功能对等理论下科普类文本汉英翻译实践报告齐盼盼

A Report on C-E Translation of Popular Science Text from the
Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory: A Case Study of

Chemistry and Health
By
Qi Panpan
Under the Supervision of Professor
Li Qingming
A Thesis Submitted to
the Graduate School of Xi’an University of Technology
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Master of Translation and Interpreting
Xi’an, China
June 2023
3
论文题圈；
功能对等理论下科普类文本汉英翻译实践报告


—
以《化学与健康》节选为侧


学科名称ｇ
翻译硕士


研究生ｓ
齐盼暖 签名ｓ
 


繼导教师ｇ
李庆咽教授 签名；



卢秋香副译审 签名：



摘 

要
随着我国经济快速发展，人们的生活节奏逐渐加快，
饮食日趋多样，但人们对日常食品


的成分和正确食用方法了解片面化，这对人体健康有一
定影响。因此普及食品与人体健康知


识尤为重要，
这也要求译者传递的信息客观、
科学和准确Ｄ
奈达提出的功能对等理论要求译


者应尽可能再现源语信息，保证原文信息的准确性和完整性，这说明该理论对化学类科普文


本汉英翻译具有实践和指导意义 

。
本次翻译文本节选于《化学与健康》第七章：
食品污染和毒性。原文本主要从食物中毒


的类别、
各类食物毒素、有害化学物质对食品的污染以及健康饮食方法来介绍食品与人体健


康的密切关系Ｐ本报告运用尤金奈达提出的功能对等理论指导翻译实践？
。译者结合本次翻


译文本特点，
从词汇、
句法和篇章三个方面探讨功能对等理论指导下最大限度再现源语信息


试图运用多种翻译方法和策略以保证原文信息的准确性和完整性＾词汇面，
译者通过分析


专有名词词多义总结了术语和词义的翻译方法句子层面主要从长难句被动句和无
一
、
；，， 

主语句探讨汉译英句子的翻译；
语篇层面，
主要探宄语篇的衔接与连贯 

。
在功能对等理论指导下，
本
次翻译实践
应用
了
直译
、
分
译
法和
倒
置法等翻译策略和方法 

。
基于原文
本特
征和实践要求，
译者尽可能做到词汇、
句
子和
篇章
层面的最大
对等以
此再现 

原
文信息
。这不
仅更好
地发挥了科普文本的科普功能还对该类文本
的
汉英翻译有
一
定指导意
义


，
今普文汉翻提参考和
一
为后科 

。
本英译供定助
帮
关键词：
科
普
文本；
功能
对等；汉译英；翻译策略和
方法




Ｉ
Ｔｉｔｌｅ：
 Ａ ＲＥＰＯＲＴ ＯＮ ＣＥ ＴＲＡＮＳＬＡＴＯＮ ＯＦ ＰＯＰＵＬＡＲ ＳＣＥＮＣＥ ＴＥＸＴ
＾

 ＩＩ
ＦＲＯＭ  ＴＨＥ ＰＥＲＳＰＥＣＴＩＶＥ  ＯＦ ＦＵＮＣＴＯＮＡＬ ＥＱＵＶＡＬＥＮＣＥ  ＴＨＥＯＲＹ  Ａ
Ｉ 
 Ｉ：
ＣＡＳＥ  ＳＴＵＤＹ  ＯＦ ＣＷ￡Ａｆ／Ｓ７７？ｙ朋￡） Ｗ＆Ａｉｍ

 
Ｍａｊ
ｏｒ；  Ｍａｓｔｅｒ  ｏｆＴｒａｎｓａｔｏｎ  ａｎｄ  ｎｔｅｒｒｅｔｎ
 ｌ
ｐ
ｉ


ｇＩｉ
Ｎａｍｅ？ ＱＩ Ｐａｎｐａｎ Ｓ
ｇｎａｔｕｉｒｅ 

：
Ｓｕ
ｐｅｒ
ｖｓｏｒｉ
？  Ｐｒｏｆ  Ｌ  ＱＢ
ｉｉｎｇｍｎｇｉ
Ｓｉ
ｇ
ｎａｔｕｒｅ：



Ｓｅｎｏｒ Ｔｒａｎｓａｔｏｒ Ｌｕ  Ｑｕｘａｎｇ
ｉ
Ｓｇｎａｔｕｒｅ
ｌｉｉ
ｉ


：
Ａｂｓｔｒａｃｔ
Ｗｔｈ 
ｉｔｈｅ ｒａ
ｐ
ｉｄ ｄｅｖｅｏｌ
ｐｍｅｎｔ  ｏｆｏｕｒｅｃｏｎｏｍｙ  ｔｈｅ ｐａｃｅ ｏｆ ｏｕｒ ｌｉｆｅ ｈａｓ  ｂｅｅｎｇｒａｄｕａｌｌｙ
，


ａｃｃｅｌｅｒａｔｅｄ

ａｎｄ  ｆｏｏｄｈａｓ ｂｅｅｎ  ｄｉｖｅｒｓｉｆｉｅｄ  Ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒｐｅｏｐｌｅ  ｋｎｏｗ ｌｉｔｔｌｅ  ａｂｏｕｔ ｔｈｅｒ ｉｎｒｅｄｉｅｎｔｓ ａｎｄ


ｗ
．
，
 ｉ
ｇ
ｎ
，
ｃｏｒｒｅｃｔ ｅｄｉｂｅ ｍｅｔｌｉｏｄｓ ｎ ｔｈｅｉｒｄａｉｌ
ｌ
ｙ ｌｉｆｅ，
 ｉ
ｈｉｃｈ ｈａｓａｃｔｕａｌｌｙｍｕ
ｉｍａｃｔｅｄ ｈａ ｈｅａｌｔｈ．
Ｔｈｅｒｅｆｏｒｅ，ｉｔ


ｕｎｎ
 ｐ 
ｉｓｅｓｓｅｗｍｖｗｗｔｉａｌｔｏ

ｐ
ｏ
ｐ
ｌａｒｉｚｅｋｏｌｅｄｅａｎｄ ｉｐｒｏｅｅｏｅ
ｐｌｄ 
ａａｒｅｎｅｓｓｏｆｆｏｏｄ ｈｅａｌｔｈ， ｈｉｃｈ ａｌｓｏ


ｎｎｍｕ
ｇ ｐ
ｒｅｎｎ
ｑｎ
ｕｉｒｅｓｔｈａｔｔｈｅ ｉｆｏａｔｉｏｎｔｒａｓｉ
ｔｅｄ ｓｈｏｌｄ ｂｅｏｂｊｅｃｔｉ
ｖｅ，
ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆ
ｉｃ，
ａｎｄ 
ａｃｃｕｒａｔｅ ｉｎ ｔｒａｓｌａｔｉｏｎ．


ｕｎ
Ｔｈｅ Ｆｎ  ｎｃｔｉｏａｌ ｅ
ｑ
ｕｉ
ｖａｌｅｎｃｅ ｔｈｅｏｒ
ｙ  ｒｅｕｉ
ｒｅｓ ｔｈａｔ ｔｈｅ  ｔｒａｓｌａｔｏｒｓｈｏｕｌｄ  ｒｅｒｏｄｕｃｅ  ｔｈｅｓｏｕｒｃｅ


ｎｎｕｍｎｍ
ｎｎ
ｑｐ
ｎｎｎｎ
ｎ  ｎ
ｉｆｏａｔｉｏｎａｎｄ ｅｓｕｒｅｉｔｓａｃｃｒａｃｙ ａｎｄ ｃｏｔ

ｐｌｅｅｅｓｓａｓ ｕｃｈ ａｓ
ｐ
ｏｓｓｉｂｌｅｉ ｔｒａｓｌａｔｉ
ｏ．
Ｉ ｔｈｉｓ


ｓｅｎｓｅ，ｎ
 ｔｈｅ Ｆｕｎｃｔｉ
ｏｎａｌ ｅ
ｑｕｉｖａｌｅｃｅｔｈｅｏｒ
ｙ  ｈａｓ ｐｒａｃｔｉｃａｌ ａｎｄ  ｇｕｉｄｉｇｓｉｎｉｆ
ｉｃａｃｅｆｏｒｔｈｅ


ｎｎｍ
ｇ
－
ＣｈｉｎｅｓｅＥｇｌｉｓｈ ｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏ ｏｆ
ｃｈｅｉｃａｌｏｔｅｘｔｓ．
ｐｕｌａｒｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ  

ｎｘ
ｐ
ｎｎａｍ
ａｘ
ｍｍＨ
Ｔｈｉｓｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏ ｒｅｏｒｔｅｃｅｒｐｔｓｔｈｅ ｓｅｖｅｔｈｃｈａｔｅｒｅｔｉ
ｔｌｅｄＣｏｎｔｉｎｔｉｏｎａｎｄ Ｔｏｉｃｉｔ
ｐｐｙ ｏｆ
ｎｗ


ａｍ
Ｆｏｏｄ ｆｒｏｎ ｔｈｅ ｂｏｏｋ Ｃｈｅｉ
ｓｔｒｙ ａｎｄ  ｅｌｔｈ．
Ｉｔ ａｉｎｌｃｌａｒｉｆｉｅｓｔｈｅｒｅｌａｔｉｏｓｈｉ
ｐ ｂｅｔｅｅ ｆｏｏｄ ａｎｄ


ｍ 
ｙ
ｈｕｎｘｕｍ
ａｎ  ｈｅａｌｔｈ，
 ｃａｔｅｇｏｒｉｅｓｏｆ ｆｏｏｄｏｉｓｏｎｉ  ｔｏ
ｇ，ｉｎｓ ｉｎ ｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔ ｆｏｏｄ，ｏｌｌｔｉｏｎ  ｂｙ
 ｈ
ａｒｆｕｌ


ｍｎ
ｐ
ｗ
ｐ
ｎｕｎｎ
ｕ
ｎｎＮ
ｃｈｅｉｃａｌｓｉ ｆｏｏｄ，ａｎｄ ｈｏ ｔｏ ｈａｖｅａｈｅａｌｔｈ
ｙ ｄｉｅｔ＊
Ｔｈｅ Ｆｃｔｉｏｎａｌ ｅ
ｑｉｖａｌｅｃｅ ｔｈｅｏｒｙ，
ａ ｏｔａｂｌｅ


ｍ
ａｃｈｉｅｖｅｎｗｎ 

ｎｅｔｏｆＥｕ
ｇ
ｅｅ 
＊ｉｄａ，
 ｉｓ ｒｏｏｔｅｄ  ａｄ
ｇ
ｒｏｎ  ｉｎ
ｐ
ｒａｃｔｉｃｅ．
 Ｂａｓｅｄ ｏ ｔｈｉｓ
 ｐ
ｒａｃｔｉｃｅ ａｎｄ  ｉ
ｍｎ
ｃｏｗｘｍｘ
ｂｉｎａｔｉｏｎ  ｉｔｈ ｔｈｅｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｉｓｔｉｃｓｏｆｔｈｉｓｔｅｔ，
ｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒ ａｉｎｌ
ｙ ｅ
ｌｏｒｅｓｔｈｅａｌｉｃａｔｉｏ ｏｆ


ｎｎｎｎｘｖ
ｐｐｐ
ｔｈｅｆｕｎｃｔｉｏａｌｅｃｅ ｔｈｅｏｒｙ ｉ ｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ ａｔｔｈｅ ｌｅｘｉｃａｌｓ

ｑｕｉｖａｌｅ，
 ｙｔａｃｔｉｃａｎｄ ｔｅｔｕａｌ
ｌｅ ｔｒｙｉｎｇ ｔｏ
ｅｌｓ， 

ｉｎ


find out the methods and strategies of reproducing the source information to a maximum extent in
order to ensure the accuracy and completeness of the information to be transmitted. The translator
summarizes the translation methods by analyzing terminology and polysemy in the vocabulary; the
translator mainly clarifies methods of C-E translation of long and complicated sentences, passive
and non-subject sentences at the syntactic level; the translator discusses the cohesion and
coherence between sentences and paragraphs at the textual level.
Under the guidance of the Functional equivalence theory, this report applies different
translation methods and strategies, such as literal translation, changing the order and division in
the translation of the source text. Based on the features of the source text and the requirements of
this practice, the translator has achieved the maximum equivalence by reproducing the source
information at the levels of vocabulary, syntax and text. It is proved that the Functional
equivalence theory plays a guiding role in the C-E translation of such texts, providing a reference
for the translation of similar texts in the future.
Keywords: popular science text; Functional equivalence Theory; C-E translation; translation
methods and strategies
IV
Contents
Chapter 1 Description of the Translation Task ........................................... 1

1.1 Background of the Translation Task .................................................. 1
1.2 Requirements of the Translation Task................................................ 2
Chapter 2 Description of the Translation Procedure .................................. 3
2.1 Analysis of the Source Text ............................................................... 3
2.1.1 A Brief Introduction of the Source Text ....................................... 3
2.1.2 Language Features of the Source Text ......................................... 3
2.2 Pre-translation .................................................................................... 5
2.2.1 Preparations before Translation Task ........................................... 5
2.2.2 Preparations of Translation Theory and Methods ........................ 5
2.3 Translation Process ............................................................................ 6
2.4 Post-translation .................................................................................. 7
Chapter 3 Overview of the Translation Theory .......................................... 9
3.1 Development of Functional Equivalence ........................................... 9
3.2 Core Concepts of Functional Equivalence ...................................... 10
3.2.1 Lexical Equivalence ................................................................... 11
3.2.2 Syntactic Equivalence ................................................................ 11
3.2.3 Textual Equivalence ................................................................... 12
3.3 Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence in Translating
Popular Science Text ............................................................................ 13
Chapter 4 Case Analysis ........................................................................... 15
4.1 Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level......................................... 15
4.1.1 Translation of Terminology ........................................................ 15
4.1.2 Translation of Polysemy............................................................. 18
4.2 Functional Equivalence at Syntactic Level ...................................... 21
4.2.1 Translation of Long and Complicated Sentences ...................... 22
4.2.2 Translation of Passive Voice ...................................................... 27
4.2.3 Translation of Non-subject Sentences ........................................ 30
4.3 Functional Equivalence at Textual Level ......................................... 33
4.3.1 Cohesion ..................................................................................... 33
4.3.2 Coherence ................................................................................... 39
Chapter 5 Conclusion................................................................................ 41
5.1 Major Findings of the Translation Practice ..................................... 41
5.2 Limitations of the Translation Practice ............................................ 42
5.3 Suggestions for the Future Practice ................................................. 43
Bibliography ............................................................................................. 45
Appendices ................................................................................................ 48
Appendix Ⅰ Source Text ....................................................................... 48
Appendix Ⅱ Target Text ........................................................................ 72
Appendix Ⅲ Glossary.......................................................................... 101
Chapter 1 Description of the Translation Task
Chapter 1 Description of the Translation Task
Translation task description is a necessary step for translation practice report writing. In
Chapter One, the report’s author will introduce the background and requirements in terms of the
subjective and objective factors of the translation task.
1.1 Background of the Translation Task

With the improvement of China’s comprehensive strength, people’s lifestyles have undergone
significant changes, especially in food. Food became diverse and convenient, transforming from
the dominant food of rice and noodles to various fast foods. In addition, the popularity of apps and
websites allows people to enjoy delicious and specialty foods at home. Fast food fills people’s life
almost daily, and busy work overwhelms people’s health. Therefore, people's health has become a
universal concern.
People’s awareness of food safety needs to catch up to our pace of life. Our daily foods are
closely related to our health, but each of their ingredients can be harmful to our human health. The
harm to our bodies depends on what we know about them. Much of what people learn about them
comes from incomplete, unfounded information published by various media. In addition to
relevant books, platforms, and professionals, there are few channels for comprehensive scientific
information exchange and popularization. People need to learn about health information to raise
their awareness about it.
The Function equivalence theory aims to recognize the maximize meaning equivalence in
practice. The guiding theory comes from practice. The guidance of practice has a specific
significance in this translation practice. At the same time, the original text uses chemical
knowledge to explain the relationship between food components and human health, which is
closely related to people’s life, and should be in line with the information’s objective and scientific
nature. The original text also uses some relevant cases to popularize food safety knowledge and
improve people’s health awareness, which is of great practical significance. In conclusion, the
original text and guiding theory have positive significance for this translation practice.
1
西安理工大学硕士学位论文
1.2 Requirements of the Translation Task

The source text is taken from the book Chemistry and Health, and this practice places great
demands on the source text, the target text, and the translator.
According to Guo Jianzhong (2004), the translated standard of the popular science text has
three primary rules: the first one is to be faithful to the source text; the second one is to keep the
accuracy of its information, the third one is to retain the smooth language with a certain literariness,
and the translation should be easily understood and conform to the expression habits for the target
readers. The source text is intended to popularize scientific and accurate knowledge in a certain
field, so the translator must keep in line with its pursuit to fully understand the messages in the
original text, from the words to textual style. The words, including terminology, should be accurate
and suitable for their context in the translation to reach the lexical equivalence, the translation of
sentences should reappear the source meaning in smooth and coherent ways as much as possible.
Furthermore, the whole translation also should be faithful to target readers’ expression habits.
Also, the language and style of translation should be accurate, objective, scientific, and easy
to understand. The translator should have the bilingual ability and relevant professional knowledge
when translating popular science texts and can flexibly use various translation methods to
reproduce semantics according to guiding theory. Under the guidance of functional equivalence
theory, the translator should reproduce the original text information from the aspects of words and
sentences, maintain the text style, and realize the function of popular science text.
2
Chapter 2 Description of the Translation Procedure
In terms of translation procedure, Eugene·Nida has defined the four procedures in translation:
analysis, transfer, restructuring, and testing in his work The Theory and Practice of Translation. In
this part, the report’s author focuses on the whole translation procedure and divides it into three
phases: pre-translation, the translation process, and post-translation. Besides, the translator also
gives a brief introduction to the source text and analyzes its language features.
2.1 Analysis of the Source Text

The source text, a text of popular science, characterized by being scientific, accurate, practical,
and popular. It has many characteristics of its own in terms of vocabulary, syntax, and textual style.
Before translation, the translator should grasp the features of the source text that help the translator
better understand the meaning and evaluate the quality of the translation.
2.1.1 A Brief Introduction of the Source Text

The source text is taken from Chapter 7 of the book Chemistry and Health, “Food and
Chemistry.” This book was written by Professor Jiang Yuanru and published in 2009. This book
covers knowledge of wine, tea, chemical products, food health, and other aspects closely
connected with human health. Based on simple chemistry knowledge, the source text takes
chemistry factors affecting human health as a prerequisite. It shows the relationship between
chemistry and human health to clarify the principles of chemistry in practical application in daily
life—the messages conveyed in the source text involve chemistry, medicine, and animals. Its
features are simple and plain in language, rigid logic, and objective style.
The source text focuses on combining science and popular, academic, and public nature. It is
easy to understand its valuable and practical knowledge. It can be used as a textbook for the
general course of quality chemistry education in colleges and universities and as a popular science
book in the life. It is an excellent text for the translator and this practice due to its usefulness in
improving people’s understanding of chemistry and food health knowledge.
2.1.2 Language Features of the Source Text

