Introduction To Human Anatomy and Physiology

Introduction to Anatomy
and Physiology
Prepared by Denys ABAZIMANA, RHIH
GENERAL ORIENTATION TO HUMAN ANATOMY
• Anatomy: the word anatomy is derived from a Greek word
“Anatome” meaning to cut up. It is t he study of structures
that make up the body and how those structures relate with
each other.
• Physiology: the word physiology derived from a Greek word
for study of nature. It is the study of how the body and its
part work or function.
04-Jun-20 Denys Abazimana

Relationship of anatomy and physiology
• The parts of your body form a well-organized unit, and each
of those parts has a job to do to make the body operate as a
whole.
• Structure determines what functions can take place.
• EX: Lungs wall are thin membrane to allow gas exchange,
heart’ wall is made of muscles which contract to pump
blood.
Requirements for Human Life
(survivor needs)
• Oxygen: O2 is need for the production of ATPs, 20% of atmospheric
Air
• Nutrients : energy production, body building and micronutrients
(mineral and vitamins). Water constitute 60-80% of the body
• Normal body temperature: normal body temperature is around 37oC
(36.5-37.5oC). When it increases body reactions speeds up resulting in
breaking down of proteins, it goes down the reactions slow down and
stop.
• Normal atmospheric pressure: it keeps gazes dissolved, it maintains
breathing thus sustain gas exchange.
• Homeostasis: when structure and function are coordinated the
body achieves a relative stability of its internal environment
called homeostasis / staying the same. Although the external
environmental changes constantly, the internal environment of
a healthy body remains the same within normal limits.
• Under normal conditions, homeostasis is maintained by
adaptive mechanisms ranging from control center in the brain
to chemical substances called hormones that are secreted by
various organs directly into the blood streams. Some of the
functions controlled by homeostasis mechanisms are blood
pressure, body temperature, breathing and heart rate.

Level of structural organization of the body
• The human body has different structural levels of
organization, starting with atoms molecules and compounds
and increasing in size and complexity to cells, tissues, organs
and the systems that make up the complete organism.

• Atoms molecules and compounds: -At its simplest level, the
body is composed of atoms. The most common elements in
living organism are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
phosphorus and sulfur.
• Atoms → Molecule → Compounds
• Cell: The smallest independent units of life. All life depends
on the many chemical activities of cells. Some of the basic
functions of cell are: growth, metabolism, irritability and
reproduction.
• Tissue: tissue is made up of many similar cells that perform a
specific function. The various tissues of the body are divided
in to four groups. These are epithelial, connective, and
nervous and muscle tissue.
Tissues cont’d
• Epithelial tissue: - Found in the outer layer of skin, lining of
organs, blood and lymph vessels and body cavities.
• Connective tissue: - Connects and supports most part of the
body. They constitute most part of skin, bone and tendons.
• Muscle tissue: - Produces movement through its ability to
contract. This constitutes skeletal, smooth and cardiac
muscles.
• Nerve tissue: - Found in the brain, spinal cord and nerves. It
responds to various types of stimuli and transmits nerve
impulses.
• Organ: - Is an integrated collection of two or more kinds of tissue that
works together to perform specific function. For example: Stomach is
made of all type of tissues.
• System: Is a group of organs that work together to perform major
function. For example: Respiratory system contains several organs.
• Organism level: - The various organs of the body form the entire
organism.

2. Anatomical Position
• Anatomical positions are universally accepted as the starting
points for positional references to the body.
• In anatomical position the subject is standing erect and
facing the observer, the feet are together, and the arms are
hanging at the sides with the palms facing forward.

3. DESCRIPTIVE TERMS FOR BODY PARTS AND
AREAS
Relative means the location of one part of the body is always
described in relation to another part of the body.
• Superior (cranial): Toward the head. The leg is supper to the
foot.
• Inferior (caudal): Toward the feet. The foot is inferior to the leg.
• Anterior (ventral): Toward the front part of the body. The nose
is anterior to the ears.
• Posterior (dorsal): Towards the back of the body. The ears are
posterior to the nose.
• Medial: Towards the midline of the body. The nose is medial to the
eyes.
• Lateral: Away from the midline of the body. The eyes are lateral to
the nose.
• Proximal: Toward (nearer) the trunk of the body or the attached end
of a limb. The shoulder is proximal to the wrist.

