contain three or four “leaves” or “wings” that rotate about a central, vertical
pivot within a vestibule shaped like a cylinder. It is generally chosen as entrance
doors in large commercial and institutional buildings because it provides a continuous
weatherseal, which eliminates drafts, and prevents huge cooling loss or fluctuations in
temperature whenever it is use by a great number of people. It excludes pollution from
dirt and noise and provides security by deterring unauthorized or undesired access

9. Flexible Doors
Doors that is flexible and made of plastic or rubber.

10. Hangar Doors

Doors that are specially fabricated for aircraft hangars.

Finishing Hardware:
Hinge - a movable joint used to attach support and turn a door about a pivot, consists of
two plates joined together by a pin which the door and connect it to its frame, enabling
it to swing open or closed.

1. Butt hinge – consists of two rectangular metal plates which are joined with a pin. In
large hinge, the pin is removable, in small hinges, it is fixed.
2. Fast pin hinge – a hinge I which the pin is fastened permanently in place.
3. Full surface hinge – a hinge designed for attachment on the surface of the door and
jamb without mortising.
4. Loose joint hinge – a door hinge having two knuckles, one of which has vertical pin
that fits in a corresponding hole in the other, by lifting the door up, off the vertical pin,
the door maybe removed with unscrewing the hinge.
5. Loose pin hinge – a hinge having a removable pin which permits its two parts to be
separated.
6. Paumelle hinge – a type of door hinge having a single joint of the pivot type, usually of
modern design.
7. Olive knuckle hinge – a paumelle hinge with knuckles forming an oval shape.
8. Spring hinge – a hinge containing one or more springs, when a door is opened, the
hinge returns it to the open position automatically, may act in one direction only, or in
both directions.
9. Vertical spring pivot hinge – a spring hinge for a door which is mortised into the heel
of the door, the door is fastened to the floor and door head with pivots.

Door Hardware

Functions:
a. Acts as door hangers – hinges, closers, pivots
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 b. Operates the door – handles, latches, pull bars and push plates
c. Closes the door – closers, combination pivots and closers
d. Locks the door - locksets, dead bolts, flush bolts, electric locks and other
special devices
e. Seals the door – weatherstripping, sound and smoke seals
f. Protects the door – kick plates, corner protection and similar hardwares

Door Hand Location Specification

In specifying door hardwares specially locksets and closers, it is important to know the
door hand conventions where the terms of reference assumes the view from the exterior
of the structure/building or room to which the doorway is heading.
1. Left Hand (LH) – the door opens inwards going to the left with the hinges
located at the left.
2. Right Hand (RH) - the door opens inwards going to the right with the hinges
located at the right.
3. Left Hand Reverse (LHR) - the door opens outwards going to the left with the
hinges located at the left.
4. Right Hand Reverse (RHR) - the door opens outwards going to the right with
the hinges located at the right.

HANDLES, PULLS AND PUSH PLATES, DOOR STOPS AND BUMPERS,

ASTRAGALS

Handles, Push and Pull Bars - are devices to hold the door in place without
provision for locking. They do not require automatic latching and are also usually used
for commercial kitchens and hospitals.

Door Stops and Bumpers – are small metal fabrications provided with rubber
bumpers attached to a door to prevent it from harming finishes and damaging
adjacent constructions.

CLOSERS, COMBINATION PIVOTS AND CLOSERS, PANIC HARDWARE

Closers - are door devices that automatically return the door to its closed position
after it is opened and also protect the door and the surrounding construction from
damage by controlling the distance it can be opened. They can be either surface
mounted on the door or head frame or concealed in the frame of door itself.

Pivots are used as the alternative way to hang frameless doors where it is impossible
to make use of hinges or the visual appearance of hinges on doors becomes
objectionable or creates an unacceptable look. They are either center hung or offset
and are mounted on the floor and head of the door.

Panic Hardware is a type of operating mechanism required for safe egress or exit
during emergency and/or panic situations. This hardware is operated through push
bars extending across the width of the door connected to vertical rods that
disengages latches at the top and bottom of the door. The vertical rods can either be
concealed or surface-mounted.

Center Latch Bolt Type is used for:

a.) single door
b.) active door of a pair
c.) both doors of a pair with mullions

Vertical Rod Type is used for:

a.) single door
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 b.) inactive door of a pair
c.) both doors of a pair

LATCHES, LOCKSETS, DEAD BOLTS, FLUSH BOLTS, ETC.