The source text aims at popularizing knowledge in food health, and its language
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characteristics at the lexical, syntactical, and textual levels are presented as follows.
At the lexical level, the wording of popular science texts is scientific, objective, accurate, and
straightforward. In the original text, many terms and abbreviations appear in chemistry, medicine,
and animals, such as chemical terms, chemical formulas such as C3N6H6, and abbreviations such
as ADI (硝酸盐日允许量), Bap (苯并[a]芘), MF (三聚氰胺甲醛树脂). In addition, some charts
clearly show the toxins, symptoms, and preventive measures of various types of food. Many units
also appeared, such as mg•kg-1 and μg•kg-1.
In terms of syntax in the popular science text, the forms of the sentences are various, and the
language is accurate, objective, and lucid. There are different sentence patterns that appear in the
source text. Long and complicated sentences usually define concepts, non-subject sentences show
preventions, and passive sentences show objectivity. For example:
1) “生物碱是一类含氮有机化合物，大多数生物碱为无色结晶型固体，具有苦味和辛辣
不溶或难溶于水，可溶于有机溶剂。生物碱与酸结合生成的盐类则易溶于水而难溶于有机溶
剂。”
There is an example of long and complicated sentence, which is used to clarify the definition
and nature of alkaloids.
2) “首先，多施用农家肥料少用化肥，以防止粮食、蔬菜被氮肥污染,从根本上杜绝硝酸
盐进入人体内。”
This non-subject sentence shows the first and most important way to prevent nitrate
contamination.
3) “某些真菌毒素少量、长期、持续地被摄入,还可引起人或动物的慢性中毒或者癌症。”.
Passive voice sentences are frequently used in scientific English. This passive sentence shows
a fact that people or animals may intake these toxins unintentionally.
In terms of text, the language of popular science texts is fluent and logical. The source text
consists of seven sections, each organized from the defining nature of the topic, the symptoms of
the poisoning process, and prevention. In grammar, textual coherence mainly acts on words and
sentences. The intrinsic meaning and relationships expressed in the source text reinforce its
intrinsic coherence. The text as a whole, therefore, has internal and external coherence.
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2.2 Pre-translation
Popular science texts’ characteristics differ from literacy, drama, and prose. It has higher
standards and many requirements for translators in translation, so it is necessary to make sufficient
preparations before translation. As a good starting point, adequate preparation focuses on two areas:
understanding the material, choosing aided tools, and making a plan and so on. This section
mainly describes the detailed preparations.
2.2.1 Preparations before Translation Task

The translator mainly prepared the following work. The first step is to collect information
about the original text from multiple sources. In addition to referring to the relevant books in the
library, the translator also glances over recommended reading materials from friends in related
fields.
The second step is to find and learn parallel text, choosing aids such as the website CNKI,
CAS database, Chem.Net, and ChemDict.com. It takes time and effort to consult and study
difficult words to understand their meaning and context. The final step is to develop a detailed plan
based on the difficulty of the source text. At the same time, the translator is prepared to face
uncontrollable factors in the translation process. There needs to be more work to complete this
translation practice. It also requires much detailed work to finish and is flexibly solved during
translation.
2.2.2 Preparations of Translation Theory and Methods

Some work also needs to be prepared. On the one hand, the translator reviews the selected
guiding theory, from its development to its definition and core concepts. In this practice, the
translator re-learns the translation methods related to theory and practice from relevant books and
materials. On the other hand, many translation methods are used in translation, such as
amplification and restructuring, which can be used to translate long and complicated sentences. In
short, it is vital to use the translation methods by flexibly combining with the text in the translation.
That can reproduce the source information and accurately convey the style of the source text. In
addition, the bilingual skills, writing, and critical thinking mentioned in the first chapter should
also be paid attention to in this practice.
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2.3 Translation Process

At the beginning of the translation, the author is committed to grasping the main idea and
using different colors to mark terms in the original text. The translator found that some terms have
different names in the text, such as the alternating use of informal and formal names. These names
should be considered the same by scanning relevant books and professional websites in the
original text. After finishing it, the translator will make a glossary to collect them. Then, the
translator marks various sentence patterns in the same way, such as long and complicated
sentences and key and complicated points so that the translator can grasp the content of the
original text in mind. The translator also added annotations in the blank space in some marked
sentences to analyze their meaning and structure. These pieces of work provide an effective
method for understanding and analyzing the original text. It takes a new step in translating its
meaning.
Meanwhile, unexpected problems may arise during this process, and timely solutions are a
better choice. For example, some sentences are difficult to translate, and the translator refers to
books or consults with tutors and classmates to adjust sentence structure and translate meaning. As
for the chemical terms in the original text, the translator needs to find out the correct expression of
different names. There are both commonly used and professional expressions, so the translator has
sought help from friends in this field to choose suitable translations in the target text. When
translating polysemous words, the translator chooses the correct meaning based on the context,
such as “wet intensity”, with different meanings and usage in dictionaries and applications. The
translator usually browses websites and consulted with scholars, researchers, companies, and
institutions, such as 化工字典-化学品 CAS 查询数据库-化工助手-中国化工网 (chemnet. com),
化工字典网 (chemdict.com) and Reaxys 数据库 (sdu.edu.cn). The information consulted is
usually professional and commonly used in this field. That is also very helpful for translation.
The critical task in the translation process is to continuously polish and improve the
translation in terms of the vocabulary, grammar, text, and other aspects. When completing the
translation, the translator will check the spelling of words, sentences, and punctuation marks to
ensure that all information is present and accurate. The translator should also maintain the
consistency of terms in the two texts, especially the alternation of informal and official names. In
addition, cohesion and coherence in the text are essential in translation. By checking the sentence
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meaning and structure in the translation, the translator strives to reproduce smooth and accurate
information. For example, the translator finds that some sentences in the translation have lost their
balance in structure, resulting in unclear meanings in the target text, especially the referential
pronouns. So, the translator must constantly seek better structure and accurate representation of the
original text information. That is also a crucial task in the process of translation. The translator
should maintain a serious and rigorous attitude during the translation process.
2.4 Post-translation
Before finishing the translation, there is no perfect translation, and it will be constantly
checked and polished. Therefore, the entire qualified translation must go through the process of
deliberation and revision by the translator and mentors.
Completing the target text does not mean meeting the standards of popular science texts. The
translator will strip a new and lengthy editing, refining, and polishing process. The standard is for
words, sentences, grammar, language, and other aspects. The translator carefully examines many
aspects through repeated intensive reading, which vary in spelling from grammar to information,
such as the terminology and theory of translation, and even the logic between sentences. In order
to comprehensively evaluate the translation, the translator checks whether the meaning is clear and
complete and whether the expression is accurate when reading the entire translation. The entire
target text’s meaning is consistent with the source text. Especially for the translation of polysemy
and complicated sentences, it is necessary to carefully organize them from the perspective of
overall meaning and context. In this way, the translation is consistent with the original text’s
meaning and text. All of this is the first stage of self-proofreading for the translator.
Translator seeks advice from professional and excellent peers and modify the translation
based on their reading experience, mainly checking the consistency of the meaning and expression
of terms and sentences. Based on their suggestions, the translator improved the translation of
sentences and texts, adjusted the sentence patterns, and adopted more professional expressions. In
addition, the translator had exchanges and discusses with different mentors to refine the target text
as much as possible. It is an essential step in the quality control process. The translator strives to
reproduce the original text content and provide the same reading experience for target readers.
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8
Chapter 3 Overview of the Translation Theory
Eugene·Nida, a famous translator, and linguist globally, has had fruitful achievements that
have significantly impacted translation. When it comes to him, the functional equivalence theory
first runs into the mind. In this part, the translator mainly reviews the evolved history, and
highlight of the functional equivalence theory, and its application in translating the popular science
text.
3.1 Development of Functional Equivalence

The theory of functional equivalence enjoys a high reputation internationally. It went through
three stages. Each stage and achievement are described below. From 1943 to 1959, the first stage
mainly focused on descriptive linguistics. This time, he described the syntax, morphology, and
translation problems of language in order to discover the essence of language and help people
understand the fundamental problems in foreign languages and translation. Formal equivalence is
the result of this stage. In the following decade, he dedicated himself to communication theory
research. He believes that the essence of translation is science, art, and drafting. The concept of
dynamic equivalence theory was also born during this stage. In addition, he defined the four steps
of translation in his book Translation Theory and Practice, namely analysis, transfer,
reconstruction, and testing. He (1982) said that analysis was the most critical step and the focus of
his lifetime’s research.
Turning to studying social semiotics in the third phase, he applied the functional equivalence
in translation rather than the dynamic equivalence. As for translation, he proposed that the
translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the
source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style (Eugene·Nida,
Taber, 1969:1-11). Scholars at home summarize the equivalent that covers lexical, syntactic,
textual, and discourse in the practices. Four equivalents will be amply clarified in the next part of
this chapter.
His concepts of formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence and functional equivalence have
some confusion. In his evolved history of translation theory, each one has its features.
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Formal equivalence is source-oriented. It is designed to reveal the formal content of the

original message, focusing on the source text. Dynamic equivalence is directed primarily toward
the equivalence of the response reader. It also describes the closest natural equivalent to the
source-language message. Dynamic equivalence contains three elements, equivalent, natural, and
closest. Equivalent points toward the source language, natural points toward the receptor language,
and closest bind the two orientations together based on the highest degree of approximation.
However, it has some limitations in forms; the latter is the development of the former
(Eugene·Nida, 2004:166).
Furthermore, dynamic equivalence is the expansion of functional equivalence employed
before 1969. Generally, it leads to confusion since the dynamic has been understood merely in
terms of something that has impact and appeal. The functional equivalence, this expression is best
represented in a socio-semiotic and sociolinguistic orientation, focusing on function.
From form to dynamics to function, there are different levels of form from source text to
signal meaning, receptor response and language function. It is a process of continuous
improvement and development in the translation practices.
3.2 Core Concepts of Functional Equivalence

“Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of
the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”, he said
(Eugene·Nida, Taber, 1969:1-11). In the point of closest, which binds the orientations together the
basis of the highest degree of approximation. As for the natural, its expression in the receptor
language is essentially a problem of co-suitability but on several levels, of which the most
important are as follows：(1) word classes; (2) grammatical categories; (3) semantic classes; (4)
discourse types; and (5) cultural contexts (Eugene·Nida.2004:168). Moreover, the equivalent
points toward the source language message in the translation. Tan Zaixi (1996) referred that the
generalization of language or the transmission of semantics enjoys a priority in translation.
Therefore, meaning is the first and central while translating. Later, the functional equivalence
generally means equivalence on lexical, syntactic, and textual levels for the domestic scholar.
The functional equivalence is divided into two categories, namely the minimum and
maximum equivalent in the work Language, Culture and Translating. As for the minimum
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equivalent, the reader of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can
imagine how the original readers understand and appreciate it. The maximal is an ideal level for
the translator to pursue the ultimate purpose (Eugene·Nida, 1993:118). Thus, the functional
equivalence emphasizes that the translation is faithful to the meaning, similar to the reading
experience.
3.2.1 Lexical Equivalence

The correspondence between English and Chinese word meanings is a complex task. It
involves factors such as language, society, and culture in translation (Lian Shuneng, 2010:13). Li
Yan (2022) summaries that the translation of the lexical equivalence mainly adopted some
translation methods. The translation of proper noun usually adopts the methods of
word-formation, transliteration and literal translation. The translation of terms adopts
dictionary-based translation and parallel text-based translation. The translation of other simple
words adopts extended, mixed, and supplementary translation methods in the process of word
meaning development.
The source text is a popular science text with many terms, polysemy and proper nouns.
Achieving the minimum level is the basic equivalence of translators. So how do these words
convey natural and closest equivalence in their meanings. For words recognized in a certain field
and around the world, the translator can convey meaning through literal translation. There is also
a word about culture, which pays great attention to, for instance“孔子”and“五不食”, The
translator should use free translation and annotations or supplementary translation explain the
specific meaning to ensure that readers understand it clearly. At the same time, terminology can
be translated based on dictionaries or parallel texts. In short, in order to achieve equivalence in
word translation, it is necessary to consider the factors of meaning and recipient language,
especially cultural words and terminology.
3.2.2 Syntactic Equivalence

Syntactic equivalence defines the translator as fully reproducing the meaning in the target text
by restructuring the structure of the source text. There are differences in tense, expression points,
logic, and other aspects between the source and target languages. For the target language, the
translator should pay attention to the sentence’s tense and singular and plural and maintain
11
consistency between the tense and subject-predicate. In Chinese, there are fewer tense changes in
words than in English. Although the original text is popular science and the sentences described
are primarily in the present tense, the tense significantly changes in some described events. In
addition, the language’s expression and sentence structure are also very different, which requires
the translator to freely switch thinking and expression pattern between the two languages. At the
same time, changing thinking and the meaning of the sentence should ensure that there are no
deviations or misunderstandings to achieve basic balanced sentence.
In the source text, long sentences explain more about specific defined substances, properties,
and symptoms caused by certain toxins or bacteria. Therefore, these syntax structures need
restructuring to express meaning during translation. The other changes appear in the punctuation,
adjusting the key points of information, and connecting short sentences with logical words such as
conjunctions to achieve overall meaning and formal correspondence. In addition, compared to the
target text, there are more repetitive words in the original sentence, like“食物中毒分为致病性化
学食物中毒、有毒的动植物中毒、环境污染的食物中毒、细菌等微生物污染食物中毒四种。”
In this sentence, the word “ 食物中毒 ” appeared four times, and only the first word is the
expressed theme and works on the whole sentence. If the differences between two languages were
neglected, the meaning conveyed would be unclear and reduplicative. When translating this
sentence, the translator eliminated the other words “中毒” to convey the meaning in a concise way.
It is also objective and scientific and follows the characteristics of the original text and the
differences between the two languages. In short, the primary task of syntactic equivalence is to
reproduce the information in the original text.
3.2.3 Textual Equivalence

The theory of functional equivalence is divided into “minimum equivalence” and “maximum
equivalence” (Eugene·Nida, 1993:118). The text may be a monologue, dialogue, or dialogue, as
well as a word or phrase. Nevertheless, it expresses a whole meaning (Qin Hongwu, 2010:185).
Therefore, although readers have different cultural backgrounds, the wording, language features,
and overall effect in different texts are consistent with the translation. Lexical and syntactic
equivalence can be considered the minimum equivalence in translation, while discourse
equivalence is the maximum equivalence. The higher the level of relationship between words,
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sentences, and text, the higher, the more requirements. The highest equivalence can be achieved
only by meeting the requirements of lexical and syntactic equivalence.
3.3 Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence in Translating Popular
Science Text
The nature of translation is that it reproduces the source textual messages, seeking the
equivalence between two languages and following the rule of natural Equivalence. Most
importantly, the first task of translation is to deliver the messages. (Tan Zaixi, 1999:11) In short,
translation is a communicative activity between languages and the functions that they play in this
activity. If one person wants to understand the meaning of the basic principles of translation, in
that case, he must understand the various communication functions of the language and how these
functions are generated using voice. From the perspective of translation principles, nine main types
can be pointed out: (1) expression function, (2) cognitive function: (3) interpersonal function, C4)
information function: (5) imperative function; (6) Empathy function: (7) sympathetic function: (8)
change function; (9) aesthetic function (Tan Zaixi, 1999:34-44). So, a translation has different
functions in the communicative activity, and the Functional Equivalence also is applied in many
fields, like translation of medicine, IT, science, agriculture, etc.
As a popular science text, it is a dream to popularize scientific knowledge to the public or
given reader group. Following the guiding theory-functional equivalence, the translator strives to
show the messages and meaning of source text to readers that reflects the nature of translation and
languages function on expression, cognition, and imperative. The source text emphasizes
widespread scientific and accurate chemistry knowledge in life with another closest natural
language, which is the expression function. The popularized target text can improve the public’s
awareness of food health and the translator’s quality in the language transformation, which is part
of cognition. The imperative function mainly stresses various food poisoning preventions in the
source text. Based on the food safety in our life, it reveals the relationship between humans and
food from plants, animals, fish, and microorganisms, which is practical. The guiding theory is also
from the practices; their feature is greatly confirmed. Therefore, the guiding theory of functional
equivalence in the source text is a mutual-win result from the text, purpose, and the readers.
Regarding the translator, this task can broaden the knowledge scope and give a better chance
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of fostering the comprehensive quality of grasping the relevant knowledge. The translator also
finds that the study of the popular science text of chemistry is less than other fields like IT, science,
etc. This practice is worth deeply developing and is practical and suitable for the future, especially
for the C-E translation. The source text keeps its features and delivers the meaning with a free
form from the lexical, syntactic, and textual level under the guiding theory. According to these
aspects, the translator explored translated effects and main factors to control quality.
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Chapter 4 Case Analysis
The C-E translation of the source text needs some help in shifting between two languages.
The translation of the chemical popular science text is mainly shown in translation of terms and
determination of the possible meaning of polysemic words as well as translation of passive voice,
and long and complicated sentences. In this chapter, analysis cases focus on the lexical, syntactic,
and textual levels and their functional equivalence by means of appropriate translation methods
under the guidance of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory.
4.1 Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level

As for the lexical level, it is the smallest unit to understand the main idea in the text. There
are many chemical formulas, substance names, and relative terminologies in food in the source
text. The author's important task is to explore their meaning to ensure that they decrease
misunderstanding as soon as possible between two languages. Under the guidance of functional
equivalence theory, the translator strives to find the most accurate and appropriate corresponding
expression in the target language. Only in this way the smallest equivalence in the messages can be
realized and finished as the most critical parts of this practice. In this section, the translator
analyzes some selected terminologies and polysemy and explores their translation methods under
the guidance of Functional equivalence theory.
4.1.1 Translation of Terminology

Fu Yonglin and Tang Yueqin (2011) said that terminology is homogeneous. That is, scientific
and technological terms or vocabulary are single and specialized; a special fixed term only takes
shoulder on one concept, only one meaning of the word. Its expressions are used in a specific
subject and exclusively in the particular field. In the source text, the translator divided
terminologies into four aspects: chemical, bacteria, pesticides, and toxins in plants and animals, as
shown in the following tables:
Table 1 Chemical Terminology list
ST TT
硫氰酸基 Thiocyanate based
15
硫脲 Thiourea
磷酸氢二钠 Disodium hydrogen phosphate
环己胺 Cyclohexylamine
亚硝基吡咯烷 Nitrosopyrrolidine
多氯联苯 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
多环芳烃 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)
苯并［a］芘 Benzoapyrene (Bap)
Table 2 Bacteria Terminology list

ST TT
产气荚膜杆菌 Clostridiumperfringen
蜡样芽抱杆菌 Bacillus cereus
弯曲菌 Campylobacter.
鼠伤寒沙门氏菌 Salmonella typhimurium
肠炎沙门氏菌 Salmonella enteritidis
副溶血性弧菌 Vibrio Parahemolyticus
肉毒梭菌 Clostridium botulinum
Table 3 Pesticides Terminology list

ST TT
六六六 Hexachlorocyclohexane
DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
敌敌畏 Dichlorvos
三氯杀螨醇 Cicofol
五氯硝基苯 Pentachloronitrobenzene
白菌清 Chlorothalonil
稻脚毒 Zinc methanearsonate
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Table 4 Toxins terminology list

ST TT
砒霜 Arsenic(III) oxide
曼陀罗 Mandala
红颠 Red apex
生物碱类毒素 Alkaloid toxoid
皂苷 Saponin
氯仿 Trichloromethane
相思子毒蛋白 Arbin
Analysis: The first table describes some chemical substances’ names in the source text. They
are all proper nouns, which can be translated by literal translation and word-formation. Some
words are applied in abbreviation form in the source text, such as benzopyrene (Bap), the literal
translation of which is done to explain its meaning. The word “ 硫氰酸基 ” is translated as
“thiocyanate based”, using the word-formation method, which is composed of the prefix
thiocyanic- and word “based”.
As for Table 2 and Table 3, the terms are difficult in translating their meaning through the
literal translation and word-formation. There are informal and formal names in the source text, like
“六六六” and “敌敌畏.” To search out the accurate meaning, the translator finds the meaning in
some websites and dictionaries mentioned in Chapter 2. They are all born in the development of
science and technology. So, dictionary-based translation and parallel text-based translation are
adopted in translating them.
In terms of the last table, the translator also checks their meaning through online translation
apps and websites, such as “砒霜.” Some websites show “white arsenic” , and ChemNet shows all
names, including formal and informal ones. Its formal name only is “arsenic (III) oxide.” The
other names have a lot but without “white arsenic.” The translator chooses the formal name
“arsenic (III) oxide” during the translation. Also, dictionary-based translation and parallel
text-based translation are adopted in translating them.
Guided by the functional equivalence theory, the translation of terminology remains the
features of the source text in the target text: precise, scientific, and objective, and achieves the
minimum equivalent.
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4.1.2 Translation of Polysemy