• Distal: Away (farther) from the trunk of the body or the attached end
of a limb. The wrist is distal to the forearm.
• Superficial: Nearer the surface of the body. The ribs are superficial to
the heart.
• Deep: Farther from the surface of the body. The heart is deeper to
the ribs.
• Peripheral: Away from the central axis of the body. Peripheral nerves
radiate away from the brain and spinal cord.

Term Definition : (Refers to)
• Antebrachial: forearm
• Antecubital : front of elbow
• Axillary : armpit
• Brachial : upper arm
• Buccal : (oral) mouth
• Cardiac : heart
• Cervical : neck

Next
• Cranial : head • Gastric : stomach
• Cutaneous : skin • Gluteal : buttocks
• Deltoid : shoulder • Hepatic : liver
• Femoral : thigh • Iliac : hip
• Frontal : forehead • Inguinal : groin

• Lumbar : small of back
• Mammary : breast
• Nasal : nose
• Occipital : back of head
• Orbital : eye
• Parietal : crown of head
• Patellar : kneecap
• Pectoral : chest
• Pedal : foot
• Perineal : pelvic floor
• Plantar : sole of foot

Next
• Popliteal : back of knee • Sternal : breastbone
• Pulmonary : lungs • Temporal : side of head
• Renal : kidney • Umbilical : navel
• Volar (palmar) : palm
• Sacral : base of spine
• Scapular : shoulder blade

Regions of the abdomen and quadrants

4. Body planes and sections
• Body planes are imaginary surfaces or planes lines that divide the
body into sections. This helps for further identification of specific
areas.
• Sagittal plane: - divides the body into right and left half.
• Mid sagittal plane: - divides body into equal left and right halves.
• Para Sagittal plane: - divides body into unequal left and right
• Frontal plane: - divides the body into asymmetrical anterior and
posterior sections.
• Transverse plane: - divides the body into upper and lower body
section.
• Oblique plane: - divides the body obliquely into upper and lower
section.
5. Body Cavities
• The cavities of the body house the internal organs, which commonly
referred to as the viscera.
• The two main body cavities are the larger ventral (anterior) and the
smaller, dorsal (posterior) body cavity.

1. The ventral body cavity constitutes the thoracic cavity and the
abdomino-pelvic body cavity.
a) The Thoracic cavity houses lung and heart.
• It is protected by the rib cage & associated musculature and the
sternum anteriorly.
• It consists of the right and left pleural cavities and mediastinum
(the portion of tissues and organs that separates the left and right
lung).

b) Abdomino-pelvic Cavity extends from the diaphragm inferior to the
floor of the pelvis. It is divided into superior abdominal and inferior
pelvic cavity by imaginary line passing at upper pelvis.
• Abdominal cavity contains the stomach, intestine, liver, spleen and
gallbladder.
• The pelvic cavity contains urinary bladder, rectum, and portions of the
reproductive organs.

2. The dorsal body cavity: it constitutes the:
1) cephalic cavity containing brain and the
2) vertebral canal containing the spinal cord.

Review Questions
1. The anatomical term opposite to lateral is:
a) Proximal
b) Distal
c) Medial
d) Superficial
e) Caudal.

2. When structure and function coordinated the body gets a relative
stability. This phenomenon is called:
a) Anatomical integrity
b) Physiological stability
c) Body stasis
d) Homeostasis
e) Hemostasis

3. Which of the following is not the correct description of anatomical
position?
a) Body facing forward
b) Head turned to side
c) Feet together
d) Palms facing forward
e) Body standing

4. A plane that divided the body into anterior and posterior parts is:
a) Medial plane
b) Coronal or frontal plane
c) Oblique plane
d) Sagittal plane
e) Transverse plane

5. The abdominal cavity contains the
a) Heart and lung
b) Reproductive organs and urinary bladder
c) Liver, spleen and stomach
d) Urinary bladder and lungs
e) Testes and ovaries

CHAPTER TWO: CELL
• Cell is the basic living structural and functional unit of the body.
• Cytology: It is a branch of science concerned with a study of cells.

• All living organisms are composed of cell and cell products,
• Hence; Cell is the basic unit of structure & function of all living
organisms.
• All cells come from the division of pre existing cell.
• An organism as a whole can be understood through the collective
activities & interactions of its cells.