Latches or Latchset – are devices that hold the door in place without a provision for
locking. It contains a beveled latch which extends from the face of the door edge
which automatically engage the strike that is mounted on the frame when the door is
closed.

Thumb Latch – this is the oldest type of latch and is simple to install but difficult
to adjust. It is usually padlocked.

Locksets – are devices that have special mechanisms which hold a door in the
closed position and allow it to be locked with a key or thumbturn.

Types of Latches and Locks:

1. Rim Locks and Latches – the case and strike are mounted on the face of the
door and trim but without morticing.
2. Mortise Lock and Latch – this type developed historically from rim types. This
type makes for lengthy installation in wood doors because of the large mortise.
The size of case and assessibility of mechanism makes economically possible
the maximum number and variety of knob and lever designs and locking
options. It allows the use of dead and latch bolts that can be extracted in a
single operation. It is considered more secure than a cylindrical lock.
3. Unit Lock – also known as preassembled lock and latch. It is a complete
factory lock assembly that eliminatesmuch adjustment on the job. Unit locks
slid into notch cut on job (for wood doors) or prepared at shop (for metal
doors). Dead bolt may be omitted to make simple latch set to match but it can
also have button in insidew knob to prevent outside knob from turning (for
bathrooms, bedrooms).
4. Bore-in locks and latches – also known as cylindrical or tubular locks, are
relatively inexpensive, simple to install in wood doors and have fewer
operating functions than mortise lock. Installation needs only two holes to bore
and a shallow mortise for case front.
5. Interconnected lock – a combination cylindrical lock and dead bolt, in which
both locks are interconnected to allow for single action to release both bolts by
turning a knob or lever handle.
6. Other door locks:
a) Entrance lockset – operated inside with a key and a thumbturn or
universal button which puts and locks the door in place when pushed.
It is usually intricately designed and used for entrance doors.
b) Bedroom lockset – has simple design than entrance lockset but have
the same functions.
c) Toilet lockset – operates without a key and is lock from the inside by
pushing a universal button and is unlock only from the inside by turning
the cylindrical knob.
d) Dead Bolts – operates through the use of a key only.

Parts of Latches and Locks:

 Knob - a more or less spherically-shaped handle use for operating a lock.

 Knob Rose – is the round plate that is fastened to the face of the door around
the hole through which the door knob spindle passes through.

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  Strike, Strike or Striking Plate – a metal box or plate set in a door jamb that is
either pierced or recessed to receive the bolt or latch of a lock that is fixed on
the door.
 Lip Strike – projects from the side of a strike plate on which the bolt of a lock
strikes first when a door is closed. It is the projection from the side of the strike
plate to protect the door frame.
 Escutcheon – a protective plate surrounding the keyhole of a door.

Door bolt or barrel bolt – a sliding rod or bar attached to a door for locking manually.

Chain Door Fastener – a device fastened to a door and its jamb to limit the door
opening depending on the length of the chain. Use for security purpose.
Chain Bolt – a spring bolt attached at the top of a door which is actuated by the chain
attached to it.
Foot Bolt – a device fixed at the bottom of the door operated by foot. When the door
is unbolted, the bolt is held up by a spring.
Flush Bolt – device attached to the inactive leaf of a pair of doors to lock it in place. It
is either surface-mounted or mortised into the edge of the door.

Automatic Door Bottoms – are devices that are surface mounted to the bottom of the
door or mortised into it to provide a sound or lights seal. The seal is up when the door is
open and a plunger strikes the jamb that forces the seal down whenever the door is
close.

QUESTIONNAIRES

1. What is the safest lockset recommended for main entry doors?

a) mortise lockset b) tubular lockset c) lever set d) dead bolt lockset

2. A door type which allow a server to see through, usually used between a kitchen and a
dining room:

a) flush door b) pocket door c) vision door d) dutch door

3. A method of fastening aluminum jambs to concrete or masonry is by:

a) concret nail b) screw with expansion plug c) tekscrew d) expansion bolt

4. Who is the highly skilled worker trained to install aluminum jambs to concrete?

a) Finishing mason
b) Finishing carpenter
c) Finishing steelman
d) none of the above

5. What is the system of mass production of cabinets and furniture gaining popularity and
acceptance in the Philippines who are concious of time and quality?

a) modular system b) conventional system c) modulor d) mass production

6. type of handless lockset key-operated to give double security is:

a) barrel bolt lock b) cylindrical lock c) dead bolt lock d) mortise lock

7. A sound, air or light seal usually installed at the bottom of the door which which goes up
when the door is open and shuts when the door is close:

a) automatic door bottoms b) door stops c) all of the above d) none of the above

63
WINDOWS & HARDWARE

Traditionally, windows were considered as apertures or openings in a wall. In fact even today
professionals still use this term. But because of the wide use of glass, windows now form the
entire wall system, thereby the traditional distinction between wall and window no longer holds.