One term should be used for a translation name to avoid confusion of meaning and concept.
With the development of society, the meaning of words also experiences a new revolution,
broadening or narrowing their meaning, depending on the context in which they are used.
Polysemy has more than one meaning; that is to say, one word has a different meaning than
applied fields. A considerable number of words in English are polysemous. A word may have a
few or dozens of meanings, which is difficult to choose during the translation.
To reproduce its meaning in the source text, the translator strives to select the most suitable
meaning according to the context and coverage of the application in the source text. Thus,
translating polysemous words is a vital job, and challenging to fulfill the lexical equivalence of
both the source and target text. The following examples are taken as an illustration.
Example 1:
ST: 自然界植物有 30 多万种，用作人类食用的不过数百种。我国植物种类丰富，有毒
植物有 1300 多种，分别属于 140 个科。
TT: There are more than 300,000 species of plants in nature, but only a few hundred are used
for human consumption. China is rich in plant species, with over 1,300 poisonous plants belonging
to 140 families.
Analysis: This sentence shows poisonous plants and their belonging in our country. The word
“科” has two words in the Oxford Dictionaries online, such as “family” and “department”. The
word “family” shows a group in different fields, like people, language, plants, and animals. And
the word “department” means a section of a large organization, such as a government, business,
university, etc. According to the context and used coverage, this word translated into “family”
shows a group of animals or plants in the nature and biological fields in the sentence, which can
transmit the information accurately and realize meaning equivalence.
Example 2:
ST: 生物碱是一类含氮有机化合物，大多数生物碱为无色结晶型固体，具有苦味和辛辣
不溶或难溶于水，可溶于有机溶剂。
TT ： Alkaloids are a class of nitrogenous organic compounds, mostly crystalline solids, bitter
and pungent, insoluble or slightly insoluble in water, and soluble in organic solvents.
Analysis: The word “辛辣”describes the taste of alkaloids and is commonly used as “spicy”
18
in the taste mainly associated with some spice. Moreover, the word “pungent” describes taste in
chemistry and medicine. The translator selected the pungent in the translation, followed its used
field, and expressed its accurate meaning in the source text. The word “pungent” usually appears
in the chemical text, which has different meanings in English that are divided into broad and
narrow meanings in the expression. It can be translated into various terms words according to its
context. “溶剂” defines the general meaning, and the other has specific terms name such as “塑性
溶剂” namely “plasticizer.” This word shows broad meaning in the sentence and is translated as
“solvents” to keep the closest meaning in the target text under the guidance of functional
equivalence theory.
Example 3:
ST:人发病的症状为体温微升、口干发热、痛、口黏膜潮红、嘴角及唇出现小的规整的
水疱烂斑、脚趾间出现炎症反应或出现水疱，几天后破溃。
TT: The symptoms of the disease show a slight rise in body temperature, xerostomia, fever,
mouth pain, flushing of the mouth mucosa, small and regular blisters and rot at the corners of the
mouth and lips, inflammatory or blisters between the toes and ulceration in a few days later.
Analysis: This sentence tells the symptom caused by foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). Bold
words all show symptoms in different phrases. The Chinese character “口干” does not describe the
condition of lacking drinking water, which can be said to be a mental state. The text mainly
presents a symptom in the medical field. Hence, the translator translated it into “xerostomia” with
a natural meaning according to its used field and source context to reach the lexical equivalence.
The word “ulceration” defines it as a circumscribed inflammatory and often suppurating lesion on
the skin or an internal mucous surface resulting in tissue necrosis, which meets the usage and
context in the source text. However, some informal words have the same meaning, such as
“rupture”, which is also used in the medical field to mean an injury in which something inside the
body breaks apart or bursts（体内组织等的）断裂，破裂. So, the word “ulceration” is more suitable
in the target text for its meaning and context. According to the functional equivalence theory, the
translator chooses medical terms in the target text to ensure accurate and scientific information and
reach the semantic equivalence between two texts.
Example 4:
ST:多环芳烃是一类数量多、种类复杂、分布广、与人的关系密切及对人的健康威胁较
19
大的化学致癌物质。主要是由各种有机物，如煤、柴油、汽油、木材及香烟的燃烧不完全而
产生的烃的热解产物，也可在生物体内合成。
TT: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) are chemical carcinogens with large quantities,
complex species, and wide distribution. As a significant threat to human health, it also has a close
relationship with people. The incomplete combustion of various organic matter, such as coal,
diesel oil, gasoline, wood, and cigarettes, mainly produces its products. It can also be synthesized
in living organisms.
Analysis: This sentence presents PAH features, source, and condition to be formed. The word
“燃烧” refers to a chemical process in which substances combine with the oxygen in the air to
produce heat and light, which means the process of burning. It is usually used in chemistry to show
the whole process. Words like “fire, flame, and burning” are related to the Chinese words“燃烧”,
which represent different products about it. It is known from the source text that PAH is formed in
the burning process so that the word combustion is more suitable than others. Meanwhile,
combustion is generally used in the chemical field to describe the chemical process. By following
the features of the source text, that is, scientific and accurate, the translator chooses the most
natural meaning to achieve the lexical equivalence.
Example 5:
ST:如果采用纸作为食品的包装材料,经脲醛树脂或三聚氰胺-甲醛树脂处理的具有湿强
度的纸张中的甲醛会污染食物，而食品中甲醛的允许含量只有 5mg•kg-1。
TT: When paper is used as a food packaging material, formaldehyde in high wet strength
paper treated with urea-formaldehyde resin or melamine-formaldehyde resin will contaminate food,
but the acceptable level of formaldehyde in food is only 5mg·kg-1.
Analysis: The bold Chinese word “湿强度” in this sentence has its two English counterpart
“high wet strength” and “green strength” respectively. They are applied in different fields; the first
suits the paper, and the other is used in material engineering. Since this sentence introduces the
toxic substance in the food packaging paper, the translator chose the expression “high wet strength”
to reappear the information in the source text, taking into account its context and applied range to
express the accurate meaning and reach the lexical equivalence.
Example 6:
ST: 硝酸盐、亚硝酸盐常作为肉类腌制制品中的发色剂,在食品加工中有固定和增加肉
20
色、增加食品风味和抑制细菌尤其是肉毒杆菌的生长的作用。硝酸盐在食物、水或胃肠内可
被还原为亚硝酸盐而产生毒性。
TT: Nitrate and nitrite are often used as color fixatives in meat-curing products. They can fix
and enhance meat color, increase food flavor, and inhibit the growth of bacteria, especially
botulinum. Nitrate can be reduced to nitrite in food, water, or the gastrointestinal tract to produce
toxicity.
Analysis: The word“发色剂”is usually used as a main food additive at home and abroad to
keep meat and its products fresh. This sentence tells how nitrate and nitrite work as food
additives. As for this word, it is often translated by word-formation, which uses a verb+ suffix to
describe a name or effect, such as oriole reagent (吡咯试剂）and analytical reagent (分析纯试剂).
However, this word is a food additive, not a chemical reagent; the translator looked up its exact
meaning in many ways and found that color fixative suits the meaning and context. Its translation
in such a way is appropriate to this context and helps to reach the equivalence in the lexical level.
The above examples illustrate how to solve difficulties of terminology and polysemy in
translation. Some websites, articles, and dictionaries are accessible to look up and determine their
meanings to reappear the information of the source in the target text. When translating such a text,
the translator should pay attention to the terminology and seek help for professionals for its
changeable forms as soon as possible. Moreover, the translator should, when translating polysemic
words, consider the contexts in which they are used to achieve the lexical equivalence by keeping
the features in the source text. In a word, the translation of terminology and polysemy would keep
careful and strict enough.
4.2 Functional Equivalence at Syntactic Level

Translation, one of the most complicated activities, defines an interlingual, cross-cultural
communicative activity. The meaning in one language culture is transferred to another language
culture, and the nature is a paraphrase and transferred meaning (Chen Hongwei 2004:1). Chinese
and English languages have prominent characteristics for different branches, the most apparent
characteristics of which are the former focuses on parataxis and the latter on hypotaxis. Nida（2004）
also said that the most crucial difference is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis in
linguistics. The difference mainly lies in their sentence structures. Yang Fengning (2006)
21
mentioned the English sentences pay attention to open cohesion, which usually uses functional
words to connect phrases and sentences and vice versa to Chinese sentences. The source text is a
popular Chinese science text, whose function is to popularize knowledge and refine information.
While translating, the translator should wholly and accurately reproduce the information of the
source text and transfer its meaning through some translation methods under the guidance of
functional equivalence theory.
Considering the differences between the two languages, the characteristics of the source text,
and the translation standards of popular science texts, the author selected some examples and,
under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, analyzed and demonstrated their solutions in
translation. This section divides examples into long and complicated sentences, passive voice
sentences, and non-subject sentences, which are essential and laborious in translation. In addition,
this section can significantly enhance the connection between theory and practice.
4.2.1 Translation of Long and Complicated Sentences

According to the thesis of Wang Meilin (2015), in Chinese the sentence structure and
characteristics differ from other languages. From the perspective of Chinese and English, Chinese
sentences pay attention to the inner meaning and relationship between words and sentences, with
short expressions, few punctuation marks, and the position of expressing the topic at the beginning
of the sentence. Moreover, English is explicit in expression, dependent on the completeness of
form and structure, and relatively long. One of the characteristics of the source text is its long and
complicated sentences. Due to the differences between the two languages, the translator
thoroughly understands their structure and inner meanings to better reproduce the original text
information. Therefore, the translator adopts appropriate translation methods and strategies to
convey information based on the meaning and context of the sentence.
According to the guiding theory, translators strive to bring similar reactions to target readers
by changing order, division, or combination (Huang Xinqu, 2002:12-16). It also employs other
strategies to convey information and meaning.
Example 7:
ST: 微生物性食物中毒居其他各类食物中毒之首，最常见的是被致病性细菌或细菌产生
22
的毒素所污染的食品引起的急性细菌性食物中毒，与不同区域人群的饮食习惯有密切关系。
例如，美国多食肉、蛋和糕点等，葡萄球菌食物中毒最多；日本喜食生鱼片，副溶血性弧菌
食物中毒最多;我国食用畜禽肉、禽蛋类较多，以沙门氏菌食物中毒最多。
TT: Microbial food poisoning tops all other types of food poisoning, the most common of
which is acute bacterial, caused by food contaminated with pathogenic bacteria or toxins produced
by bacteria. It has something to do with people’s eating habits in different regions. For example,
the United States likes to eat meat, eggs, pastries, etc. So, staphylococcal food poisoning is most
common; Japan likes to eat sashimi, and vibrio parahaemolyticus food poisoning is the most
common; in China, there are many edible livestock, poultry, and eggs, so salmonella is also most
common.
Analysis: This sentence introduces the relationship between people’s dietary habits and
microbial food poisoning. The original text consists of two sentences. For its structure and
meaning, the translator uses a division method to describe the fact and relationship in this sentence.
The translator divides the entire sentence into three parts in the order of describing facts, reasons,
and results during the translation process. The first sentence uses an attributive clause to clarify the
harm of microbial food poisoning, and the following sentence introduces the expressed theme. The
second sentence uses “It” as the formal subject to connect the first sentence’s theme to convey
important information in terms of meaning and structure fully. The last sentence requires three
countries to prove the expressed viewpoint mentioned in the second sentence. At the same time,
there is an inherent causal relationship between them. According to the functional equivalence
theory, these sentences achieve the original text’s overall meaning and relationship equivalence in
terms of grammar and structure, achieving both information equivalence and retaining the style of
the source text.
Example 8:
ST: 曲霉素是迄今知道的最强的化学致癌物质，它诱发肝癌的能力比二甲基亚硝胺大 75
倍,它的毒性比敌敌畏大 100 倍、比砒霜大 68 倍、比氰化钾大 10 倍。
TT: Aflatoxin, the most potent chemical carcinogen we know, is 75 times more likely to
cause liver cancer than dimethylnitrosamine. And its toxicity is 100 times greater than dichlorvos,
68 times greater than arsenic (III) oxide and 10 times greater than potassium cyanide.
Analysis: This sentence clarifies that aflatoxin is dangerous because of its toxicity and the
23
causes of human liver cancer. The translator combined literal translation and division methods to
translate the entire sentence and divided it into two aspects. For the structure, “the strongest
chemical carcinogen we know” is used as a parenthesis to modify the subject to form this short
sentence, indicating its cancer danger. In the second sentence, the translator uses “its toxicity” as
the subject and the “and” conjunction to compare the meaning of the first sentence to indicate
toxicity and harm. Two sentences describe the comparative meaning to display the expressed
theme. Functional equivalence requires meaning first and form second. This sentence meets the
standards of form and meaning and remains simple and accurate in language.
Example 9:
ST: 它们在口腔、食道、胃和肠中水解产生氢氰酸。人体吸收氢氰酸后,氰离子与细胞
色素氧化酶中的铁结合,阻止细胞色素氧化酶递氧,抑制细胞的正常呼吸,导致组织缺氧，体
内 CO 和乳酸量增高，机体陷入内窒息状态。同氢氰酸还能作用于呼吸中枢及血管运动中枢，
使之麻痹,最后导致死亡。
TT: They would hydrolyze in the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestines to form
hydrogen cyanide. After the human body absorbs it, the cyanide ion combines with iron in
cytochrome oxidase, preventing cytochrome oxidase from transferring oxygen, inhibiting normal
cell respiration, and causing tissue hypoxia. It also increases the amount of carbon monoxide and
lactic acid in the body and falls into internal asphyxia. The hydrogen cyanide also acts on the
respiratory and vascular center, paralyzing them and ultimately causing death.
Analysis: This sentence mainly tells about the mechanism of working in hydrocyanic acid.
The source sentence has three parts as its forms and results in meaning. Firstly, the translator gains
what meaning is and divides, readjusts its structure according to context and meaning. Secondly,
accurate solution of verbs like “阻止，抑制，导致，增高，作用”are translated into parallel
“verbing” as object complement to explain work. Meanwhile, the second part is too long to grasp
the main idea that needs to be divided again. There are four sentences in the source text about the
process of forming and causing the results. So, the translator applied the literal translation and
division methods, and used the word “it” many times to convey the meaning and relationships
internally. Such a treatment of the source text leads to a better understanding of the main point and
structure for the target readers to get the same reaction, thereby achieving the equivalence of the
sentence.
24
Example 10:
ST: 化学性食物中毒是指健康人经口摄入了正常数量、在感官上并无异常、但含有某种
或某几种“化学性毒物”的食品，随这种食物而进入人体内的毒物对机体组织器官发生异常
作用,破坏了人体正常的生理功能，引起功能性或器质性病理改变的急性中毒过程。
TT: Chemical food poisoning refers to the acute poisoning process in which a healthy person
ingests a normal amount of food without sensory abnormality, but contains some or several
“chemical poisons”. The poisons that enter the human body with food have abnormal effects on
the body tissues’ organogenesis, damage the human body’s normal physiological functions, and
cause functional or organic pathological changes.
Analysis: This sentence mainly tells about the concept of chemical food poisoning. In Chinese, the
sentence's main idea is at the end of the sentence in expression, and English, at the beginning of a
sentence. According to the pattern between the two languages, the author changed the order and
explained its definition in the target sentence. In the source text, there are long modifiers “健康人
经口摄入了正常数量、在感官上并无异常、但含有某种或某几种化学性毒物”的食品，随这
种食物而进入人体内的毒物对机体组织器官发生异常作用，破坏了人体正常的生理功能，引
起功能性或器质性病理改变的, which modified the subject “Chemical food poisoning”. The long
modifier also contains a modifier in the objective sentence. And the translator applied the two
attributive clauses to show the process of chemical food poisoning in the body following the
meaning in the source text. In this way, the target readers would know that it is an acute poisoning
process by chemical poisoned food. So, the translator translates long modifiers into attributive
clause “that enter the human body with the food and have abnormal effects on tissues and organs,
disrupting the normal physiological functions of the human body and causing functional or organic
pathological changes”, which is clear in meaning and expression. That also achieved the syntactic
equivalence in meaning between the two texts.
Example 11:
ST: 有机磷主要对胆碱酯酶有抑制作用，人体失去分解乙酰胆碱的能力，造成乙酰胆碱
在体内大量积聚，引起神经系统功能紊乱的一系列表现，轻者头晕、无力、嗜睡、肌肉震颤、
痉挛、瞳孔缩小、血压升高、心跳加快、呼吸困难、肺水肿、语言失常，重者死亡。
TT: Organic phosphorus mainly inhibits cholinesterase. When the human body loses the
ability to decompose acetylcholine, a large amount of it accumulates in the body to cause nervous
25
system dysfunction and show symptoms. In mild cases, the persons would experience dizziness,
atony, drowsiness, muscle tremor, spasm, miosis, elevated blood pressure, rapid heartbeat, dyspnea,
pulmonary oedema, speech disorders, and even to death in severe cases.
Analysis: This sentence introduced the harm of organic phosphorus to the human body. The
source sentence is difficult to read for its long structure and complicated meaning. From this
sentence, the translator finds that it has three inner meanings, including its function, illness
covering the two cases, and channels. It composes of two parts in the source text. The whole
sentence has three inner meanings, including its function; illness covers the two cases and channels.
This part, “有机磷主要对胆碱酯酶有抑制作” can define the topic of the source text so that the
author applied the literal translation. The next part is the longest, showing the process and results.
So, this part applied the division and literal translation methods and reproduce the conditional
relation. Meanwhile, the translator divided the long sentence into two sentences according to its
inner meaning and relationship in the source text. Therefore, the author accurately reappeared the
whole meaning in the sentence to help facilitate the target readers’ understanding, which led to
realizing the functional equivalence in the inner meaning and the aim of widespread knowledge.
Example 12:
ST: 多环芳烃是一类数量多、种类复杂、分布广、与人的关系密切及对人的健康威胁较
大的化学致癌物质。主要是由各种有机物，如煤、柴油、汽油、木材及香烟的燃烧不完全而
产生的烃的热解产物，也可在生物体内合成。目前已发现的多环芳烃约有 200 多种，其中十
多种有强烈的致癌作用。苯并［a］芘是多环芳烃类化合物中一种主要的食品污染物。
TT: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) are chemical carcinogens with large quantities,
in living organisms. More than 200 PAHs we have been discovered, of which more than 10 have
potent carcinogenic effects, and Benzoapyrene (Bap) is a major food contaminant among PAH
compounds.
Analysis: This source sentence explains its nature, formations, and main compounds of
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH). It consists of four short parts, and the whole sentence is
easy to understand, although with long modifiers in Chinese. However, there are some differences
26
between the two languages. The second and third parts need to be completed in structure to lose
subjects and expression points. Thus, the translator works to change the order in the first and
second parts and add subjects in the second. The third and last part is translated as an attributive
clause through combination translation method to reproduce its meaning and clear logic. Under the
guidance of functional equivalence theory, the translator meets the requirement for the whole
structure and meaning in syntax and keeps the translation plain and simple, scientific and objective
in language.
4.2.2 Translation of Passive Voice

Passive voice is a universal structure for all languages in the world, but the form is different
(Keenan,1985). In the source text, passive voice and non-subject sentences are numerous, which
can effectively take forms of scientific features and subject in emotion and style. In Chinese, the
passive voice sentence is divided into marked passive voice and unmarked passive voice; the first
one has some marked words, such as “被,” “给,” “叫,” and “让”, and the other words
express the overt passive, also called “Bei” sentences. The unmarked passive voice is often
defined as notional sentences for its expression, commonly used in Chinese (Wang Cong, Zhang
Minghui, 2017:36-37).
Moreover, in English, there are more passive-voice sentences. To keep accurate, scientific
meaning and expressions, the overt passive voice sentence is directly translated into the passive
voice sentence. The covert passive voice sentence is translated into different sentence patterns to
convey its passive meaning as the objects of action in the sentence. According to it, the translation
of passive voice sentences into different sentence patterns is usually used in the objects of action
+verb, non-subject sentences, demonstrative pronoun sentences, and appellative sentences to
deliver meaning. Sometimes, it can shift into the relations in the context and correctly convey
meaning and emotions (Si Xianzhu, Ceng Jianping, 2006:87-99).
Example 13:
ST: 沙门氏菌在肉类中不分解蛋白质，不产生靛基质，所以，肉类食品被沙门氏菌污染，
甚至已繁殖到相当严重的程度，通常也没有感官性质的改变。
TT: Salmonella does not decompose proteins in meat and produce indole. In that way, the
meat contaminated with salmonella has multiplied in a considerable severity, so people wouldn’t
27
taste food changes in sensory.