• Cell is divided into four principal parts:
1. Plasma membrane or cell membrane: it is the outer lining, limiting
membrane separating the cell internal parts from extra cellular
materials & external environment.
2. Cytoplasm: cytoplasm is the substance that surrounds organelles
and is located between the nucleus and plasma membrane

3. Organelles: these are permanent structures with characteristic
morphology that are highly specialized in specific cellular activity.
4. Inclusions: they are the secretions and storage products of cells.
• Extra cellular materials are also referred to as the matrix, which are
substances external to the cell surface.

Plasma Membrane
• Plasma membrane is a thin outer membrane, which maintains the
integrity of the cell.
• It keeps the cell and its contents separate and distinct from the
surrounding.
• It is a double layered measuring about 4.5 nm and made of
phospholipids, cholesterol, glyco-lipid, & carbohydrate
(oligosaccharides).
• The bi-layer is self-sealing. If a needle is injected and pulled out, it
automatically seals.

Functions:
• Separate the cytoplasm inside a cell from extra cellular fluid.
• Separate cell from one another
• Provide an abundant surface on which chemical reaction can occur.
• Regulate the passage of material into and out of cells by letting some
things in and keeps others out; “selective permeability”

Movement across-cell membrane
• Movements a cross membrane takes place in two ways.
• These are passive and active movements.
• Passive movement does not use energy whereas active movement
consumes energy in the form of ATP.

Passive movement
• In passive movement across cell membrane, we have:
• Simple diffusion, the random movements of molecules from area of
high concentration to the area of low concentration. Example air in
alveoli of lung.
• Facilitated diffusion, larger molecules, which are not soluble in lipid
need protein channel to pass through the plasma membrane. No
direct energy needed. Example: Amino acid passes through the cell
membrane.

• Osmosis, a special type of diffusion referring to the passage of water
through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high water
concentration to lower water concentration.
• Filtration, small molecules pass through selectively permeable
membrane in response to force of pressure. Example: filtration in the
kidney in the process of urine formation.

Active movements across membranes
• This is against concentration gradient. Therefore, it requires energy.
a) Active Transport: till equilibrium substances could more by passive
movement. But if equilibrium reached and still more molecules are
needed, they must be pumped through the membrane against
concentration gradient. This process requires the use of ATP.
• One example of such processes is Sodium – potassium pump and
calcium pump. In this process all follows similar process. These are
molecules bind to carrier protein, molecule- carrier complex pass
through the membrane, assisted by an enzyme & ATP and carrier
protein returns to its original shape & repeat the process

b) Endocytosis, pocketing in by plasma membrane. It
includes:
i. Pinocytoss – cell drinking;
ii. Phagocytosis- cell eating.
c) Exocytosis, opposite to Endocytosis, to remove out
undigested particles.

2. Cytoplasm
• It is a thick semi transparent, elastic fluid containing
suspended particles and a series of minute tubules and
filaments that form cytoskeleton.
• Water constitutes 75-90% of the cytoplasm. It also
contains solid components, proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids and inorganic substances.

• The inorganic components exist as solutions because
they are soluble in water.
• The majority of organic substances however are found
as colloids.
• Colloids are particles that remain suspended in the
surrounding medium.

3. Organelles
• Organelles are specialized portion of the cell with a
characteristic shape that assume specific role in
growth, maintenance, repair and control.
1. Nucleus, Oval in shape and is the largest structure in
the cell. Contain the hereditary factor in the cell. Hence
it controls cell activity & structure.

• Most cell contain single nucleus but some like matured Red
Blood cell do not contain.
• However, Muscle cell contain several nucleuses. The nucleus
separated from other cell structure by double membrane
called nuclear membrane.
• Pores over the nuclear membrane allow the nucleus to
communicate with the cytoplasm.

• In the nucleus a jelly like fluid that fills the nucleus is
karylymph (nucleoplasm), which contain the genetic
material called chromosome.
• Nucleus also contain dark, somewhat spherical, non-
membrane bound mass called nucleolus.
• It contains DNA, RNA and protein, which assist in the
construction of ribosome.