Five (5) functions of windows:

1. Light Admission - the most important function from a practical, psychological and
aesthetic viewpoint.
2. Ventilation - the access of natural ventilation. The use of air-conditioning has reduced
the need for natural ventilation in many types of buildings, its function remains
valid especially in the advent of green building.
3. Vision - allows visual connection to and from the external environment.
4. Escape - sometimes, windows act as emergency exits or escapes from dangers,
fires, etc.
5. Architectural Element - windows are considered by architects as elements of
architectural composition and are extremely important in the total aesthetic effect
created in a building.

I. Types of Operation:
1. Fixed Window - cannot be opened, consisting of a stationary sash and frame It
provides 0% or no ventilation.
2. Double-Hung Window - provides only 50% maximum opening. It consists of two
(2) sashes, both sliding vertically on separate tracks.
3. Sliding Window - provides only 50% maximum opening. It consists of two or more
sashes, with at least one sliding along a track horizontally. The sash is usually
removable for easy cleaning.
4. Awning Window - provides 100% opening. It consists of sashes that swing outward
on hinges attached to the top of the frame.
5. Hopper Window - provides 100% opening. It consists of sashes that swing outward
on hinges attached to the bottom of the frame.
6. Casement Window - provides 100% opening. It consists of sashes that swing
outward on hinges attached to the sides of the frame.
7. Pivoted Window - provides 100% opening. It consists of sashes that rotate about a
vertical or horizontal axis at the centers.
8. Jalousie Window - provides 100% opening. It consists of horizontal glass or wood
louvers that pivot simultaneously and operated by crank or mechanical operator in
a common frame. Use commonly for residential buildings.

II. Parts of a Window:

1. Frame - refers to the part of the window that receives and holds the sash and other
necessary window hardware. It is fixed and non-operable.

Elements of the Frame:

a. Head - the uppermost horizontal part or member.
b. Jamb - the two vertical side members
c. Sill - the bottom horizontal member with the upper surface
usually sloped to shed rainwater
d. Sub Sill - an additional sill fitted to a window frame to allow
rainwater to drip further away from the wall surface
e. Casing Trim -the finishing trim work around a window opening. It
consists of head and jamb casings, window sills and
aprons.
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 f. Head and Jamb Casing – hides or conceals the joint or gap
between the window and surrounding wall surface.
g. Windowsill - this is the horizontal ledge formed by the flat area
upon which a window shuts down called the stool at the
base of the window opening.
h. Apron - the flat piece of trim immediately beneath the stool of a
window sill.
i. Architrave – this is the continuous casing with the same profile
that surrounds a window.

j. Plinth Block – terminates a jamb casing above the floor.

2. Sash and Glazing - refers to the part of the window that holds the pane of
glass or other materials. It is either fixed or movable.

Elements of the Sash:

a. Pane - a single unit of glass set in a sash; a division of a
window
b. Glazing - the panes or sheets of glass set in the sash
c. Rails - the horizontal part framing a sash
d. Muntins - the vertical members holding the edges of the window
panes
e. Stiles - the upright or vertical members framing a window
sash.
f. Mullions - refers to the vertical member separating a series of
windows.

Operators are devices for doors and windows that are not supplied as part of the door
and window package, including both self-contained mechanisms and those with remote
pumps or power units, as well as photocells, mats, transmitters and other actuating
devices.

Types of Operators:
 Lever Arm
 Rack and Pinion
 Hand Chain Control

QUESTIONNAIRES

1. What do you use as steel window section for muntins?

a) Z bar b) flat bar c) I bar d) T bar

2. These are devices for windows not part of the standard supply of the window package use to
operate its opening and closing:

a) operators b) motion sensors c) hand swivels d) none of the above

3. Either a fixed or movable part of the window that holds the pane of glass or other materials:

a) frame b) sash and glazing c) mullions d) hopper muntins

4. What are the functions of a window?

a) ventilation b) escape c) all of the above d) none of the above

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EXTERIOR & INTERIOR FINISHES

CONCRETE SURFACE FINISHES

WALLS:

1. Cement Plaster Finish or Stucco

Stucco is a mortar consisting of cement, sand and water. In order to make the
mortar easier to work with, hydrated lime is added. The mixture is applied in three
coats – scratch, brown and finish coats.
2. Rubbed Finish
The surface of the concrete is grinded a day or two after it has set using a brick of
carborundum, soft natural stone or emery. Then a thin grout of cement and sand
is applied to the surface in a circular motion rubbing it in to fill in the surface
imperfections. Afterwards, the work is washed down with clean water. A sand-float
finish is a method using fine sand instead of grout.
3. Brushed Finish
A type of finish obtained by scrubbing or brushing the concrete surface while still
green with fiber or wire brushes and water to remove the surface film or mortar
leaving the coarse aggregate exposed.
4. Tooled Finish
Concrete surfaces may be finished by tooling employing any methods for the
dressing or finishing of natural stone. The most popular method used in tooling
concrete surfaces is through the use of bush hammering either manually or by
using a pneumatic tool.
5. Sand-Blast Finish
A sand-blast finish is much the same appearance as that of a brushed finish.
Sand-blasting produces a granulated finish similar to sandstone but is not so
uniform because the aggregates are likely to be brought out irregularly. It is done
through the use of washing done top cement cover with water with a specified
nozzle gun.
6. Exposed Aggregate Finish
The color of this finish is obtained from the exposed aggregate and not through
the addition of coloring material to the mixture.. Such colored or other special
aggregate used for the finish shall be exposed by scrubbing.

FLOORS:

1. Wood Float Finish

The concrete aggregate is forced below the surface, and the surface is then
leveled with a straight wood screed and while the concrete is not firmly set, it is
given a float finish with a straight, flat wood trowel called floats.
2. Steel-Trowelled Finish
After the concrete aggregate is forced below the surface, the surface is then
leveled with a straight wood screed, and given a wood float finish. The entire
surface is then steel-trowelled before the concrete finally sets.
3. Integral Colored-Cement Floor Finish
When the concrete is still green but the surface water is gone, the surface is
leveled with a straight wood screed. Then a finish coat of 1:3 mortar with color is
applied. This finish coat is leveled with a wood screed, given a float finish and
then steel-trowelled.
4. Separately Applied Cement Finishes
These separate finishes are designated as non-slip, heavy duty, colored cement,
etc.
1. Granolithic Finish

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 This consist of a topping with a mixture of 1 part cement, 1 part sand and 1 part
finely crushed stone. It is called granolithic because fine aggregate chips were
originally used in the aggregate. Finely ground corundum may also be a part of
the aggregate to produce an enduring and non-slip surface.
2. Terrazzo Finish
Terrazzo is a mixture of cement, marble chip aggregates and water laid as a
topping or as a wall finish, and ground to a fine, smooth surface. It is used for
floors and bases where durability, resistance to wear and minmal maintenance
are necessary. It is available in either in precast form, e.g. tile or cast-in-place,
with either a smoothl;y polished or non-slip surfaces, abrasive granules are added
to the mixture.

TILE FINISHES

1. Cement Tile
Cement tile is manufactured by pressing in moulds a plastic mixture of cement
and sand. Surface color of the tile is achieved by the addition of mineral oxide
colors. Thickness of cement tiles is 25.4 millimeters (1”). Common sizes are
squares 8”x8”, 12”x12”, 16”x16”.
2. Ceramic Tile
Ceramic tiles are small surfacing units made from clay or mixture of clay with
other ceramic materialsand fired according to various processes. Tiles differ
principally in: (a) composition of the body; (b) surface finish, that is, glazed or
unglazed; (c) process of manufacture; and (d) the degree of vitrification or fusion
of the tile body after firing, as indicated by the extent to which it absorbs moisture.

(a) Unglazed tiles are composed of the same ingredients throughout and derive
their color and texture from the materials of which the body is made.

(b) Glazed tiles have a glassy surface of ceramic materials fused upon their face
to give them a decorative appearance and to make the surface impervious to
moisture. Glazes are produce in a large variety of colors, ranging from pure white
to jet black. Glaze finishes are of two general classes in their light reflecting
qualities:

 Bright glazes – which have a highly polished surface and reflect an image
clearly.
 Matte glazes – or those which do not clearly reflect an image or are
entirely without sheen. All degrees of semi-lustrous or satin-like finish may
be produced between the two extremes of reflection and non-reflection.
In addition, glazes may have plain, textured, polychrome, mottled, stippled or
rippled surface.