Analysis: Passive voice is used in this sentence. In English, the use of passive voice is more
universal than that in Chinese to show objective fact. The translator used the overt passive voice to
convey information in the target text. The words “被……污染” is translated into “contaminated”
to show passive voice meaning. Such a treatment of the source text into the target text manages to
keep the whole meaning equivalent in sentence.
Example 14:
ST: 食物极易受到黄曲霉素污染，尤其是粮食、油料作物和发酵食品。食物发霉时有一
种黄色或黄绿色的物质，往往就是黄曲霉菌，黄曲霉素对食品原料和成品污染是一个广泛存
在的问题,最易被污染的是油料作物。花生及其加工制品毒素含量最高，其次是大豆、芝麻
和棉籽等。在粮食中玉米和大米污染机会较多。
TT: Food is highly susceptible to aflatoxin contamination, especially grains, oil crops and
fermented food. When food in moldy, there is a yellow or yellow-green substance usually as
Aspergillus flavus. Owing to it, contaminated raw materials and products of food are a great
problem we faced, among of them the most easily contaminated is oil crops. So, the peanuts and
its processed products have the highest toxin, followed by soybeans, sesame seeds and cottonseeds.
There is a greater chance of contamination of maize and rice in grains.
Analysis: This sentence contains four parts and includes overt and covert passive voice. As
for passive voice, the word“受到”is translated into the phrase “be susceptible to” to express the
passive meaning. And the Chinese character“被污染” is translated into “contaminated”. In view
of difference in two languages, the word “污染”is translated into the word “contamination ” to
show the passive voice through shift between overt and covert. The translator also readjusts the
second part in the sentence to keep the whole structure and meaning. In this way, the meaning
equivalence and whole structure can be realized, which can improve the acceptability for target
readers.
Example 15:
ST: 产自广东、广西和福建的甘蔗北运储存数月过冬，由于大量甘蔗在缺乏通风条件的
场所中堆积发热，使甘蔗中携带的节菱孢霉在适宜的温湿度环境下繁殖，产毒，春季出售时
便引起急性食物中毒。
TT: Sugarcane produced in the provinces of Guangdong, Guangxi and Fujian was transported
28
and stored in the north for several months during the winter. When a large number of sugarcanes
accumulated and heated in places lacking ventilation, so that it carried arthrinium and produced
poison in the suitable temperature and humidity, which caused acute food poisoning when sold in
the spring.
Analysis: This sentence covers two passive voices: the first one is covert and the other is
overt. In fact, the character “运储存” includes two verbs “运输” and “储存” that is the expression
features of Chinese: used verbs in series. While translating, the translator should translate its inner
and outer meanings in the source text. This word “运储存” looks like active voice in expression,
but conveys passive voice, which is one of the differences in the voice of two languages. Chinese
tend to use active voice to show passive voice and the English is opposite. Following this, the
translator translates it into English passive voice “transported and stored”. Conversely, the second
word adopted passive word “使” to present passive voice in the target sentence. The voices shift is
more suitable and natural, achieving both the equivalence of meaning and the characteristics of the
target language.
Example 16:
ST: 某些化学污染物能引起生物体细胞的遗传信息和遗传物质发生突变，使分裂后的子
细胞具有新的不同于母细胞的遗传特性。有的化学污染物能通过胎盘进入胎儿体内，引起胎
儿畸形。
TT: Certain chemical pollutants can cause mutations in the genetic information and genetic
material of biological cells, so the dividing daughter cells have new genetic characteristics that
differ from those of the mother cells. Even some chemical pollutants enter the fetus’s placenta,
causing fetal malformations.
Analysis: This sentence is composed of two parts and described the harm of chemical
pollutants to human. It is short and clear, making readers easily understand main idea in this
sentence. In Chinese, the word “使” shows the passive voice as mentioned in the above. However,
this sentence is unusual with the other “Bei” sentences. Reading the whole sentence, the reader can
gain main idea and know its structure and relations. It shows the cause and progressive relations
between two parts. And the translator abandons the symbols of passive voice “使” and translates
the inner structure and meaning. Therefore, the target text reaches the equivalence in the whole
meaning and refined the expression form, and the target readers also have the natural reading
29
experience.
4.2.3 Translation of Non-subject Sentences

As for the non-subject sentences, Chinese is a non-formed language that aims to clearly show
what is subject, so the subject in a sentence can usually be omitted. On the contrary, English is a
form language to pursue the whole structure, and the subject is greatly important. Sometimes, the
English sentence would choose demonstrative pronouns like “it”, “this”, and “that” as subjects to
make its whole structure complete. The subject is the most important in the English sentence
structure. Given that, shifting the patterns of sentences and adding subjects relying on their context
are universal methods while translating (Si Xianzhu, Ceng Jianping, 2006:87-99). Generally
speaking, adding the subjects includes noun words and personal pronouns or shift into passive
voice sentences by applying sentence structure “It is +adj +that” to keep the whole structure and
meaning. Besides, it also can be shifted into imperative sentences with some advice and slogans;
for example, many measures mentioned in the source text can be used.
Example 17:
ST: 为了预防动物性食物中毒,应当注意以下几点：
（1）不食用病死的家禽、家畜；
（2）禽畜等肉类一定要加工熟了再食用，避免生食或食用半生不熟的肉制品；
（3）坚决不食野生动物；
（4）不可随意食用沿海地区捕捞的认识不清或未吃过的鱼类，确认为无毒鱼方可食用。
TT: To prevent animal food poisoning, we should take the following precautions:
(1) Do not eat poultry and domestic animals that have died of disease;
(2) Livestock and other meat must be processed and cooked before eating, and avoid eating
raw food or half-cooked meat products;
(3) Resolutely refuse to eat wild animals;
(4) Do not eat fish caught along the coast that we do not know well or have not eaten before.
Analysis: This sentence presents precautions to prevent animal food poisoning. According to
the features of English, it focuses on form, function and structure (Cheng Hongwei. 2004:50) and
Chinese focuses on its meaning. This requires the translator to make efforts to covey meaning and
refine the structure while translating. So, the meaning and structure would be expressed by adding
30
the subject “We” and shifting the sentence patterns to imperative sentence. As for the source text, it
is a popular science text that delivers information and knowledge for public. Complete structure
and meaning of target text conform to the source text and therefore reach the standard of
equivalence in sentence.
Example 18:
ST: 1973 年，世界卫生组织和联合国粮农组织规定食品中硝酸盐日允许量(ADI)为每千
克体重 0-3.65μg；亚硝酸盐 ADI 值为每千克体重 0-0.13μg。应该防止过多的硝酸盐的吸取，
如果已经吸取了过多的硝酸盐，就应及早从体内去除。
TT: In 1973, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) stipulated that acceptable daily intake (ADI) nitrate in
food should be 0-3.65μg per kilogram of body weight and acceptable daily intake of nitrite should
be 0-0.13μg per kilogram of body weight. Too much nitrate should be prevented, and if it has been
absorbed, people should try to remove it from the human body as soon as possible.
Analysis: After scanning the source text, the translator thinks that it needs to make some
changes during the translation due to the differences between two languages. The main change
needs to made in the structure of sentence “应该防止过多的硝酸盐的吸取，如果已经吸取了过
多的硝酸盐，就应及早从体内去除。”, which has no subject, so the translator needs to find a
suitable subject to make the whole structure complete and logical. The translator adds collective
personal pronoun “people” as the subject to keep the whole structure. In this way, the structure and
meaning in the target text are clear and logic. Meanwhile, the source text covers the covert passive
voice. So, the translator not only added the subject but shifted the voice as its inner meaning in the
second part in this example. It is a highlight to improve the reading experience for the target
readers in meaning and structure, and also meets the requirement of Functional Equivalence
Theory at the syntactic level.
Example 19:
ST: 由青霉、曲霉产生的展青霉素，对实验动物有致癌和致畸作用，主要损害中枢神经
系统，至今尚未发现展青霉素对人直接致病的案例。
TT: Patulin produced by penicillium and aspergillus has carcinogenic and teratogenic effects
on experimental animals, mainly damaging the central nervous system. So far, people have found
no cases of patulin directly causing human diseases.
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Analysis: The source text mainly describes the harm of Patulin. Through reading and analysis,
the translator discovers that the subject is missing structurally in this example. Based on the
characteristics of popular science text and the expression habits of the target language, the
translator has made some adjustments in the structure of the original text. Through the division
translation method, the source text is divided into two parts according to the meaning of the
sentence. The first part explains the experimental result, and the second part points out that patulin
is indirectly pathogenic to the human body. As a result, the translator adopts the literal translation
to translate the first part. In order to maintain the sentence structure and semantic integrity, the
translator uses personal pronouns “people” as the subject of the sentence while translating the
second part. It is consistent with the expression habits of the target readers and helps improve the
reading experience.
Example 20:
ST: 为了有助于加工、包装、运输、储存过程中保持食品的营养成分，增强食品的感官性状，延长
保存时间，适当使用一些食品添加剂是必要的,但所用的量应控制在最低有效水平。
TT: It is necessary to properly use some food additives during the processing, packaging,
transportation, and storage so that it can maintain nutrition, enhance the sensory properties and
extend food storage time. However, the amount used should be controlled at the lowest and most
effective levels.
Analysis: After analyzing the source text, we know that it mainly explains the necessity of
food additives. The meaning of the sentence is complete and clear. However, the purpose and
conditional adverbs are longer in the source text, and the sentence structure is unbalanced and the
subject unclear, which is one of the characteristics of Chinese expression. Therefore, in order to
better reproduce the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts the reverse translation
method to postposition the purpose and the conditional adverb in the translation. At the same time,
in order to achieve the balance of sentence structure, the translator uses the formal subject “it” as
subject of the sentence. In this way, the sentence structure of the target text is complete and the
semantics are clear, which meets the expression habits of the target language and which also meets
the characteristics of popular science text, reaching the sentence equivalence of the two texts.
From the example enumerated above, the translator finds that when translating long and
complicated sentences, passive voice, and non-subject sentences, factors such as translation
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methods and strategies, context, and characteristics of the original text affect the target readers,
need to be taken into account, which is vital to improve the quality of the translation. In practice,
the translator should flexibly use various translation methods to be faithful to the original text and
find the closest and most natural language for the target reader. That is the ultimate pursuit and
lifelong pursuit of translators.
4.3 Functional Equivalence at Textual Level

The text includes discourse and text (Hu Zhuanglin,1994). Text, a semantic unit with overall
significance, is usually defined as a series of consecutive paragraphs or sentences. It expresses the
overall concept, and the components are connected by language to become a semantically coherent
whole and accepted by the recipients of communication (Chen Hongwei, 2004:54). Meanwhile, its
semantic meaning shows in its external unit. Cohesion and coherence are critical factors in text
analysis.
Yang Fengning (2006) said that the text of English and Chinese differs from their expressed
logic, showing linear and spiral thinking, and parataxis is the distinct characteristic of the two
languages. Despite these differences, coherence as a prerequisite is the common ground between
two languages, and cohesion is not. Each part of the text plays greatly important role in content
and meaning. Textual translation is the process of recognition and reorganization in semantics.
However, there are noticeable differences between the source text and the target text. The most
prominent difference is explicit in Chinese and implicit in English. Therefore, the translator needs
to be able to freely transform the differences between the two languages in translation so that the
translation conforms to the expression habits of the target language readers. Qin Hongwu (2010)
he proposed it in his book.
Based on the Functional Equivalence Theory, the solution of cohesion and coherence in the
text is a translated difficulty and challenge for the translator. It is closely related to translation
quality in the given field. It is important for the text translation to realize the maximum
equivalence in the meaning and logic.
4.3.1 Cohesion
According to Halliday and Hasan (2001), there are two ways to realize cohesion in the text:
lexical cohesion and grammatical cohesion. Lexical cohesion refers to reiteration and collocation.
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The lexical cohesion also covers the synonymy and super-ordinate (Yang Fengning,2006:182).
Grammatical cohesion means reference, substitute, ellipsis, and conjunction often found in the text.
Regarding reiteration and collocation, English is more common than Chinese. For example, the
words of ill and disease, begin and start are excellent methods to realize coherence. It focuses on
the coherence between meaning and meaning in the text. Usually, lexical cohesion and
grammatical cohesion are essential processes in text cohesion. Lexical cohesion mainly uses
vocabulary as a bridge to connect sentences and explain the meaning of the entire text. However,
grammatical cohesion conveys textual meaning through grammatical means. Their respective
focuses are different, but their roles are the same. That depends on the context and culture. Both of
them are indispensable to helping understand the text and improve the readers’ experience.
For the difference between the two texts, the text of English tends to combine lexical
cohesion and grammatical cohesion to refine the logic. Moreover, the Chinese text can use
symmetry, primary and secondary relations, sequence, and lists to show the logic and meaning of
each part (Qin Hongwu, 2010:185). The sequence is divided into two categories: temporal and
spatial. It has keywords like “at the beginning of, then, as, meanwhile and at the same time, etc.,”
which usually appear in English. While in the C-E translation, some words show the sequence that
can be added to the target text. The grammatical cohesion is more commonly seen in the source
text. The translator presents examples of grammatical cohesion.
4.3.1.1 Reference
Qin Hongwu (2010) mentioned that the reference has two categories: personal and
demonstrative reference. Demonstrative reference means using the instructions such as this, these,
that, those, adverbs of time and place like now, here, there, and determinative articles to express
the reference relationship. The source text is a popular science text. So, the demonstrative
reference is more suitable in the target text. The translator should understand the meaning and
choose accurate words to show their logic. Two examples are displayed as follows:
Example 21:
ST: 葡萄球菌属中有金黄色葡萄球菌、表皮葡萄球菌和腐生葡萄球菌 3 种,其中金黄色
葡萄球菌在适宜的条件下，可产生肠毒素,肠毒素是单纯蛋白质，由单个无分支的肽链组成，
含有大量的赖氨酸、天冬氨酸和谷氨酸等，肠毒素的相对分子质量为 30000 左右，等电点为
7.0-8.6, 易溶于水 , 难溶于有机溶剂 , 耐热性强 , 一般烹调温度不能将其破坏，必须在
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210℃-248℃下加热 30min 才能使毒性完全消除。