2. Ribosome, tiny granules, composed of Ribosomal RNA
(rRNA). They are site of protein synthesis
3. Endoplasmic reticulum is a double membrane channel. It is
continuous with the nuclear membrane.
• It involved in intracellular exchange of material with the
cytoplasm. Various products are transported from one portion
of the cell to another via the endoplasmic reticulum. So it is
considered as intracellular transportation.

• It is also storage for synthesized molecules. Together with the
Golgi complex it serves as synthesis & packaging center.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is divided in to two. These are,
granular E.R. Containing granule and involving in synthesis
of protein and agranular E.R. that synthesize lipid &
involves in detoxification

4. Golgi complex, near to the nucleus.
• It consist 4-8 membranous sacs. It process, sort, pack & deliver protein
to various parts of the cell.
5. Mitochondria, a small, spherical, rod shaped or filamentous
structure.
• It generates energy. Each mitochondria posses two membrane, one is
smooth (upper) membrane and the other is arranged with series of
folds called cristae.
• The central cavity of a mitochondrion enclosed by the inner membrane
is the matrix.

6. Lysosomes appear as membrane enclosed spheres.
• They are formed from Golgi complexes & have single
membrane. They contain powerful digestive (hydrolytic)
enzyme capable of breaking down many kinds of molecules.
• The lysosomal enzyme believed to be synthesized in the
granular endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex.

7. The cyto-skeleton, the cytoplasm has a complex internal structure
consisting of a series of exceedingly small microfilaments and
microtubule together referred to as the cyto-skeleton.
• Microfilaments :These are the smallest fibers. They provide
structural support, maintain the characteristic shape of the cell and
permit contraction)
• Microtubules
These are larger contractile protein fibers that are involved in
movement of:
organelles within the cell, chromosomes during cell division and
cell extensions
8. Centrosome, a dense area of cytoplasm generally
spherical and located near the nucleus it contain centrioles.
• Centrosomes are made of microtubules, which seam drinking
straws. They are Involved in the movement of chromosome
during cell division.
9. Cilia/flagella, thread like appendages, which are made of
microtubules. When they are beating forms rhythmic
movement.
• They are found in female reproductive organ and upper
respiratory tube

4. Cell inclusions
• Large and diverse group of chemicals, which are
produced by cells, are cell inclusions. It is mainly
organic and includes melanin, glycogen & Lipids
Cell diversity
• However, the trillions of cells in the human body
include over 200 different cell types that vary greatly
in size, shape, and function.
• They include sphere-shaped fat cells, disc-shaped red
blood cells, branching nerve cells, and cube shaped
cells of kidney tubules
Major special cell types
1. Cells that connect body parts:
• Fibroblast. The elongated shape of this cell lies along the cable-like
fibers that it secretes. It has an abundant rough ER and a large
Golgi apparatus to make and secrete the protein building blocks of
these fibers.
• Erythrocyte (red blood cell). This cell carries oxygen in the
bloodstream. Its concave disc shape provides extra surface area for
the uptake of oxygen and streamlines the cell so it flows easily
through the bloodstream. So much oxygen-carrying pigment is
packed in erythrocytes that all other organelles have been shed to
make room.
Cont’d
2. Cell that covers and lines body organs:
• Epithelial cell. The hexagonal shape of this cell is exactly like a
“cell” in a honeycomb of a beehive. This shape allows epithelial
cells to pack together in sheets. An epithelial cell has abundant
intermediate filaments that resist tearing when the epithelium is
rubbed or pulled.
3. Cells that move organs and body parts:
• Skeletal muscle and smooth muscle cells. These cells are elongated
and filled with abundant contractile filaments, so they can shorten
forcefully and move the bones or change the size of internal
organs
Cont’d
4. Cell that stores nutrients:
• Fat cell. The huge spherical shape of a fat cell is produced by a
large lipid droplet in its cytoplasm.
5. Cell that fights disease:
• Macrophage (a phagocytic cell). This cell extends long pseudopods
(“false feet”) to crawl through tissue to reach infection sites. The
many lysosomes within the cell digest the infectious
microorganisms it takes up
Cont’d
6. Cell that gathers information and controls body functions:
• Nerve cell (neuron). This cell has long processes (extensions) for
receiving messages and transmitting them to other structures in the
body.
7. Cells of reproduction:
• Oocyte (female). The largest cell in the body, this egg cell contains
several copies of all organelles, for distribution to the daughter cells
that arise when the fertilized egg divides to become an embryo.
• Sperm (male). This cell is long and streamlined, built for swimming
to the egg for fertilization. Its flagellum acts as a motile whip to
propel the sperm
Review Questions
1. The random movement of molecules from an area of
high concentration to an area of lower concentration
is called:
a. Diffusion
b. Facilitated diffusion
c. Endocytosis
d. Exocytosis
e. Active transport