TYPES OF CERAMIC TILE

The leading types of ceramic floor and wall tiles are:

1. Glazed Interior Tiles – glazed interior tiles are non-vitreous product made by the
dust-press process.
2. Ceramic Mosaic Tiles – are tiles less than 6 square inches in facial area,
preponderantly unglazed and having fully vitrified or fairly dense bodies. To
facilitate installation, ceramic mosaic tiles are usually mounted at the factory on
sheets of paper about 2 square feet in area, with the individual tile units being
spaced so as to allow for the insertion of grout between them when the paper is
removed and the face of the tiles is exposed.
3. Glazed Weatherproof Tiles

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 These are durable tiles with semi-vitreous body and are suitable for use on all
walls both interior and exterior and on all floors except those subject to heavy
wear. All dull or matte finish is recommended when these tiles are used on floors.
4. Pavers
These are standard size unglazed tiles resembling ceramic mosaic tiles in
composition and physical characteristics but usually having facial area of 6 square
inches or more. Because of their greater size, which usually ranges from 3”x3” to
6”x6”, these tiles are generally not pasted onto paper but are laid out individually.
5. Quarry Tiles
Quarry tile is an unglazed floor tile made from natural clays or shales by the
plastic method. They are very durable flooring material being impervious to
moisture, stains and dirt and are reistant to abrasions.
6. Faience Tiles
Faience tiles are generally surfaced with a highly colored opaque glaze and are
always made by the plastic method from natural clays. The body of faience tiles
may be non-vitreous, semi-vitreous or vitreous, the degree of vitrification
depending largely upon whether the tiles are to be used forinterior and exterior
work.
7. Ceramic Trim Tiles
Trim tiles are variously shaped units used to finish the wall tile installation and
include caps, bases, inserts, combinations, internal and external angles, returns
(finishing units for outside corner installation).

The most widely used flux in floor and wall tiles is the mineral feldspar.

Brand names of ceramic tiles: MARIWASA (local); EUROTILES (local); LEPANTO (local);
ROCERSA;

RESILIENT FLOOR FINISHES

Resilient flooring is manufactured as tile or sheet. Resilient floor tiles include asphalt,
vinyl, rubber, linoleum and cork. Resilient floor sheets include vinyl, linoleum and
rubber.

1. Asphalt Tile and Sheet

This consist of thoroughly bonded composition of thermoplastic binder (asphaltic
type for standard asphalt tile and resinous for greaseproof asphalt tile), asbestos
and other fibers, inert filler materials (various stone dust, diatomite, mica etc) and
inert color pigments formed under pressure while hot and cut to size. Asphalt tile
is usually made in 22.86 mm. (9”) squares and less commonly in 30.48 mm. (12”)
squares. Rectangular borders 45.75mm.x 60.96 mm. (18”x24”) are made in
limited variety of colors and patterns.
2. Vinyl Tile and Sheet
Vinyl resilient flooring materials are divided into three major types: (a) solid vinyl,
(b) vinyl and asbestos combined (c) a thin vinyl applied to other types of
resilient flooring materials.
 Vinyl tiles are manufactured into the following thicknesses: 1.5mm, 2.0mm,
2.5mm and 3.0mm, in squares 300mmx300mm. The colors, texture and
patterns of vinyl asbestos tile cover a wider range than the sheet.
 Vinyl sheet flooring is manufacured in the same thicknesses in rolls of 6
feet wide and lengths of 50 feet. The thicker sheet is used in areas where
heavy traffic will be encountered. Vinyl flooring is recommended where a
colorful, textured, tough, durable, easily maintained, grease-resistant type
of finish flooring is required for areas of both light and heavy human traffic.
It may be used for above-grade, on-grade and below-grade floors. Vinyl
flooring shoild not be used for exterior floor surfaces; in areas where

68
 specific chemicals that attack vinyl are used; where economy is ofmajor
importance.
3. Rubber Tile and Sheet
Rubber floor tiles as a rule are made of nuetral rubber for greatest resilience.
Sizes, thicknesses, as well as methods of application and precautions to follow in
installation, are much the same as for vinyl floor tiles. Rubber sheet flooring is
applied according to the general rules given for linoleum. Advantages of rubber
flooring are: (a) It is the quietest floor possible with the exception of thick cork tile;
and (b) Its colors are more brilliant than those of other types. Rubber flooring,
however, are not resistant to soap, oil, and many household solvents as vinyl and
linoleum.
4. Linoleum Tile and Sheet
Linoleum is a resilient, waterproof floor covering that consists of a backing
covered with a relatively thick layer of wearing surface. This wearing surface is a
mixture that contains oxidized linseed oil processed in a special way, combined
with wood or cork flour, various fillers, stone dusts, whiting, diatomite, resins,
binders, driers and inert color pigments. Linoleum is available in three gauges: (a)
service (1.6mm or 1/16”), standard (2.5mm or 3/32”) and (c) heavy (3.2mm or
1/8”). It comes in rolls of 2’-0” and 6’-0” wide and up to 30’-0” in length and in 9”x9”
tiles for plain and marbled.
5. Laminated or Engineered Flooring