TT: Staphylococcus has three branches, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermis,
and Staphylococcus saprophytes, of which Staphylococcus aureus can produce enterotoxin in a
suitable environment. It is a simple protein composed of a single unbranched peptide chain
containing many lysine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, etc. Its relative molecular mass is about
30,000; the isoelectric point is 7.0-8.6, featuring soluble in water and insoluble in organic solvents
and highly heat-resistant. So, the general cooking temperature cannot remove its toxicity. Only
heated at 210℃-248℃ can eliminate for 30 min.
Analysis“
: 肠毒素”appears three times in the source text, showing the feature of Chinese that
reuse one word to show cohesion. However, the English is opposite and generally adopts the
pronoun to refers repetitive constituent in a sentence or text. In this way, not only can the translator
avoid the repetition in wording and make the structure compact but also can find out the replaced
sentence’s constituents according to the context and text. So, the translator chooses the word “it” to
connect each part. Besides, in the part of source text“肠毒素的相对分子质量为 30000 左右，等
电点为 7.0-8.6,易溶于水,难溶于有机溶剂,耐热性强,一般烹调温度不能将其破坏，必须在
210℃-248℃下加热 30min 才能使毒性完全消除”, the reference is also adopted to show the
logic of the bold words. On the whole, the target text has realized the equivalence in the meaning
and logic by demonstrative reference
Example 22:
ST: 农药的使用对农业的增产起到积极作用,但广泛大量使用也造成了对粮食的污染。
我们在农田、菜田或是果树、草地、森林上喷洒了大量药物，其目的是防止昆虫对这些植物
的破坏;另一方面，药物也杀死了益虫、益鸟，造成了土壤、植物河流的破坏及对人体和禽
兽等的污染、中毒，甚至死亡。长期使用农药，也使害虫增强了耐药性，我们又不得不增大
用药量，结果是农作物也大量吸收了这些农药,人们长期食用这种严重污染的粮食，严重影
响健康。
TT: Pesticides play a positive role in higher agricultural yields, but extensive use also causes
food pollution. Initially, we sprayed many pesticides on farmland, vegetable fields or fruit trees,
grassland, and forests to prevent some insects from damaging them. However, pesticides have also
killed beneficial insects and birds and caused damage to soil, plants, and rivers, bringing pollution,
poisoning, and even death to humans, animals, etc. Long-term use of pesticides also makes pests
35
stronger and more resistant, and we only have to increase the amounts of pesticides. As a result,
crops have absorbed a large number of these pesticides, and people have ingested the seriously
polluted grain products for a long time, which greatly affects our health.
Analysis: This text expounds on the causal relationship between human and pesticides.
Specifically, it narrates the revolution and side effect between human and agriculture. The word
“大量” is translated into different expressions in the target text, “ many “ , “the amounts of” and “a
large number of ” respectively in the target text. That is to say, the three expressions only deliver
the one meaning for the distinct features in the two languages. It is coherence that has great effect
on the expressed message. In addition, “这些植物” and “这些农药” are translated into “ them
“ and “that” in translation, which actually means the content according to the context, that is, “这
些植物” is equal to “农田、菜田或是果树、草地、森林”. Personal pronouns in reference are quite
common in English expression that helps decrease the losing of meaning and structure during the
translation and accurately popularized the knowledge for readers. The use of these pronouns serves
the function of information transmission and expression, and attains the meaning equivalence in
the text.
4.3.1.2 Ellipsis
Ellipsis refers to omitting a component in the language structure. It is a rhetorical way to
avoid repetition and make expression concise and tight, And it is also an essential means of textual
cohesion. Comparatively, there are more ellipsis phenomena in English than in Chinese.
Morphological and formal markers mostly accompany English ellipsis (Yang Fengning, 2006:185).
Qin Hongwu (2010) put forward the ellipsis has three categories that are nominal, verbal, and
minor sentences. In the source text, the ellipsis of nominal is commonly used. When translated, the
translator judges which one word is omitted as its context. The example presents as follows:
Example 23:
ST: 食物中毒分为致病性化学食物中毒、有毒的动植物中毒、环境污染的食物中毒、细
菌等微生物污染食物中毒四种。
TT: Food poisoning can be divided into four types, which are pathogenic chemicals, toxic
animals and plants, environmentally contaminated, bacteria and the other microbial contamination.
Analysis: This text, although short and simple, retains the features of the Chinese text,
introducing the types of food poisoning. The word “中毒”appears five times in the given theme.
36
The Chinese like to apply notional words to express what they want to show. The word “中毒” is
used one more time in this text. Due to the expression difference between both Chinese and
English, the meaning of source text should avoid repeating and bringing misunderstanding for
readers. The translator adopts ellipsis in the target text, and meanwhile, translated “ 等 ” into the
“other microbial contamination”, thus enhancing the coherence in the covert meaning that meets
the requirement of textual equivalence.
Example 24:
ST: 2500 年前，孔子就有“五不食”原则：“食殖而竭、鱼馁而肉败，不食。色恶、不
食。臭恶、不食。失饪、不食。才时、不食。”
TT: Two thousand and five hundred years ago, Confucius, a famous sage in China, had
proposed the principle of Five not-eating, which means if you found deteriorated grain, spoiled
fish and meat, do not eat, a bad taste and smelly food, a terrible cook and non-seasonal food all do
not eat.
Analysis: The source text is the principles regarding food health in China. It is a classical
Chinese, which needs the translator to accurately understand the meaning while translating. The
translator needs to adopt annotations and ellipsis to reproduce the source text’s meaning.
“Confucius” is a culturally loaded-word, the translator added his status based on the text.
According to the different expression habits of the two languages, the translator retains the theme
word “Five Not-eating” in the source text for translation. In addition, in order to help the target
readers better understand the source text, the translator provides detailed explanations of the five
situations mentioned in this sentence. That not only achieves the transmission of the original
meaning of the source text but also conforms to the expression habits of the target language,
achieving the transformation of the text’s meaning.
4.3.1.3 Conjunction
Conjunction is a means of expressing various logical relationships in the text, and the main
ways of it are conjunction, conjunctive adverbs, and prepositional phrase. It is also divided into
four types as the semantic relation in the text. The temporal and causal relations are relatively
common in the source text (Yang Fengning, 2006,185). In contrast, in translating, the translator
firstly analyzes the structure and the relation in the text.
Example 25:
37
ST: 患者首先感到喉头强烈刺激及灼热感，严重者可出现便血、昏迷、血压下降，最后
因肝、肾、心力衰竭而死亡。蓖麻毒素的毒性是神经毒剂的 385 倍，氰化物的 6000 倍，致
死量为 70-100μg,8 粒篦麻子就可杀死一个成年人,2-6 粒可使儿童丧命。一旦篦麻毒素混入食
物或饮水中可能毁掉一个社区，而且目前还没有特效救治手段,这也是一些恐怖组织和极端
分子关注的主要有毒物质。
TT: Patients initially feel an intense stimulation of the larynx and a burning sensation; in
severe cases, there can be hemifacial, coma, drop in blood pressure, and due to liver, kidney, and
heart failure, eventually to death. It is 385 times more toxic than a nerve agent and 6,000 times
more toxic than cyanide; a 70-100 ㎍ can be fatal. So, ricin can kill an adult with as few as eight
seeds and a child with two to six. If mixed with food or drinking water, it can devastate a
community, and there is no specific cure for it. That also triggered a major concern for some
terrorist groups and extremists.
Analysis: This text is composed of three parts. Tactics are used to achieve cohesion. The bold
words “首先”, “最后”, “一旦”, “而且” and “也” all show the temporal sequence. The translator
adopts the methods of literal translation to deliver the meaning as the symptoms of patient in the
source text. Besides, the source text covers reference, ellipsis and conjunction. As for the
coherence, reiteration acts on the avoiding repeating in the word. The author firstly solved the
conjunction relation and translated them into “initially”, “eventually”, “ so ” , “ and ” , “ also ”
respectively, which helps to achieve cohesion and convey the inner and outer meaning in textual
equivalence.
Example 26:
ST: 变质甘蔗中毒是由一种叫做节菱孢霉的真菌所产生的毒素（3-硝基丙酸）而引起的
损害中枢神经系统的急性食物中毒症。多发于我国北部地区的初春（2-4 月）季节。产自广
东、广西和福建的甘蔗北运储存数月过冬，由于大量甘蔗在缺乏通风条件的场所中堆积发热，
使甘蔗中携带的节菱孢霉在适宜的温湿度环境下繁殖，产毒，春季出售时便引起急性食物中
毒。
TT: Metamorphic sugarcane poisoning is an acute food poisoning that damages the central
nervous system caused by a toxin (3-nitro propionic acid) produced by a fungu called Arthrinium.
It often occurs in early spring (February-April) in northern China. For the sugarcane produced in
the Guangdong, Guangxi, and Fujian provinces was transported and stored in the north for several
38
months during the winter. When a large of sugarcanes accumulated and heated in places lacking
ventilation, it carried Arthrinium and produced poison in the suitable temperature and humidity,
which caused acute food poisoning when sold in the spring.
Analysis: In translating the meaning in Chinese into English, some changes need to be made
in structure and meaning in order to meet the expression habits of the target readers. Firstly, the
second part of the source text has no subject, covering the conjunctive relationship in the implicit
meaning. Secondly, the author found a suitable subject from the context. Thus, the translator
chooses the pronoun “it” from the first part, “Metamorphic sugarcane poisoning”, as a subject to
refine the structure linking the meaning and structure. The second part mainly explains the reason
for metamorphic sugarcane poisoning, and the author added the word “so that” joining the
components. Such a translation can render the cohesion in the meaning overt. And the textual
equivalence possible as well.
From the examples above, cohesion is a visible network that works on the lexical and
grammar in text. Each part of the text has a certain relationship. That is to say, textual cohesion is a
necessary work in translation, and it largely relies on grammatical and lexical devices to achieve
internal and external logic.
4.3.2 Coherence
Coherence refers to the semantic connection cost generated through logical reasoning based
on a shared understanding of the situation between the sender and receiver of a message. This is
the intangible network of rhetoric. Cohesion is an important feature of paragraphs and discourse,
and semantic coherence is an important indicator of text. In English, multiple cohesive devices
should be tested to achieve coherence in the text. However, this is different from Chinese texts. As
long as the meaning is coherent, it does not matter whether the text appears to be connected to the
meaning (with conjunctions) on the surface. Cohesion is the requisites to reach coherence, and
coherence sometimes shows text logic by itself. There have examples to show its independence.
Example 27:
ST: 包装材料中化学物质的转移成为污染食品的一个来源。塑料广泛用作食物的包装材
料，在塑料的制造中,往往要加入有机过氧化物或金属盐，作为引发聚合反应的催化剂。
TT: Chemicals in packaging materials transfer are a source of contaminated food. Plastics are
39
widely used as food packaging materials in the society. Organic peroxides or metal salts are
usually added as catalysts to trigger polymerization in manufacturing plastics.
Example 28:
ST: 细菌性食物中毒多发生在气候炎热的季节，一方面由于气温高，适合细菌的生长繁
殖，另一方面，人体肠道的防御机能在夏季下降，容易患病。
TT: Bacterial food poisoning often occurs during hot weather seasons. On the one hand, due
to high temperatures, it is suitable for the growth and reproduction of bacteria. On the other hand,
the defense function of the human gut decreases in summer, making it easy to get sick.
Analysis: The first source text conveys the meaning according to general and detailed logic,
and the second source text conveys the meaning according to results and reasons in the logic. In
the source texts, each part is independent and connected and has its significance. It does not need
grammatical and lexical devices to present logic between them. The meaning expressed is whole
and clear in the above source texts. This is where the text’s coherence plays a role in the internal
logic. If cohesion is visible and effective in the text, the coherence is invisible and effective. The
translated text achieves equivalence in meaning and logic through coherence, in line with the
functional equivalence theory. The target readers also grasp its clear meaning and logic under the
guidance of functional equivalence.
In a word, coherence and cohesion are essential factors in discourse analysis. The former is
based on context, while the latter relies on structure to convey meaning. Through examples, the
author lists commonly used methods such as references, ellipsis, and conjunctions in translation. In
most cases, coherence is easily overlooked in translation. Most importantly, they are usually
committed to conveying the text’s whole meaning, so the translator should maintain keen insight
and a meticulous attitude to translating meaning precisely.
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Chapter 5 Conclusion
This report is a study on the C-E translation of the chemical text related to human health and
food safety based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. It focuses on analysis of typical cases at
the lexical, syntactic, and textual levels, following the minimum and maximum equivalence
principle to convey the meaning accurately. In this chapter, the author of this report summarizes
the findings and limitations of the translation practice and proposes some suggestions for future
translation and studies.
5.1 Major Findings of the Translation Practice

Through this experience, the author retrospected what she gained, which can be divided into
four aspects.
As for the translator, this practice gave a meaningful lesson in many aspects. Firstly, the
translator should learn more about related professional knowledge as much as possible. The source
text is a popular science text, whose meaning and expression are simple and lucid, but its
terminologies are numerous. Therefore, appropriate and sufficient knowledge related to chemistry,
health and food is required, which can lead to an effect of “Yield twice the result with half the
effort”. Moreover, this translation practice helps improve the translator’s mastery of functional
equivalence theory as well as writing ability and translation ability in particular.
The original text involves numerous and complex professional terms in different fields.
Accurately reproducing the semantic meaning of terms is the key to achieving lexical equivalence.
The translator has access to professional websites, which helps effectively achieve the semantic
equivalence of terminology for translating terminology. At the same time, the translator
summarized translation methods based on the vocabulary features of the source text. Literal
translation methods are generally used for translating abbreviations and conventional vocabulary,
while chemical terms are generally related to the prefix and suffixes of words. Therefore,
word-formation method is often employed for translating professional terms to reproduce their
meaning. Translating polysemy needs to consult a large of information and grasp the subtle
differences between them, and select the appropriate words based on the context. The accuracy of
41
translation terms is an important task to ensure the accuracy of the translation.

The source text has many long and complicated sentences, and the language is objective and
accurate. The translator accurately conveys sentence meanings by restructuring its structure, and
adopting various translation methods, such division, combination, and the like based on the
characteristics of the original sentence and the differences between the two languages during
translation. For example, the translator adds a suitable subject in the non-subject sentence
according to the context that shows the hypotaxis of English. In this translation practice, the
translator is more familiar with the cohesion and coherence of the text and can also freely use it
and reproduce meaning, like conjunction, reference, and ellipsis.
Through this practice, the translator has gained a profound understanding on the
combination of guiding theory and case studies. The selection of cases should be objective and
meaningful for analysis at first. The translator secondly should analyze the case focusing on its
translation difficulties and internal logic. For example, the translator mostly chooses the subject
“people” instead of “we” while translating non-subject sentences. The word “people” can better
highlight the objectivity of features and be more in line with the source text. Finally, the translator
combines translation methods in analysis to balance the theory and application and achieve
theoretical guidance in practice. The results of this translation practice have contributed
significantly to improving the translator’s comprehensive abilities, making it a highly profitable
practice.
5.2 Limitations of the Translation Practice

The source text is a popular science text about chemistry and health. The translator needs to
have a broad knowledge of chemistry before translation. It is necessary to grasp and confirm the
text’s professional vocabulary and translation accuracy. However, the translator cannot sometimes
select the accurate ones from the informal and professional names in the text due to her lack of
professional knowledge, which may lead to inaccurate translation of technical terms or words.
Translation is not a simple conversion between two languages but a cultural activity that
reproduces the emotions and meanings of the source language in another language. That requires a
higher standard of the translator’s bilingual and expression abilities. The translator found that it
still needs to improve language expression skills in practice. Based on the differences between the
42
two languages, the translator should flexibly transform the differences in practice and reproduce
the meaning of the source language. In addition, the objective standardization of translation and
accuracy of language also put forward requirements for the translator, which requires further
improvement in continuous practice.
Finally, the objectification of evaluation criteria is a critical factor in controlling the quality of
translation. Different people have different concerns about the translation. The translator’s
evaluation of translation quality may be subjective to some extent, which may lead to undesired
results in translation, so the translator should comprehensively evaluate it during proofreading and
make a good translation by continuously revising and polishing the translation.
5.3 Suggestions for the Future Practice

When it comes to the suggestions after finishing this report, the author has some suggestions
to make. Firstly, the standards for evaluating translation quality are difficult to determine. However,
as demonstrated in the translation practice, the most suitable one is for the translator to show its
closest and natural meaning as soon as possible when translating. Evaluating the quality of
translation is challenging and difficult for translators. So, a scientific and appropriate standard is
needed and indispensable now.
Moreover, the case study of the translation of popular science texts in chemistry is made less
than of other texts. There is more room for study on the translation of the popular chemical science
text, since it has many unique features of its own, whether of lexical, syntactic or textual levels. As
a translator, he or she needs to have a good command of both specialized knowledge related to
chemistry and knowledge connected with translation studies and translation theories in particular,
which can facilitate the translator’s understanding of the source text and his or her flexible use of
various translation methods, depending on different contexts, thus producing an excellent
translation.
43
44
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Appendices
Appendices
Appendix Ⅰ Source Text