2. Mitochondria functions in the synthesis of
a. DNA
b. MRNA
c. ATP
d. rRNA
e. tRNA

Cell Division and protein Synthesis
• The cell life cycle is the series of changes a cell goes through from the
time it is formed until it divides.
• It consists of: interphase (longest), in which the cell grows and carries
on its usual metabolic activities, and cell division, during which it
reproduces itself . A more accurate name for interphase would be
metabolic phase as the cell is metabolically active.
• In all cells other than bacteria and some cells of the reproductive
system, cell division consists of two events:
• Mitosis, or division of the nucleus, occurs first.
• Cytokinesis, The division of the cytoplasm, which begins when mitosis is
nearly completed.
• The function of cell division is to produce more cells for growth and repair
processes.
• Because it is essential that all body cells have the same genetic material, an
important event DNA replication always precedes cell division: The
genetic material (the DNA molecules that form part of the chromatin) is
duplicated exactly.
• This occurs toward the end of the cell’s interphase period
• The process begins as the DNA helix uncoils and gradually separates into
its two nucleotide chains.
• Each nucleotide strand then serves as a template, or set of instructions, for
building a new nucleotide strand
DNA duplication diagram.
Event of the division (Mitosis and
cytokinesis)
1. Prophase: the chromatin threads coil and shorten so that
visible bar-like bodies called chromosomes appear.
• Because DNA has already been replicated, each chromosome
is actually made up of two strands, each called a chromatid,
held together by a small button-like body called a
centromere
• The centrioles separate from each other and begin to move toward
opposite sides of the cell, mitotic spindles (composed of
microtubules) appear between them as they move.
• The spindle provides a scaffolding for the attachment and movement
of the chromosomes during the later mitotic stages.
• By the end of prophase, the nuclear envelope and the nucleoli have
broken down and disappeared, and the chromosomes have attached
randomly to the spindle fibers by their centromeres
2. Metaphase: In this short stage, the chromosomes cluster
and line up at the metaphase plate (the center of the spindle
midway between the centrioles) so that a straight line of
chromosomes is seen.
3. Anaphase: During anaphase, the centromeres that have held
the chromatids together split.
• The chromatids (now called chromosomes again) begin to
move slowly apart, drawn toward opposite ends of the cell.
• Anaphase is over when chromosomes stop moving.
4. Telophase: Telophase is essentially prophase in reverse.
• The chromosomes at opposite ends of the cell uncoil to
become threadlike chromatin again.
• The spindle breaks down and disappears, a nuclear envelope
forms around each chromatin mass, and nucleoli appear in
each of the daughter nuclei.
Cytokinesis, or the division of the cytoplasm
• usually begins during late anaphase and completes during telophase.
• A contractile ring made of microfilaments forms a cleavage furrow
over the midline of the spindle, and it eventually squeezes or pinches
the original cytoplasmic mass into two parts.
• Thus, at the end of cell division, two daughter cells exist.
• Each is smaller and has less cytoplasm than the mother cell, but it is
genetically identical to it.
• The daughter cells grow and carry out normal cell activities until it is
their turn to divide.
Importance of the cell division
• Mitosis provides the “new” cells for body growth in youth
and is necessary to repair body tissue all through life.
• Mitosis gone wild is the basis for tumors and cancers.
NB: Cancer: is pronounced when there is an uncontrolled
cell growth which result into an oversized area (tumor).
Protein synthesis
• Genes: The Blueprint for Protein Structure.
• In addition to replicating itself for cell division, DNA serves
as the master blueprint for protein syntheses.
• Traditionally, a gene is defined as a DNA segment that carries
the information for building one protein or polypeptide chain
• Proteins are key substances for all aspects of cell life. Fibrous
(structural) proteins are the major building materials for cells
• Other proteins, the globular (functional) proteins, do things
other than build structures. Ex: all enzymes, biological
catalysts that regulate chemical reactions in the cells, are
functional proteins. The importance of enzymes cannot be
overstated. Every chemical reaction in the body requires an
enzyme.
Cont’d
• DNA’s information is encoded in the sequence of bases along each
side of the ladder-like DNA molecules.
• Each sequence of three bases (a triplet) calls for a particular amino