Brand names of resilient floor sheet and tile: ARMSTRONG (asphalt, vinyl, vinyl-
asbestos, vinyl corlon, rubber, linoleum and cork tiles); APO FLOORING (vinyl sheet and
tile); AZROCK (asphalt tiles); KENTILE (cork tiles)

WOOD FLOORING FINISHES

Wood is used in several different forms as a finish flooring material. There are several
types of wood flooring:

1. Strip Flooring
This type of flooring consits of tongue-and-groove (T&G) boards 150mm (6”) or
less in width. Nominal sizes of strips are 1”x3”, 1”x4”, and 1”x6”; with net (face)
widths of 2-1/4”, 3-1/4” and 5-1/4” respectively. The net thickness is 7/8”. Strip
flooring is often laid over a concrete slab sub-floor. The flooring steps are nailed to
2”x3” or 2”x4” sleepers or screeds embedded or anchored to the concrete floor.
The sleepers should be treated with a suitable wood preservative. The space
between the finish floor and the top of the concrete slab is filled with cinder
concrete or other damp-proof composition fill.

Kiln-dried (KD) T&G Flooring and Siding: MATIMCO, NALCO (Nasipit Lumber
Co.)
2. Plank Flooring
This type of flooring consists of square-edged boards 8” or more in width as are
commonly found in old Spanish-period houses. Plank flooring is usually faced-
nailed.
3. Parquet Tile Flooring
Also known as block flooring, which consists of square pieces or blocks which
have been built-up in several layers like plywood and having a veneered surface,
or consists of several parquet strips assembled at the factory to form a tile. This
type of flooring may be nailed to a wood sub-floor or set in mastic to a concrete
sub-floor.
4. Floating Flooring
Floating flooring are wood floors that are not nailed or glued to the sub-floor, but
instead “float” above it on a thin pad of resilient foam. They are made by

69
 connecting the individual pieces of flooring together at the edges to make one
continuous piece as large as the room in which the flooring is laid.

CEILING FINISHES

1. Ceiling Boards
These are shiplapped boards with a bead running along the center of the board
and along the joint, hence it is often referred to as beaded ceiling board (B.C.B).
The thicknesses are 3/8” and ½” and widths of 4” and 6”.
2. Acoustic Tile
Acoustic tile is used for ceiling and wall finishes in rooms where it is required to
control sound absorption. There are several types of acoustic tile:

 Cellulose fiber tile – These are made from compressed sugar cane or
wood fibers with perforations on the surface of the tile.
 Mineral wool tile – Felted rock wool with a fissured surface. Mineral wool
tile has limited vacoustic values, is flame retardant but will not withstand
rough usage and cannot be painted. It is available in ½”, 5/8”, ¼”, 7/8”, and
1” thickness and sizes of 12”x12”, 12”x24”, and 24”x24”.
 Glass Fiber Tile – are made of glass fiber held together by binders.
Thickness is available in 1-1/4” with sizes of 23-3/4”x23-3/4” and 47-
3/4”x47-3/4”.
 Cork Tiles – an acoustical tile made of cork. Available in sizes of ¼”x5-
3/4”x11-1/2” and 1-1/2”x11-1/2”x11-1/2”.
 Asbestos Cement Tile – a perforated tile made of asbestos wool fibers.
Not in use anymore because of health hazards.

QUESTIONNAIRES

1. A chemical agent applied on a marble floor to make it shiny without the use of wax is:

a) crystalliser b) liquid tile coat c) clear gloss emulsion d) polyurethane

2. Parquet flooring which consists of square pieces or blocks which have been built-up in
several layers like plywood and having a veneered surface, or consists of several parquet
strips assembled at the factory to form a tile is also known as:

a) block flooring b) floating floopring c) plank flooring d) strip flooring

3. What is the most widely used flux for floor and wall tiles is the:

a) feldspar b) integral color c) none of the above d) all of the above

GOOD LUCK and GOD BLESS!

Maintain a Positive Mental Attitude Always

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