第 7 章食物的污染与毒性
食物污染造成的疾病是世界上最广泛的卫生问题。有研究资料表明,疾病与死亡的重要
原因中至少有 1/3 与食源性疾病有关。此外，心血管疾病、糖尿病和某些肿瘤等也与饮食有
关,人类癌症患者 65%以上是由食物的污染所致。
在人类文明早期,不同地区和民族都以长期生活经验为基础，在不同程度上形成了有关
饮食卫生和安全的禁忌禁规。2500 年前，孔子就有“五不食”原则：
“食殖而竭、鱼馁而肉
败，不食。色恶、不食。臭恶、不食。失饪、不食。才时、不食。”这是我国较早的有关食
物安全性的论述。
环境毒物进入人体的主要途径有饮食、呼吸和皮肤。俗话说“病从口入”，进食了被病
菌、农药、化肥或重金属等污染的食物，人体不知不觉摄入这些有毒物质，容易引发急性或
慢性的食物中毒。人的饮食习惯、食品的卫生安全与食源性疾病的发生或后果密切相关。食
物中毒是指随食品摄入有毒有害物质或者把有毒有害物质当作食品摄入后出现的非传染性
的急性、亚急性疾病。
7. 1 食物中毒
食品危害的潜在来源可分为三类。
内源性危害
内源性危害是指食品中天然存在的有毒有害成分，如河豚毒素等；存在于食品中的有生
理作用的成分如蛋白酶抑制剂；食物中的营养不平衡等。
外源性危害
外源性危害包括食品中的微生物污染，如经口传染的病菌（病毒）、细菌毒素、霉菌毒
素，食品添加剂如亚硝酸盐。意外进入食品的化学物质，如残留农药、烟熏食品中的多环芳
烃。其他污染物，如重金属、多氯联苯等。
诱发性危害
食品加工、储藏过程中诱发食品或生物体内生成有害物质，如油脂氧化、亚硝酸盐与胺
或酰胺反应生成 N-亚硝基化合物等。细菌产生的外毒素为蛋白质毒素，对人的危害最大，
如肉毒毒素、破伤风毒素和志贺氏痢疾毒素，它们对人的注射致死剂量都在微克级以下。
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食物中毒分为致病性化学食物中毒、有毒的动植物中毒、环境污染的食物中毒、细菌等
微生物污染食物中毒四种。
食物中毒的特点是潜伏期短，食用某种食物后突然发病，常伴有呕吐、头痛、腹泻等肠
胃炎的病症，严重时会出现昏迷、休克，甚至死亡。
食品中微生物的污染所引起的食物中毒是食品安全中最重要的公共卫生问题。微生物性
食物中毒居其他各类食物中毒之首，最常见的是被致病性细菌或细菌产生的毒素所污染的食
品引起的急性细菌性食物中毒，与不同区域人群的饮食习惯有密切关系。例如，美国多食肉、
蛋和糕点等，葡萄球菌食物中毒最多；日本喜食生鱼片，副溶血性弧菌食物中毒最多;我国
食用畜禽肉、禽蛋类较多，以沙门氏菌食物中毒最多。
生物毒素按其化学组成分为蛋白毒素和非蛋白毒素，化学结构包括简单的小分子化合物、
结构复杂的有机化合物乃至大分子蛋白质等几乎所有化学结构类型。
7.2 细菌及其毒素
自然界中对动物或植物有病害的微生物称为病原微生物，简称病原菌或致病菌。自然界
中还有大量的、非致病的腐生微生物，其中部分腐生微生物在一定的条件下可以引起食物变
质,有些还能产生对人体有毒的物质。人误食含有腐生微生物的食物或微生物毒素的食物后,
就会发生不同程度的中毒。食物中能产生毒素的微生物多为细菌和霉菌。
细菌性食物中毒是最常见的一类食物中毒。细菌是微生物中的一大类群，大小约数微米，
可呈球形、杆形、弧形或螺旋形,二分裂为其主要繁殖方式。细菌分有益菌群和有害菌群。
细菌对环境适应性很强，有的菌种可在极低温度（如-18°C）条件下生存和活动,有的则可在
极高温度（100°C 以上）甚至在饱和食盐水中生活。
细菌性食物中毒多发生在气候炎热的季节，一方面由于气温高，适合细菌的生长繁殖，
另一方面，人体肠道的防御机能在夏季下降，容易患病。细菌性食物中毒发病率高，除椰毒
假单胞菌和肉毒中毒以外，病死率较低，恢复快，一般不会留下后遗症,但年长、体弱者如
抢救不及时也可能造成死亡。食物中毒主要由病原体及其有毒代谢产物所引起，各类食品所
携带的病原体主要有以下几种。
沙门氏菌:生肉类、家禽、牛奶、鸡蛋；
产气荚膜杆菌:生肉类、家禽、蔬菜、干燥食品、香料；
葡萄球菌:生牛奶、剩米饭等；
肉毒杆菌:生或加热不彻底的鱼类、海味、熟肉及某些蔬菜；
蜡样芽孢杆菌:谷类、肉类制品、蔬菜、干燥食品、香料；
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Appendices
副溶血弧菌:海产品，如鱼、对虾、蟹、贝壳类及其他；
大肠杆菌:生肉类、家禽、蔬菜、牛奶、乳制品；
弯曲菌:生牛奶、禽类。
细菌毒素中最主要的是沙门氏菌毒素、葡萄球菌肠毒素及肉毒杆菌毒素。
7.2.1 沙门氏菌毒素
沙门氏菌属的种类繁多，引起食物中毒的最常见的有鼠伤寒沙门氏菌、肠炎沙门氏菌、
猪霍乱沙门氏菌、丙型副伤寒沙门氏菌等。沙门氏菌不产生外毒素，但有毒性较强的内毒素。
由沙门氏菌引起的食物中毒一般都是食入大量的病菌引起的,食入的活菌数量越多，发生中
毒的机会就越大。沙门氏菌食物中毒是属于感染性食物中毒，主要临床症状为急性胃肠炎症
状，如呕吐、腹泻、腹痛等和由毒素引起的中枢神经系统症状，如头痛、体温增高等。该病
的潜伏期为 12-36h,短者 6h,长者为 48-72h。沙门氏菌食物中毒发病率高，潜伏期短,但死亡
不多见，近年来病死率为 0.3%-0.5%。
沙门氏菌食物中毒，大多发生在 5-10 月，以 7-9 月最多。引起中毒的多数是动物性食品，
特别是肉类（如病死牲畜肉、酱肉、熟肉脏等），也可由鱼类、家禽类和蛋类食品引起，由
植物性食品引起者很少。沙门氏菌在肉类中不分解蛋白质，不产生靛基质，所以，肉类食品
被沙门氏菌污染，甚至已繁殖到相当严重的程度，通常也没有感官性质的改变。因此，对储
存较久的肉类，即使没有腐败变质，也应注意彻底加热灭菌。
7.2.2 葡萄球菌肠毒素
葡萄球菌属中有金黄色葡萄球菌、表皮葡萄球菌和腐生葡萄球菌 3 种,其中金黄色葡萄球
菌在适宜的条件下，可产生肠毒素,肠毒素是单纯蛋白质，由单个无分支的肽链组成，含有
大量的赖氨酸、天冬氨酸和谷氨酸等，肠毒素的相对分子质量为 30000 左右，等电点为 7.0-8.6,
易溶于水,难溶于有机溶剂,耐热性强,一般烹调温度不能将其破坏，必须在 210℃-248℃下加
热 30min 才能使毒性完全消除。
金黄色葡萄球菌引起食物中毒的主要症状是急性胃肠炎，如恶心、呕吐、腹泻、腹痛等，
潜伏期多为 2-5h,较短的仅 40min,病程大约几十个小时即可恢复。适宜于金黄色葡萄球菌繁
殖和产生肠毒素的食品，主要是乳和乳制品、腌制肉、鸡蛋及含有淀粉的食品等。虽然已污
染的食品经过消毒，葡萄球菌的活菌体可以被杀死,但不能破坏其毒素，这是应注意的。
7.2.3 肉毒杆菌毒素
肉毒杆菌毒素对人和动物具有较强的毒性，由肉毒梭菌产生，它是一种强烈的神经毒
素,0.01mg 便可使人致死，病死率约为 30%-80%,中毒的潜伏期一般为 6-36h,长者可达 8-10
53
天。潜伏期越短，病情越重。肉毒杆菌中毒的最初症状是恶心,呕吐等，严重者呼吸麻痹而
死亡，死亡大多在发病后 3-7 天内发生。
肉毒梭菌芽孢能耐较高温度，但肉毒毒素对热极不稳定，在 80℃加热 30 min,或在 100℃
加热 10-20 min 即可破坏毒素。我国由肉毒毒素引起中毒的食品中有 90%以上是植物性食物，
主要有豆酱、臭豆腐、豆豉等。这些发酵食品如果带有肉毒梭菌,发酵过程常在缺氧条件下
进行，温度较高，为肉毒梭菌的繁殖提供条件。
7.3 真菌污染及真菌毒素中毒
真菌是原生生物菌类中的一大类,能使人或牲畜感染致病的真菌称为病原真菌，能引起
人畜中毒的真菌毒性代谢产物称为真菌毒素。
18 世纪初，人类发现霉变的谷物可以引起人的食物中毒。1960 年,在英国 10 万只火鸡
中毒死亡事件中发现了黄曲霉毒素，此后又陆续发现了 200 多种真菌毒素。人或动物摄入被
毒素污染的食品或饲料后可发生急性真菌毒素中毒。某些真菌毒素少量、长期、持续地被摄
入,还可引起人或动物的慢性中毒或者癌症。
真菌毒素中毒有如下特点:①食用了被霉菌污染的食品;②一般的烹调方法,加热处理不
能将食物中的毒素破坏或去除;③没有传染性和免疫性;④有明显的季节性和地区性。
7.3.1 黄曲霉毒素中毒
目前已经知道的霉菌毒素约有 200 种，黄曲霉素只是其中的一种。黄曲霉菌中有 60%能
产生毒素。黄曲霉素是迄今知道的最强的化学致癌物质，它诱发肝癌的能力比二甲基亚硝胺
大 75 倍,它的毒性比敌敌畏大 100 倍、比砒霜大 68 倍、比氰化钾大 10 倍。黄曲霉素主要引
发肝癌、胃癌、肾癌、直肠癌及乳腺、卵巢、小肠等部位的肿瘤。
黄曲霉素是黄曲霉和寄生霉菌株所产生的毒性代谢产物。食物极易受到黄曲霉素污染，
尤其是粮食、油料作物和发酵食品。食物发霉时有一种黄色或黄绿色的物质，往往就是黄曲
霉菌，黄曲霉素对食品原料和成品污染是一个广泛存在的问题,最易被污染的是油料作物。
花生及其加工制品毒素含量最高，其次是大豆、芝麻和棉籽等。在粮食中玉米和大米污染机
会较多。
黄曲霉素在中性和酸性条件下比较稳定，耐热，沸水煮 2h 只破坏 20%,要达到 280℃才
发生裂解。预防中毒的措施最好是妥善保存粮食，防止霉变，不吃霉变食物。
在天然污染的食品中以黄曲霉毒素 B1 最多见，毒性和致癌性最强。黄曲霉毒素的急性毒
性很强，可引起急性中毒性肝炎,持续摄入还可造成慢性中毒，致肝肿大、肝细胞重度脂肪
病变并发生肝硬化。
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Appendices
7.3.2 麦角中毒
麦角形状似动物的角，世界范围内被该菌寄生的植物达 600 多种，是小麦、大麦、黑麦、
大米、小米、玉米、高粱和燕麦等主要谷物的重要病害。其中黑麦角是侵袭谷类作物引起麦
角病的主要寄生真菌，人畜误食麦角污染的粮草后会引起麦角中毒症。
食用含 1%以上麦角的粮食即可引起中毒,含量达 7%即可引起致命性中毒。
7.3.3 变质甘蔗中毒
变质甘蔗中毒是由一种叫做节菱孢霉的真菌所产生的毒素（3-硝基丙酸）而引起的损害
中枢神经系统的急性食物中毒症。多发于我国北部地区的初春（2-4 月）季节。产自广东、
广西和福建的甘蔗北运储存数月过冬，由于大量甘蔗在缺乏通风条件的场所中堆积发热，使
甘蔗中携带的节菱孢霉在适宜的温湿度环境下繁殖，产毒，春季出售时便引起急性食物中毒。
变质甘蔗中毒发病急,潜伏期最短的只有 10min.受害者大名为儿童。中毒症状最初为头
晕、呕吐、视力障碍，进而眼球偏向斜视、阵发性抽搐、四肢强直、屈曲、内旋、手呈鸡爪
状、昏迷至死亡，脑电图星弥散性变化，5%-10%的患儿留下终生残疾的后遗症。
7.3.4 水果中的展青霉素
水果含有 80%以上的水分,PH 一般在 4.5 以下，属酸性食品，适宜多种霉菌和酵母的生
长。霉菌侵染鲜果后,可使果皮软化，形成病斑、下陷、果肉软腐等。某些霉菌可利用鲜果
肉质的营养繁殖并产生毒素。1kg 腐烂苹果的原汁中含有将近 1mg 的展青霉素，在距离腐烂
部分 1cm 处的正常果肉中仍可检出毒素。
由青霉、曲霉产生的展青霉素，对实验动物有致癌和致畸作用，主要损害中枢神经系统，
至今尚未发现展青霉素对人直接致病的案例。
7.3.5 预防微生物性食物中毒
导致食物中毒发生的原因往往与食物保存温度、时间、操作污染和个人卫生等密切相关。
世界卫生组织针对以上可控因素和某些国家成功的实验，提出了安全加工食品的 10 项要点：
(1) 现做现吃，不要久放；
(2) 家禽、肉类和牛奶等食品必须煮熟才能食用,生食易带来可诱发疾病的病原体；
(3) 选择已加工处理过的食品；
(4) 熟食如果需要存放 4-5h,应在高温或低温的条件下保存；
(5) 存放过的熟食必须重新加热才能食用；
(6) 避免生熟食品互相接触,会使煮熟的食品重新带菌；
(7) 保持厨房清洁，确保烹饪用具、刀叉等餐具干净；
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(8) 烹调食物前手要洗干净；
(9) 避免昆虫、兔、鼠和其他动物接触食品；
(10) 保证饮用水和烹饪用水清洁，将水煮沸或进行消毒处理。
7.4 植物性食物中的毒素
自然界植物有 30 多万种，用作人类食用的不过数百种。我国植物种类丰富，有毒植物
有 1300 多种，分别属于 140 个科。
虽然食物、药物、毒物是 3 种完全不同的概念，但是，许多有毒植物由于具有强烈的生
物活性，而将其作为药物、杀虫剂、灭菌剂等使用。从化学的概念上来说，药物和毒物的区
别主要是在“量”的概念上。有时有毒成分在植物不同部位的含量不同，当食用其无毒部位
则为食用植物，当利用其有毒部位时则为药用植物或有毒植物。其中部分植物本身就有很强
的毒性，如果误食会引发食物中毒，有些是因食入未除掉有毒成分的某些植物引起食物中毒。
根据有毒植物中所含有毒物质的性质,大致将植物毒素分为如下几类。
1. 生物碱类毒素
生物碱是一类含氮有机化合物，大多数生物碱为无色结晶型固体，具有苦味和辛辣（区
别于气味的辣）词汇分析不溶或难溶于水，可溶于有机溶剂。生物碱与酸结合生成的盐类则
易溶于水而难溶于有机溶剂。
含有生物碱的有毒植物主要有曼陀罗、红颠、发芽马铃薯、毒芹、毒蘑等。此类植物所
含生物碱对人体有毒，主要作用于中枢神经系统及植物神经系统，中毒者大多表现为神经系
统功能紊乱。
2. 氰苷类毒素
氰苷分子中含有氰,其特点是水解后可以生成氢氰酸。此类毒素存在于许多可食植物果
核中,如木薯、杏仁、桃仁、李子仁、樱桃仁、杨梅仁、亚麻仁等。它们在口腔、食道、胃
和肠中水解产生氢氰酸。人体吸收氢氰酸后,氰离子与细胞色素氧化酶中的铁结合,阻止细胞
色素氧化酶递氧,抑制细胞的正常呼吸,导致组织缺氧，体内 CO 和乳酸量增高，机体陷入内
窒息状态。同氢氰酸还能作用于呼吸中枢及血管运动中枢，使之麻痹,最后导致死亡。
3. 皂苷类毒素
皂苷又称碱皂体或皂素，其水溶液经振荡后如肥皂液一样起泡，故称之为皂苷。皂苷多
为白色无定形粉末，也有结晶型化合物，相对分子质量较大，不溶于苯、醚、氯仿等有机溶
剂，而溶于水。此类毒素多见于豆科植物,如皂角荚和肥皂荚等，秋季的四季豆也多含这类
毒素。这种毒素有溶血作用,对胃肠有刺激作用,并影响中枢神经系统，先兴奋后麻痹呼吸中
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Appendices
枢直至死亡。
4. 蛋白类毒素
有些植物的种子中含有毒蛋白，经榨油后存留于油渣中，例如，篦麻子、巴豆、相思豆
等。篦麻子中的有毒成分主要是篦麻毒素，含量为 2.8%-3.0%。篦麻毒素是最毒的植物毒素，
能被高温破坏，煮沸 2h 以上就可消除毒性。蓖麻毒素纯品是无色无味结晶，对热、酸、碱
稳定。蓖麻毒素中毒的潜伏期较长，一般为 1-3 天，多在食后 18-24h 发病。患者首先感到喉
头强烈刺激及灼热感，严重者可出现便血、昏迷、血压下降，最后因肝、肾、心力衰竭而死
亡。蓖麻毒素的毒性是神经毒剂的 385 倍，氰化物的 6000 倍，致死量为 70-100μg,8 粒篦麻
子就可杀死一个成年人,2-6 粒可使儿童丧命。一旦篦麻毒素混入食物或饮水中可能毁掉一个
社区，而且目前还没有特效救治手段,这也是一些恐怖组织和极端分子关注的主要有毒物质。
篦麻毒素曾多次用于国际间谍活动，如在 1978 年发生于伦敦的著名“马尔可夫毒伞案”中，
叛逃到英国的保加利亚特工被前苏联特制的装有篦麻毒素的毒伞毒杀。美国疾病控制中心把
蔥麻毒素列为中度威胁的生物毒素武器。
巴豆中的有毒成分主要是巴豆素，它是一种毒性球蛋白，对胃肠黏膜具有强烈的刺激、
腐蚀作用，可引起恶心、呕吐与腹痛。巴豆毒素耐热性差，遇热后即失去毒性。服巴豆油
1/4 滴即有强烈的腹泻，内服 20 滴即可致死。
相思豆的叶、根和种子均含有毒素，以种子最毒。种子含相思子毒蛋白（红豆毒素），
这种毒蛋白在非常低的浓度（1:1000000）时即可使细胞发生凝聚反应。中毒后的症状为恶
心、呕吐、肠绞痛,严重者会昏迷、呼吸与循环衰竭及急性肾功能衰竭而致死。
5. 亚硝酸盐
某些蔬菜如小白菜、菠菜、韭菜及甜菜叶中含有较多的硝酸盐，在一定的条件下，可以
还原成亚硝酸盐。亚硝酸盐能使血液中正常的低铁血红蛋白转变成高铁血红蛋白，使血液内
的高铁血红蛋白大大增加，形成高铁血红蛋白症。高铁血红蛋白不仅失去携带氧的功能，而
且还能阻止正常血红蛋白的释放功能，因而出现组织缺氧现象，轻者会引起呼吸困难、循环
衰竭、昏迷等，重者死亡。
除上述几种毒素外，表 7-1 列出了其他一些有毒植物。
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表 7-1 其他有毒植物
中毒名称中毒成分中毒症状预防措施