acid. (Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins and are
joined during protein synthesis. For example, a DNA base
sequence of AAA specifies an amino acid called phenylalanine,
and CCT calls for glycine. Just as different arrangements of notes
on sheet music are played as different melodies, variations in the
arrangements of A, C, T, and G in each gene allow cells to make all
the different kinds of proteins needed.
The Role of RNA
• DNA is like a strip of magnetic recording tape; its information is not
useful until it is decoded.
• ribosomes, the manufacturing sites for proteins, are in the cytoplasm,
but DNA never leaves the nucleus in interphase cells.
• Thus, DNA requires not only a decoder but also a messenger to
achieve its task of specifying the structure of proteins to be built at the
ribosomes.
• These messenger and decoder functions are carried out by a second
type of nucleic acid, called ribonucleic acid, or RNA
Cont’d
• RNA differs from DNA in being single-stranded and in having ribose
sugar instead of deoxyribose and a uracil (U) base instead of thymine
(T) (recall what you learned in Chapter 2).
• Three types of RNA
• Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules are small cloverleaf-shaped molecules.
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) helps form the ribosomes, where proteins are built.
• Messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules are long, single nucleotide strands that
resemble half of a DNA molecule and carry the “message” containing
instructions for protein synthesis from the DNA gene in the nucleus to the
ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
• Protein synthesis involves two major phases:
transcription, when complementary mRNA is made at
the DNA gene, and translation, when the information
carried in mRNA molecules is “decoded” and used to
assemble proteins
1. Transcription
• The word transcription often refers to when the same
information is transformed from one form or format to another.
In cells, transcription involves the transfer of information from
DNA’s base sequence into the complementary base sequence
of mRNA.
• Only DNA and mRNA are involved in transcription. Each
three base sequence specifying a particular amino acid on the
DNA gene is called a triplet, and the corresponding three-base
sequences on mRNA are called codons.
• DNA triplets is AAT-CGT-TCG, the related codons on mRNA
would be UUA-GCA-AGC
• Stage 1: Initiation. A region at the beginning of the gene called a
promoter—a particular sequence of nucleotides—triggers the
start of transcription.
• Stage 2: Elongation. Transcription starts when RNA polymerase
unwinds the DNA segment. One strand, referred to as the coding
strand, becomes the template with the genes to be coded. The
polymerase then aligns the correct nucleic acid (A, C, G, or U)
with its complementary base on the coding strand of DNA. RNA
polymerase is an enzyme that adds new nucleotides to a growing
strand of RNA. This process builds a strand of mRNA.
• Stage 3: Termination. When the polymerase has reached the
end of the gene, one of three specific triplets (UAA, UAG, or
UGA) codes a “stop” signal, which triggers the enzymes to
terminate transcription and release the mRNA transcript
• A spliceosome: a structure composed of various proteins and
other molecules attaches to the mRNA and “splices” or cuts
out the non-coding regions (Splicing). The removed segment
of the transcript is called an intron. The remaining exons are
pasted together. An exon is a segment of RNA that remains
after splicing.
2. Translation
• A translator takes words in one language and restates them in another
language. In the translation phase of protein synthesis, the language of
nucleic acids (base sequence) is “translated” into the language of
proteins (amino acid sequence).
• Translation occurs in the cytoplasm and involves three major varieties
of RNA : mRNA, tRNA and rRNA.
Translation cont’d
• The first mRNA attaches to the ribosome (Initiation)
• tRNA recognize the mRNA codon and bring its anticodon
• The first tRNA moves by itself into the correct position at the beginning
of the mRNA message by Aminoacyl tRNA synthetases
• the ribosome moves the mRNA strand along, bringing the next codon
into position to be read by another tRNA. (Elongation)
• As amino acids are brought to their proper positions along the length of
mRNA, they are joined together by enzymes
• As an amino acid bonds to the chain, its tRNA is released and moves
away from the ribosome to pick up another amino acid. When the last
codon is read, the protein is released (Termination)
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Introduction to Anatomy

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