龙葵素：土豆龙葵碱对胃肠道黏膜有较强的刺激作 ①储藏在低温、无直射阳光的地方或用沙
发芽的土豆中一般春季芽，用对呼吸中枢有麻痹作用，并能引起土埋起来，防止生芽。
毒其幼芽及芽眼脑水肿、充血。人食人 0.2-0.4g 即可 ②不吃生芽过多，黑绿色皮的马铃薯。
（马铃薯中毒）部含有大量的引起中毒。 ③彻底挖去芽、芽眼及芽周部分。
龙葵碱，黑绿中毒中期咽喉抓痒感及烧灼感,其后 ④龙葵碱遇酸分解，烹调时可加少量食
色皮的马铃薯出现胃肠道症状，剧烈地呕吐、腹泻。醋。
的皮中也含这重者可因心脏衰竭、呼吸麻痹而死亡。
种毒素
四季豆毒红细胞凝集潜伏期几十分钟至 10h,会出现恶心、
（豆角、芸豆、素、皂苷素呕吐、腹泻、腹痛、头晕、头痛等消烹调时应炒熟
扁豆）化系统及神经系统症状
毒蘑菇毒胃肠炎症状、神经精神症状、溶症状、
有速发型（如毒主要毒素有肠实质性脏器受损症状及类植物日光性掌握各种毒蘑菇的形态特征,吸取民间经
蝇伞中毒等）和胃毒素、神经皮炎症状等。特别别是迟发型中毒常验，验，提高鉴别毒蘑菇的能力，防止误
迟发型（如白毒毒素、血液毒在胃肠症状之后出现假愈期，然后突食中毒的发生。
伞、毒伞、鳞柄素、原浆毒素然加重，出现肝、肾等脏器损伤的症
白毒伞、褐鳞小等状
伞中毒）
潜伏期为 0.5-4h,有恶心、呕吐、腹经水浸泡或用沸水热烫后彻底炒煮后食
鲜黄花菜中毒秋水仙碱痛、腹泻、头昏、头痛、口渴喉干等用或晒干后食用（秋水仙碱易溶于水）
症状
白果中毒银杏酸、银杏潜伏期 1-12h,除胃肠症状外，常出现不吃生白果或变质白果，生白果去壳，加
酚头痛、抽搐，重症者意识丧失、昏迷，水煮热煮透后，弃水食用
1-2 天内死亡
大麻（小麻子）四氢大麻酚、食后 1-4h 发病，头晕、口干、恶心、不食用大麻籽油，其盛装容器应有明显标
油中毒大麻二酚、大四肢麻木，重者兴奋异常，后转抑郁、志，防止误食
麻酚昏睡
食后 lh,即出现剧烈呕吐，腹泻，毒与食用油分别存放，储油容器有明显标
桐油中毒桐酸、异桐酸素吸收入血液后，引起胃肠炎,并出现志，以免误食
蛋白尿
棉籽油棉酚中棉酚食后 1-4h 发病，低热头晕，头痛。恶不吃未经精炼去毒的棉籽油,经加热、碱
毒心、呕吐、腹痛、腹泻，严重者可因炼处理使其游离棉酚含量不超过 0.02%
呼吸麻痹，心功能紊乱甚至死亡
蓖麻籽（油）中蓖麻碱、篦麻误食一天左右出现急性胃肠炎症状，防止误食，盛装蓖麻油的容器应有明显标
毒素呈血性下痢样便,重者黄疸、血红蛋白志
尿、抽搐、昏迷，甚至死亡
毒麦碱潜伏期 0.5-4h,头昏、恶心、呕吐、
毒麦视力模糊、腹痛、抽搐、面红、畏寒、麦中不要混入毒麦
心率快
猫儿豆中毒苷类生物毒素头晕、恶心、呕吐、关节酸痛、手足加水煮热取出，用清水浸漂 3-5 天，漂至
麻木、腹痛、腹胀尿频、抽搐无色再烹调食用
苍耳中毒苍耳苷、毒蛋潜伏期 4-5h,初现肠胃症状，继而头
白、生物碱痛、昏迷、惊厥，严重者黄疸、尿闭，防止误食苍耳子，苍耳芽
最后呼吸麻痹死亡
未煮熟豆浆中胰蛋白酶抑制食后 0.5-lh 后出现恶心、呕吐、腹胀、豆浆应煮沸后继续加热数分钟后食用
毒物等腹泻等
食后 0.5h 出现口苦、口腔、咽喉、胃毒芹根的纵削面有较密的片状分隔，水芹
毒芹中毒毒芹碱有烧灼感、头晕、头痛、恶心、呕吐、则无。采摘水芹时要不误采毒芹
四肢麻痹，最后因呼吸麻痹而死
7. 5 动物性食物中的污染与毒素
7.5.1 禽畜疫病的污染毒性
1．炭疽病毒污染
炭疽是一种牛、羊和马等动物的烈性传染病，病原体为炭疽杆菌。炭疽对人畜威胁性极
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Appendices
大，目前尚无有效的治疗方法。人感染炭疽的主要方式是通过皮肤接触或由空气吸入感染，
但食用被炭疽污染的食品可引起胃肠型炭疽。
炭疽杆菌在未形成芽孢前,55℃-58℃经 10-15min 即死亡，其抵抗力很弱;但形成芽孢
后,140℃加热 3min 或 100℃蒸汽 5min 方能杀灭，说明炭疽杆菌抵抗力很强。
患急性炭疽（电击型）的牲畜，丧失知觉，突然发病摇晃倒毙，七窍出血，呼吸困难，
血液凝固不彻底，呈暗黑色沥青样。主要病变为颔下淋巴结、咽喉淋巴结与肠系膜淋巴结剖
面呈砖红色,并肿胀变硬。
由于炭疽病毒的强烈致毒性，被一些人用于制造生物武器。
2．口蹄疫
口蹄疫一直被联合国粮农组织和国际兽疫局列为甲类动物传染病中的第一疾病。口蹄疫
是偶蹄兽由病毒引起的一种急性、热性、接触性急性传染病，多见于牛、羊、猪。病原体为
口蹄疫病毒，病畜的唾液、粪尿、肉和乳汁中含有口蹄疫病毒。人因常食用生乳或其他未消
毒的畜产品,或接触病畜而感染。
人发病的症状为体温微升、口干发热、痛、口黏膜潮红、嘴角及唇出现小的规整的水疱
烂斑、脚趾间出现炎症反应或出现水疱，几天后破溃。
3．疯牛病
疯牛病又称牛海绵状脑病,是一种危害牛中枢神经系统的严重传染病,染上这种病的牛，
脑神经会逐渐变得像一种海绵状奶酪体，如“一脑子糨糊”，最终导致死亡。疯牛病曾于 20
世纪 80 年代中后期在英国大规模流行,之后蔓延到法国等国家。1996 年,英国发现食用疯牛
肉能够导致人类染患致命的类似病症，即新型克雅氏症，已查明，动物性蛋白饲料是传染疯
牛病的“主渠道”。
7.5.2 鱼类和贝类的污染毒性
我国毒鱼类约有 170 余种,按照含毒部位和毒素的性质，将毒鱼分为 8 类:豚毒鱼类、含
高组胺鱼类、胆毒鱼类、肌肉毒鱼类、肝毒鱼类、卵毒鱼类、血清毒鱼类和黏液毒鱼类。
1．河豚毒素
在海洋鱼类中，大约有 500 多种具有毒性，其中以河豚最常见。河豚鱼的肉质鲜美,但
内脏、卵巢、血液、鱼皮、鱼头等部位皆含剧毒,加工处理不当或误食后可导致丧生。
河豚毒素是一种生物碱，难溶于水,碱性溶液中易分解。在 PH3 以下和 PH7 以上时不稳
定，用 4%氢氧化钠溶液处理 20min 即无毒；对热稳定,加热至 100℃经 30min,约有 20%的毒
素被破坏,120℃加热 20min 仍有毒素残存；河豚毒素毒的神经毒素能在 30min 内麻痹神经细
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胞。据报道,0.5mg 的河豚毒素就可将人毒死。这种毒素主要是使神经呈麻痹状态，抑制呼
吸中枢,最后因呼吸中枢麻是一种剧痹而死亡。河豚中毒多为误食,食后 10-45min 发病。口
唇部、舌端感觉麻木，接着腕部、四肢感觉钝麻，出现运动障碍，不能发声，下咽困难，血
压下降，心律不齐，重症者出现意识不清,呼吸停止而死亡。
河豚毒素不仅存在于河豚体内，还存在于蝾螈、法螺、槭海星等海洋生物中。河豚毒素
并非河豚自身产生，而是由海螺与共生菌生成后，通过食物链在河豚体内累积。
2．鱼体组胺
青皮红肉的鱼类肌肉中含血红蛋白较多，因此组氨酸含量氨酸就被大量分解脱羧而产生
组胺。摄食含大量组胺的鱼肉，就会发生过敏性中毒，一般都在食入后 1-3h 出现，主要表
现为头痛、血压下降、心动加速、呕吐及腹泻等症状。
含高组胺鱼类，青皮红肉的鱼类品种较多，如蓝圆参、鲐鱼、鲍鱼、鲭鱼、金枪鱼、沙
丁鱼等。可引起人的类过敏性症状:脸红、头晕、心跳、呼吸急促、血压下降等。发病原因
主要是鱼质腐败，腌制不透或未去内脏。
3．胆毒鱼类
胆毒鱼类包括青鱼、草鱼、鲢鱼、鲤鱼等。其胆汁中含有胆汁毒素，可引起食入者的肝、
肾损害、神经系统及循环系统症状，主要由吞食鱼胆而引起。胆毒中毒发病快,病情重，一
般 8-9 天死亡。
4．贝类麻痹毒素
海洋浮游生物中的双鞭毛藻类，有多种含有毒素。当某些本来无毒的贝类摄食了有毒的
藻类以后，人食入毒化的贝体就会出现中毒症状。最初是舌、唇、指端感觉麻木，然后发展
到四肢和颈部，并出现头痛、口渴、呕吐等症,严重者呼吸困难，窒息而死亡。
贝类麻痹毒素对热稳定，烹调也不能消除,只有将毒化了的贝类在清水中放养 1-3 周才
能排净毒素。
7.5.3 动物性食物中毒预防措施
为了预防动物性食物中毒,应当注意以下几点：
（1）不食用病死的家禽、家畜；
（2）禽畜等肉类一定要加工熟了再食用，避免生食或食用半生不熟的肉制品；
（3）坚决不食野生动物；
（4）不可随意食用沿海地区捕捞的认识不清或未吃过的鱼类，确认为无毒鱼方可食用。
表 7-2 列出了一些其他有毒动物中毒的情况。
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Appendices
表 7-2 其他有毒动物
中毒名称有毒成分中毒症状预防措施
因蜜源的有毒潜伏期 24-48h,临床症状以消化道、注意蜜源的有毒植物，加强蜂蜜的检验工
有毒蜂蜜中毒植物而异，我国神经系统和肾脏等的改变较突出，作，对可疑有毒蜂蜜改作工业用，不得食
主要有雷公藤如口干、唇、舌发麻、恶心、呕吐、用
碱、昆明山海棠头昏、头痛、发热、腹痛、肾上部
和钩吻属植物疼痛和肝肿大
的生物碱类
鱼卵中毒（如青鱼卵毒素、毒性潜伏期短、恶心、呕吐、腹痛、腹产卵季节鱼卵毒性大，应清除干净，加工、
海湖裸鲤、鳇球蛋白泻，有的有口干、眩晕、脉快、胸腌制时也须除去鱼卵
鱼、石斑鱼、鲶闷等。重者痉挛、抽搐、昏迷甚至
鱼等）休克
动物肝脏以及胆酸及维生素 A 头痛、皮肤潮红、恶心、呕吐、腹不过量食用动物肝脏
鱼肝中毒急性中毒部不适、食欲不振，继之可有脱皮，
一般可自愈
鱼胆中毒（如草胆汁毒素、细胞潜伏期短，恶心、呕吐、腹痛、腹勿盲目食用鱼胆治病，用时须按医嘱切勿
鱼、鲤鱼、鲢鱼、毒和神经毒泻,肝肾损害，神经系统异常，重度过量
青鱼）中毒者会休克、昏迷死亡
雪卡毒素中毒雪卡毒素、刺尾潜伏期数小时，主要症状为恶心、不食用含毒鱼（梭鱼、黑鲈和真鲷等）及
（毒鱼肌肉内鱼毒素、鹦嘴鱼呕吐、感觉异常、运动失调、眩晕、软体动物
脏和生殖腺中，毒素（毒性比河肌无力等。患者多死于呼吸麻痹
某些软体动物豚强 20 倍）
体内）
甲状腺中毒甲状腺素潜伏期 12-24h,头晕、头痛、狂躁、屠宰牲畜时将甲状腺除净，以免误食
抽搐、心悸、胃肠炎症状、多汗、
发热、脱发、脱皮、手震颤等
肾上腺中毒肾上腺素潜伏期短，主要症状为心窝部疼痛、屠宰牲畜时将肾上腺除净，以免误食
恶心、呕吐、腹泻、头晕、心动过
速，个别患者颜面苍白、瞳孔散大、
恶寒
7.6 食品加工中所产生的毒素
食品加工过程中所产生的毒素，一部分是外源性的，如为了有助于加工、包装、运输及
储存过程中保持食品的营养成分和质量，适当使用一些食品添加剂，如果使用过多或不当，
就会使食物具有毒性。也有一部分是加工过程中自身变化而产生的，如油脂的过氧化物等。
常见的食品加工过程中所产生的毒素有如下几类。
1．N-亚硝基化合物
N-亚硝基化合物包括亚硝胺和亚硝酸胺两类，在已检验出的 120 多种 N-亚硝基化合物中,
证实有 92 种可使动物致癌,而且没有一种动物能够幸免。对人的致癌作用也有报道，初步确
定有鼻咽癌、食管癌、胃癌、肝癌及膀胱癌等。
亚硝胺不易水解,在中性及碱性条件下较稳定,在酸性条件或紫外光照射下可缓慢分解。
亚硝酸胺则比较活泼,在酸性及碱性条件下均不稳定。
N-亚硝基化合物在天然的食品中含量极少,一般为 10μg•kg-1 以下。但这类物质的前体在
自然界中广泛存在,如亚硝酸盐和胺类。这些前体物质在适宜的条件下可形成亚硝胺和亚硝
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酸胺。硝酸盐和亚硝酸盐在食物中分布很广，尤其在蔬菜中含量很高，如芹菜(629mg• kg-1)、
韭菜(423mg•kg-1)、萝卜(337mg•kg-1)。
硝酸盐、亚硝酸盐常作为肉类腌制制品中的发色剂,在食品加工中有固定和增加肉色、
增加食品风味和抑制细菌尤其是肉毒杆菌的生长的作用。硝酸盐在食物、水或胃肠内可被还
原为亚硝酸盐而产生毒性。尤其是婴幼儿分泌胃酸的能力比成人低，当食用含有硝酸盐的食
物后较易转变为亚硝酸盐而中毒。硝酸盐和亚硝酸盐作为食品添加剂进入人体,在一定条件
下都有可能形成具有致癌作用的亚硝胺类化合物。
目前，发现某些特殊加工的食品中，亚硝胺的含量较高。例如，鱼和肉中含有丰富的胺
类,腌制时使用的佐料中常含有亚硝胺的前体，如粗制食盐中含有硝酸盐，有时人们还将硝
酸盐和亚硝酸盐直接加入鱼、肉制品中作为发色剂及抑菌剂。在适宜的条件下,上述物质均
可形成亚硝胺。为此,我国规定肉制品及肉类罐头中，硝酸钠的使用量不得超过 0.5g•kg-1，
-1 -1
亚硝酸钠不得超过 0.15g•kg ；残留量以亚硝酸钠计，肉类罐头不得超过 0.05g•kg ,肉制品
不得超过 0.03g•kg-1。日本人患胃癌的人多，与常吃腌菜与海鱼有关。因为海鱼中含较多胺
类化合物，而咸菜中含较多的硝酸盐、亚硝酸盐，两者可以在体内结合成亚硝胺。
菠菜、芹菜等含有多量硝酸盐。含硝酸盐的蔬菜在适宜的加工条件下会转成亚硝酸盐。
例如，腌泡蔬菜中含有一种白地霉菌，可使蔬菜中含有的硝酸盐还原为亚硝酸盐。
硝酸盐和亚硝酸盐常被人们用作食品防腐剂。古代人就用“硝”来腌制肉制品。硝酸盐
在缺氧条件下会转化为亚硝酸盐，所以实际防腐作用来自亚硝酸盐。食物中的胺类化合物存
在于肉和鱼肉中。虽然合成亚硝胺和亚硝酸胺的前体物质存在于我们的食物中，但只要不食
霉变食物，有良好的饮食习惯，是可以减少致癌物质在体内合成的。
除上述以摄入人体内的硝酸盐、亚硝酸盐、蛋白质等作为前驱物在机体内合成亚硝胺外，
日常生活中亚硝胺还产生于这样一些场合:①烟草中所含烟碱（尼古丁）在燃烧时产生 4-甲
基亚硝胺-1-（2-吡啶）-1-丁酮（NNK）,它是肺癌的主要致病因子；②经亚硝酸盐加工过
的咸肉在油煎时可产生强致癌物亚硝基吡咯烷；③某些药品、农药、化妆品进入体内后，与
同时进入的亚硝酸盐反应生成亚硝胺化合物。例如，药物土霉素、氨基比林、农药枯草隆、
甲氟磷等都可在胃部转化为相应的亚硝胺化合物。
摄入多量硝酸盐和亚硝酸盐的人易患高铁血红蛋白症。该病症多发于婴儿，其临床表现
为口唇和指甲发绀、皮肤出现紫斑等缺氧症状。由于体内承担输氧任务的亚铁血红蛋白在亚
硝酸盐作用下转成高铁血红蛋白，失去了原有的与氧结合能力,从而导致体内缺氧。
亚硝酸盐是食品添加剂中急性毒性最强的物质之一。对人的中毒量为 0.3-0.5g,致死量为
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Appendices
3g。在国内多个地区发生曾发生过硝酸盐和亚硝酸盐中毒死亡事件。除急性毒性外，通过各
种途径进入人体的硝酸盐、亚硝酸盐也会在机体内转化为致癌性的亚硝胺化合物。亚硝胺可
由亚硝酸盐与仲胺在人的胃中合成,如果食物中胺类或酰胺与硝酸盐、亚硝酸盐同时存在，
则可形成亚硝胺。
硝酸盐很容易在人的唾液或胃液中转化为亚硝酸盐。此外，在各种肉类中含有能提供氨
基的蛋白质、氨基酸,在鱼类（特别是鱼子）中含有二甲胺，这些食品在烹饪过程或在人体
内代谢过程中都能分解提供氨基,并进一步与亚硝基结合而生成亚硝胺化合物,这种过程称
为亚硝基化作用。在人体内能促进亚硝基化作用的物质有卤素离子和硫氰酸基和硫脲等，它
们对亚硝基化促进作用的强度顺序为SOT2-4<Cl-<Br-<SCN-<I-<硫脲。消除食品中亚硝胺致癌
的方法除了限制食品中硝酸盐、亚硝酸盐的使用量及亚硝胺的含量外,更重要的是要阻断亚
硝胺在体内的生成。维生素C具有阻断亚硝胺的能力，维生素A具有抑制亚硝胺的致癌作用。
有明显抑制亚硝基化作用的物质还有大蒜素、茶多酚等。所以，维生素C、维生素A及大蒜、
绿茶等都有抑制亚硝胺的致癌作用。我们在食用火腿肠、午餐肉等肉类方便食品时应当注意
补充这类食物。
亚硝胺的形成过程需要一定的条件，再加上人体自身的免疫作用,一般情况下食物中亚
硝胺的含量对人不至于达到危害的程度。应当注意一些长期的生活饮食习惯,避免发生健康
危机。
2．多环芳烃
多环芳烃是一类数量多、种类复杂、分布广、与人的关系密切及对人的健康威胁较大的
化学致癌物质。主要是由各种有机物，如煤、柴油、汽油、木材及香烟的燃烧不完全而产生
的烃的热解产物，也可在生物体内合成。目前已发现的多环芳烃约有 200 多种，其中十多种
有强烈的致癌作用。苯并［a］芘是多环芳烃类化合物中一种主要的食品污染物。
天然食品中多环芳烃的含量甚微，一些食品中所含较大量的多环芳烃主要来自加工和环
境污染。例如，一些食品在加工过程中，釆用烟熏，烧烤，烘焦等处理，由于与燃料燃烧所
产生的多环芳烃直接接触而使食品受污染。食品中脂类也可因受到高温热解或聚合而形成多
环芳烃，如脂类在 700℃时热聚合，每 1kg 可产生 1.2-8.88mg 的苯并［a］芘。在烘烤肉类
的过程中，滴在火上的脂肪也能热聚合产生苯并［a］芘，并附着在烤肉的表面。有关部门
曾做过抽样检查，发现烤羊肉串中每 1kg 含苯并［a］芘的量大大超过 WTO 规定的食品标
准（1μg•kg-1）。鱼、肉、禽类加工前均未检出 Bap,加工后 Bap 的含量以熏制品最高（4.65μg
•kg-1）,其次为煎炸品（0.79μg•kg-1）
、烘烤品（0.64μg•kg-1）、腌制品（0.58μg•kg-1）,而蒸
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制品未检出，可见食品中 Bap 的含量与烹调加工方法有密切的关系。长期食用烟熏食物，胃

癌的发病率比一般地区要高出 2 倍。因此最好不用直接火焰烧烤食品，在粮食烘干、熏烤食
品时应选用电炉或优质燃料。食品在加工过程中受到机油的污染、包装材料的污染（如蜡纸
中的石蜡、废报纸中的油墨均含有多环芳烃）以及粮食受到柏油路中煤焦油、沥青的污染等
都是造成食品多环芳烃污染的途径。
预防多环芳烃污染食品的主要措施是防止食品的直接污染，不要在吃饭时吸烟；不在柏
油马路上晾晒粮食等；在烘干粮食、熏烤食品时应选用电炉或优质燃料；避免食品与炭火直
接接触;少吃油炸食品，不用反复使用加热过的油；包装直接入口食品时不要用蜡纸或废报
纸等非食品包装纸。
3.添加剂引起的毒害
为了有助于加工、包装、运输、储存过程中保持食品的营养成分，增强食品的感官性状，
延长保存时间，适当使用一些食品添加剂是必要的,但所用的量应控制在最低有效水平。如
果使用量过多或使用不当,就会给食品带来毒性。
目前认为食品添加剂引起毒害的原因，主要有以下几个方面。
1）食品添加剂中的杂质污染
添加剂中的有害杂质污染造成食物中毒,在国内外时有发生。日本奶粉砷中毒事件因添
加了过量的磷酸氢二钠（含砷 3%-9%）所致，造成万名婴儿中毒，130 名死亡。
2）引起变态反应
糖精可引起皮肤瘙痒症、日光过敏性皮炎。香料中的很多物质可引起呼吸道器官发炎、
咳嗽、喉头浮肿、皮肤瘙痒、便秘、头痛、浮肿及关节炎等。
3）体内蓄积问题
有些国家在儿童食品中加入维生素 A 作为强化剂，由于它为脂溶性，因此在体内有蓄积
作用。如果在蛋黄酱、奶粉及饮料中加入这些强化剂，连续摄食 3-6 个月后，会出现食欲不
振，体重停止增加、失眠等症状。维生素 D 摄入量过多，也可引起血清钙增加、总胆固醇
增高、骨髓钙质过度沉积，可能造成婴儿食欲缺乏、呕吐、便秘、体重下降、生长停滞等。
4）食品添加剂转化产物问题
食品添加剂加入食品以后，以及进入人体后都有转化问题。有些转化产物具有毒性，如
食品在储藏过程中，癣红色素转变成内荧光素，糖精在体内代谢转化为环己胺等,这两种物
质含量过高，对人体都有毒害。
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7.7 环境中有害化学物质对食品的污染
食物中化学物质的污染及中毒主要有农药、化肥、激素等。
化学性食物中毒是指健康人经口摄入了正常数量、在感官上并无异常、但含有某种或某
几种“化学性毒物”的食品，随这种食物而进入人体内的毒物对机体组织器官发生异常作用,
破坏了人体正常的生理功能，引起功能性或器质性病理改变的急性中毒过程。
我国化学性食物中毒每年约占食物中毒总数的 1/3 左右。常见的主要有有机磷、有机氯
（广谱杀虫剂）、有机汞（农用杀菌剂）、砷化物（砒霜、稻脚毒等）、铅化物及甲醇等。
化学性食物中毒的主要发病特点为:①发病快、潜伏期短，多在数分钟至数小时；②中
毒程度严重、病程长,发病率及死亡率高;③季节性和地区性均不明显，中毒食物无特异性；
④误食混有剧毒的化学物质或食入被有毒化学物污染的食物；⑤散发性发病，偶然性较大。
一种或几种化学污染物持续不断地随食品进入人体，在体内蓄积，经过相当长时间才能
显露出来的危害为慢性危害(如三聚氰胺奶粉事件)，这些危害对人的影响是潜移默化的。
化学污染物的远期危害主要指“三致”作用，即致癌、致突变和致畸。致癌化学物污染
了空气、水、土壤并直接或间接地污染食物，进入人体,会导致癌症的发生。人类的癌症中
约有 90%是由化学物质引起的，其中 35%左右与饮食有关。某些化学污染物能引起生物体细
胞的遗传信息和遗传物质发生突变，使分裂后的子细胞具有新的不同于母细胞的遗传特性。
有的化学污染物能通过胎盘进入胎儿体内，引起胎儿畸形。
7.7.1 农药对食品的污染
人类利用农药消除植物病虫害及杂草，以保证农业获得稳定高产。目前世界各国的化学
农药约 1400 多种，按用途分为杀虫剂、杀菌剂、除草剂、植物生长调节素、粮食薰蒸剂等。
农药的使用对农业的增产起到积极作用,但广泛大量使用也造成了对粮食的污染。我们
在农田、菜田或是果树、草地、森林上喷洒了大量药物，其目的是防止昆虫对这些植物的破
坏;另一方面，药物也杀死了益虫、益鸟，造成了土壤、植物河流的破坏及对人体和禽兽等
的污染、中毒，甚至死亡。长期使用农药，也使害虫增强了耐药性，我们又不得不增大用药
量，结果是农作物也大量吸收了这些农药,人们长期食用这种严重污染的粮食，严重影响健
康。
农药污染食物的途径主要有以下几个方面：
(1) 农田使用时直接污染食用作物；
(2) 通过灌溉用水污染水产品；
(3) 通过土壤中沉积的农药污染粮食作物；
(4) 通过大气中漂浮农药污染粮食作物；
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(5) 饲料中残留农药转移入禽畜类食品。
1．有机氯农药
有机氯农药是一类高效广谱杀虫剂，具有较好的稳定性，不溶或微溶于水，在自然界中
不易降解，能在食物中长期残留，在生物体中可以富集，进入机体后由于其具有脂溶性，可
长期在脂肪组织中蓄积。主要分为以苯为原料和以环戊二烯为原料,前者如最早使用的六六
六和 DDT 以及杀螨剂三氯杀螨砜、三氯杀螨醇等，杀菌剂五氯硝基苯、白菌清、道丰宁等;
后者如氯丹、七氯、艾氏剂等，以松节油为原料的莰烯类杀虫剂、毒杀芬和以萜烯为原料的
冰片基氯都属这类。有机氯农药主要存在于食用作物的外壳（皮），通过加工去皮可除去一
部分以至全部农药，另外通过加热处理也可以除去一部分。有机氯农药对人体的毒性主要表
现在侵犯神经系统和引起造血器官障碍。
2．有机磷农药
有机磷化合物是一类高效、广谱、分解快的杀虫剂。有机磷农药对人、畜毒性较高如对
硫磷、内吸磷等，也有一些低毒的如乐果、敌百虫等。有机磷农药在自然界极易分解,在食
品中残留时间短，在生物体内分解也较快，因而急性中毒较多，中毒原因主要是有机磷农药
污染食物。有机磷主要对胆碱酯酶有抑制作用，人体失去分解乙酰胆碱的能力，造成乙酰胆
碱在体内大量积聚，引起神经系统功能紊乱的一系列表现，轻者头晕、无力、嗜睡、肌肉震
颤、痉挛、瞳孔缩小、血压升高、心跳加快、呼吸困难、肺水肿、语言失常，重者死亡。有
机磷农药可经呼吸道、皮肤、黏膜及消化道侵入人体。某些有机农药可使误食者出现缓发性
神经中毒症状。
3．有机汞农药
我国常用的有机汞农药有西力生（氯化乙基汞）、赛力散（乙酸苯汞）和谷人乐（磷酸
乙基汞）等主要用于种子处理防稻瘟病。这些含汞农药对高等动物有剧毒，在土壤中的半衰
期为 10-30 年，有些种类的汞在体内游离出来，有些可与体内有机物结合转化成剧毒的甲基
汞和乙基汞，它们可再与蛋白质结合形成具有破坏重要酶活力作用的物质。由于残留毒性大，
已被有机硫农药取代。
4．砷化物
砷的化合物是人类最早研制出的人造药物，用胂表示。在胂的人造药物中最有代表性的
是胂凡纳明，用于杀死锥虫和梅毒。
砷化物大多为白色粉末或结晶,一般都有剧毒，如砒霜（三氧化二砷）和稻脚青（甲基
砷酸锌）等，其他砷化物如砷酸钙、亚砷酸钙、砷酸铅等,广泛用于杀灭农业害虫，砷化物
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外观与食盐、淀粉等很相似，容易误食。
急性中毒，患者食道有烧灼感、恶心、剧烈呕吐、腹泻，体温、血压下降，重症患者出
现烦躁不安、四肢疼痛、惊厥、昏迷和尿毒症。砷化物中毒还可引起皮肤黏膜的严重损害，
表现为皮肤过度角化、蜕皮、脱发、色素沉着（棕黑或灰黑色弥漫性斑块），指甲出现白色
横纹，眼结膜、鼻中隔、口腔等发生糜烂和充血。
5．氨基甲酸酯农药
氨基甲酸酯农药如西维因、呋喃丹、速灭威和害朴威等，是新型杀虫药。它们杀虫选择
性强、作用快、在人体不易蓄积中毒，使用较广。它在体内可抑制胆碱酯酶使其不形成氨基
甲酸酯,能与亚硝酸合成亚硝胺类致癌物。
6．除草剂
除草剂是以消灭或控制杂草生长的一类农药。
近几年农贸市场上出现了一种又矮又胖的“无根豆芽”，因其鲜嫩肥大,又可省去摘须
之劳,卖主生意颇为兴隆。然而,争相购买的消费者并不知道，这种无根豆芽是为缩短生产周
期而用除草剂培养出来的，据有关科研部门提供的资料表明，一般除草剂有致癌、致畸、致
突变的危害。由于生产周期短，除草剂在豆芽上的残留较多，对人体危害很大。豆芽历来被
作为清热消暑、利尿消肿的保健食品，但大量使用农药,豆芽会变成致癌物质。
表 7-3 列出了几种农药中毒症状及预防措施。
表 7-3 几种农药中毒症状及预防措施
中毒名称中毒症状预防措施

有机磷农药中毒：高效杀虫剂有对硫磷典型的中毒表现为肌肉震颤、痉挛、严禁用装过农药的器皿盛放食物，避免将
（1605）、内吸磷（1059）、乐果、敌百瞳孔缩小、血压升高、心跳加快、呼农药与食品同仓库；避免将喷洒过农药
虫、敌敌畏、杀螟松、马拉硫磷（4049）、吸困难、肺水肿（从口、鼻排出大量的、尚未到安全间隔期的蔬菜水果投放市
甲胺磷等红色泡沫性液体）和昏迷场；水果洗净削皮后食用
有机汞农药中毒:西力生（氯化乙基汞）、误食后，口咽和上腹部灼痛、流涎、严格执行农药管理使用制度，严禁食用有
赛力散（乙酸苯汞）、谷人乐（磷酸乙基齿龈黏膜灰白出血、恶心呕吐、腹泻，机汞农药拌过的粮种，谨防误食有机汞农
汞）严重者肾功能衰竭、浮肿，最后因昏药毒死的禽畜
迷、呼吸困难死亡
半小时至数小时发病岀现口腔黏膜加强农药保管，禁止在蔬菜、水果、茶叶
有机氯农药中毒腐蚀、咽部充血、恶心、呕吐、上腹上使用有机氯农药
痛、血压上升、心跳缓慢、肌肉抽搐，
重者昏迷甚至死亡
恶心、呕吐、腹痛、腹泻等胃肠道症加强农药保管,防止误食；使用有机硫农
有机硫农药中毒状为主，继之出现头痛、晕、心悸、药前后,禁饮酒
血压降低甚至因心脏衰竭、呼吸麻痹
而死
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7.7.2 化肥对食品的污染
氮、磷、钾是植物生长所需三大元素,化肥就是围绕这三大元素供给与补充的。近几十
年来，由于氮肥的超量投入,特别是在大棚、温室等设施农业中氮肥投入过量,造成硝酸盐在
农产品中的大量累积，虽然这对农作物本身影响不大，但通过食物链对人体存在着潜在危害。
1．化肥对人体的危害机制
土壤中的氮素一般通过化学及生物化学反应转化为硝酸盐而被作物吸收。在正常的氮素
营养条件下，健康植株并不累积游离态的硝酸盐和亚硝酸盐，这两种形式的氮进入植物体后，
在硝酸还原酶和亚硝酸还原酶的作用下发生还原反应，所形成的中间产物羟胺和氨同有机酸
结合而转化为氨基酸，这是植物体形成氨基酸和蛋白质时氮素的重要来源。由于植物体内亚
硝酸还原酶的活性远高于硝酸还原酶的活性，当被还原成亚硝酸盐后，就会被活力较高的亚
硝酸还原酶还原成 NH3,所以植物体内一般不会积累过多的亚硝酸盐。但如果施肥不当，如
肥料种类、施入量、施入时间和方式，还有环境因素的影响,也会造成作物中硝酸盐含量偏
高。虽然硝酸盐本身毒性比亚硝酸盐小，但硝酸盐可与血红蛋白产生不可逆反应，形成硝基
血红蛋白，这种物质不具备携氧能力，会使人窒息。同时,硝酸盐在人的肠胃中经硝酸还原
酶的作用会转化为亚硝酸盐。
预防化肥对人体健康的危害主要是要防止硝酸盐在人体内蓄积。
2．防止硝酸盐在体内蓄积的方法
1973 年，世界卫生组织和联合国粮农组织规定食品中硝酸盐日允许量(ADI)为每千克体
重 0-3.65μg；亚硝酸盐 ADI 值为每千克体重 0-0.13μg。应该防止过多的硝酸盐的吸取，如果
已经吸取了过多的硝酸盐，就应及早从体内去除。
首先，多施用农家肥料少用化肥，以防止粮食、蔬菜被氮肥污染,从根本上杜绝硝酸盐
进入人体内。其次，要选取那些少含硝酸盐的作物或蔬菜作为我们的日常生活食物。一般而
言，以食用根、茎、叶为主体的蔬菜均属于 NO3-积累蔬菜，而以食用其果实的蔬菜，则常
为低富集型。蔬菜中按硝酸盐的积累大小顺序为:根类菜＞薯芋类＞绿叶菜类＞白菜类＞葱
蒜类＞豆类＞瓜类＞茄果类＞多年生植物类＞食用菌类。
亚硝酸盐中毒的其他因素；
(1) 误食。多发生在建筑工地，潜伏期短,20min-3h,中毒率 100%,病死率高。
(2) 污染。用盛过亚硝酸盐的器具装面粉。
(3) 天然食物变质。新鲜蔬菜、海产品、剩菜剩饭放置时间过长，被细菌污染后产生大
量的亚硝酸盐。蔬菜腐烂 8 天后,其亚硝酸盐含量可达 146mg•kg-1；煮熟的稀饭 4h 后亚硝酸
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盐含量开始增高,存放一天后达 184mg•kg-1。
(4) 某些地区的水或不洁锅盛放的隔夜水含较多的硝酸盐或亚硝酸盐，人饮用后可引起
中毒。
(5) 新腌制的菜类。腌制 2-4 天后亚硝酸盐开始增高,7-8 天达高峰。变质的腌萝卜叶中
亚硝酸盐含量高达 229.6mg•kg-1。
预防亚硝酸盐中毒的措施:应该注意不吃腐烂变质的蔬菜；不吃存放过久的熟菜或新腌
制的菜（约 20 天左右腌透）；阻断亚硝胺在体内生成，常食大蒜、饮茶和服用维生素 C。如
遇亚硝酸盐中毒要立即导泻、催吐，尽快把存留在胃肠中的毒物排出来。亚甲蓝（美蓝）、
维生素 C 是治疗亚硝酸盐中毒的特效药，这种药可以将高铁血红蛋白还原成低铁血红蛋白，
静脉注射剂量是成年人每次用 1%亚甲蓝 10-15mL,维生素 C 大量口服，静脉注射 500mg。
7.7.3 重金属对食品的污染
1．重金属污染的来源与危害
土壤本身就含有一定量的重金属元素，其中很多是作物生长所需要的微量营养元素，如
锰、铜、锌等，这些微量元素经过食物链构成人体必需的微量元素。随着工业化进程的推进,
有许多污染源中的金属可污染大气、水体、土壤及动物、植物，这样就可以直接或间接地进
入人体并危及人类健康。过多的重金属会引起是慢性中毒。目前已有环境中镍、铍、镉、钴、
钛、锌、锰、铅、锡等微量元素引起病患甚至致癌的报道。
金属对食品的污染主要有水的重金属污染和化肥制造中的残留。人和动物体可以通过食
品吸收并富集大量有毒重金属，以汞、镉、铅最多，也包括锌、铜、钴、镍、锡等。一般重
金属都是通过食物链在生物体内浓缩放大而产生毒性效应的（2.4 节）。
2．预防体内重金属元素蓄积的措施
研究表明，金属在人体内的积累是人患某些疾病及机体衰老的重要原因之一。从 25 岁
起各种金属就开始在体内积累，首先在软组织中沉着,然后进入骨骼，进而是神经组织。金
属微粒一旦进入人体,就具有高度的稳定性，日积月累，表现出皮肤褐色斑点、肌肉组织营
养障碍、骨骼变脆等种种衰老迹象。根据这一理论，科学家们认为阻止重金属的吸收、改变
人体内金属的物理性质、促进金属的排泄是祛病延年的重要对策。某些食物具有将重金属驱
逐出体外的作用。绿豆具有清热解毒作用,美国科学家研究发现，绿豆也是驱除人体内各种
重金属的最有效的食物。海带中的褐藻能减慢人体对锶等有害微量元素的吸收,并能与锶等
金属结合成不溶性化合物使其排出体外。茶叶能加速人体内有害放射性金属的排泄，茶叶中
的茶多酚和维生素 C 共同作用，能与锶结合，可使进入骨骼中的锶排出体外。大蒜和鸡蛋也
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有驱铅解毒作用，豆类及豆制品、花生能降低血中的铅含量，牛奶及乳制品具有阻止铅吸收
的作用。豆酱有加速人体内部放射性物质排泄的作用，猪血中的血浆蛋白可使镍、铅、汞等
有害金属微粒从消化道排出体外，胡萝卜有驱汞作用，其果胶成分能与汞结合，有效地降低
血液中的汞离子浓度，加速体内汞离子的排除。
食物治污，虽不能完全排除人体内的重金属，鉴于我们还没有找到从根本上治理金属污
染之策，尤其是低浓度的重金属污染,也许用食物治污排毒，在目前是我们的最好选择。
7.7.4 环境激素以及抗菌素的污染
环境激素也称“内分泌干扰物质”，是指介入有机体内激素的合成、分泌、体内输送、
结合、作用或者分解而影响有机体的稳定性保持、生殖、发展或者行为的外来物质。已知的
环境激素主要是指雌性激素类物质，大体分为 4 类。
(1) 天然及合成雌性激素，如属于雌体内雌性激素的雌二醇染料木黄酮、己烯雌酚、乙
炔基雌二醇、己炔雌酚、雌二醇、苯甲酸酯纤维素等。
(2) 用于日常生产的工业化学物质，如烷基苯酚类、表面活性剂、聚氧乙烯烷基、双酚
A、邻苯二甲酸酐类。
(3) 脂溶性有机氯化物。农药及其代谢产物，如有机氯类农药。
(4) 对丙烯基苯酚,3，9-二羟蒽等物质。
环境激素在化学结构上有共同点，即具有苯环（除了三丁基锡）、结构相对简单、难溶
于水、生物降解力差等。调查研究发现:在包括五大湖区在内的许多地区，有许多种类的野
生动物出现生殖器异常和生殖异常现象。鸟类吃了被污染的鱼以后,雄体出现雌性化表现，
引起性别比例失调，鱼类和鸟类都出现了生殖上的异常。现存的佛罗里达美洲狮中有许多同
时表现出发育和生殖这两种异常现象,雄体不但精子数量少，甚至还有不少是隐性精囊，多
数人认为其原因是因为受到了释放到环境中的如滴滴涕、多氯联苯、二噁英等雌性激素化学
物质的影响作用。
近些年，乳腺癌、生殖腺癌变、不孕和生殖腺附属器官异常等生殖异常现象不断增加，
这种现象除受环境影响因素有关外，很大部分与我们的食物中含有的激素有关。现在的牛、
羊、猪、鸡经特殊饲料喂养仅几个月就可出栏屠杀。在农贸市场，有的番茄鼓起了“将军肚”,
有的尾部还拖有“狼牙棒”，这就是“激素菜”。有些菜农为了加快蔬菜的生长速度,提高蔬
菜产量和增加收入而喷施了“激素”或“生长素气”这些激素在蔬菜的残留的部位，常常会
导致蔬菜畸形或变色。人们如果长期食用“激素菜”，会使人体免疫力下降，身体发胖、骨
质疏松,甚至导致畸形、致癌、致突变等严重后果,严重危害人体健康。
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抗菌素是用来治疗动物疾病的，如乳腺炎、肠炎、肺炎以及创伤和脚部的感染,使用了
抗菌素，许多动物的疾病能得以控制。但是滥用抗菌素会引起不良后果，一方面产生对抗菌
素有抗药性的微生物，另一方面会使部分人产生过敏反应。因此,禁止出售在 48h 内从用抗
菌素处理过的牛身上挤出的牛奶，含有抗菌素 1%的牛奶,过敏反应的危险仍然存在。近几年
的“瘦肉精”中毒现象,是由于在饲料中添加了学名叫盐酸克伦特罗，化学名称为羟甲基叔
丁基肾上腺素的药物后，可使饲料转化率、生长速率、胴体瘦肉率提高 10%以上，故有“瘦
肉精”之称。它进入人体后具有分布快、消除慢的特点。人食用了用“瘦肉精”喂养过的猪
内脏、肉类，会使人产生头晕、呕吐、心悸等中毒症状，对于患有高血压、心脏病等患者危
险性很大。瘦肉精本身也是一种兴奋剂，运动员食用“瘦肉精”喂养过猪的肉类,尿检都不
合格。
7.7.5 其他化学性食物中毒
有毒化学物质种类繁多，引起中毒的毒物多是剧毒、在体内易被消化道吸收者。由于对
各种化学毒物的存放、使用、运输、保管不当而使其污染食品或误食中毒者屡有发生，除上
述几种化学性食物中毒外,其他常见的化学性食物中毒列于表 7-4。
表 7-4 其他化学性食物中毒
中毒名称中毒症状预防措施
与砷中毒相似，但症状较轻，胃肠道症状，腹痛与腓肠肌不用搪瓷器皿存放或煮酸性食物,食品用搪瓷应
锑中毒疼痛痉挛，严重者可昏迷而死经 40%乙酸煮沸后使用；防止误食
误食后 30min-24h 出现恶心、呕吐、心慌，症状以进行性含钡化合物必须妥善保存，防止误食；含钡较高
钡盐中毒向心性肌肉麻痹为特点，血钾低，最后因呼吸肌麻痹而死的井盐除钡后方能食用
亡
严加保管，与食品分开存放，防止误食。使用有
误食 30min-3h 后有上腹灼痛及胃肠炎症状，头晕、全身酸
氟化物中毒机氟农药时，应严格遵守农药使用的规定
痛、无力、手足抽搐、虚脱，因呼吸衰竭而死亡
误食 l0min 至数小时发病，口干、恶心、喉头麻木，上腹毒鼠药要有专人保管，注意灭鼠毒饵的使用和保

磷化锌中毒部烧灼感，呼吸和呕吐物有蒜臭气，重者有肝痛、黄疸、管，避免误食误用。不吃毒死的动物
昏迷而死亡
潜伏期 30min-12h 出现胃部不适、恶心、呕吐、腹痛、腹使用抗氧化剂等避免油脂氧化酸败；
酸败油中毒泻、无力、头痛、发热、喉痛，病程 1-4 天不食用已酸败的油脂
头痛恶心、胃痛、视力模糊等，继之可发展到呼吸困难、控制酒类中甲醇含量，严禁使用非食用酒精兑制
甲醇中毒呼吸中枢麻痹、发绀、昏迷甚至死亡。全身状态恢复者也配制酒。如遇甲醇中毒，可给以碱性药物，如每
常发生视力障碍甚至失明小时 6g 碳酸氢钠，直到尿液呈碱性(pH7.5)
另外，还存在以下一些污染。用凯氏定氮法用总氮含量推算蛋白质含量,
蛋白质平均含氮量为 16%左右，
而三聚氰胺 C3N6H6，
2．人为化学污染氮/碳比较高,含氮量为 66%左右。每 100g 牛奶中
添加 0.lg 三聚氰胺，理论上就能提高 0.625%蛋白
近些年有些不法分子为了谋取个人私利，不顾消费者的健康，将一些非食品添加剂添加
质。因此添加三聚氰胺会使食品的蛋白质测试含
到食品中,如苏丹红事件，三聚氰胺奶粉事件等。三聚氰胺奶粉事件在全国范围内造成了较
量偏高，从而使劣质食品通过食品检验机构的测
试。三聚氰胺是一种白色结晶粉末,没有什么气味
大影响。三聚氰胺主要的用途是作为生产三聚氰胺甲醛树脂(MF)的原料，还可以作阻燃剂、
和味道，所以掺杂后不易被发现。现在国家质检
总局已经规定乳类食品中三聚氧胺的含量不能超
过 2.5mg•kg-1。三聚氰胺主要影响人的泌尿系统,
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尤其是婴幼儿。对已经有结石的患儿，一方面进
行对症支持治疗，另一方面在饮食上应当多喝纯
净水(蒸馏水)，1 岁以上的幼儿还可适当饮用一些
减水剂、甲醛清洁剂等。由于现有的蛋白质检测标准是用凯氏定氮法用总氮含量推算蛋白质
含量,蛋白质平均含氮量为 16%左右，而三聚氰胺 C3N6H6，氮/碳比较高,含氮量为 66%左右。
每 100g 牛奶中添加 0.lg 三聚氰胺，理论上就能提高 0.625%蛋白质。因此添加三聚氰胺会使
食品的蛋白质测试含量偏高，从而使劣质食品通过食品检验机构的测试。三聚氰胺是一种白
色结晶粉末,没有什么气味和味道，所以掺杂后不易被发现。现在国家质检总局已经规定乳
类食品中三聚氧胺的含量不能超过 2.5mg•kg-1。三聚氰胺主要影响人的泌尿系统,尤其是婴幼
儿。对已经有结石的患儿，一方面进行对症支持治疗，另一方面在饮食上应当多喝纯净水(蒸
馏水)，1 岁以上的幼儿还可适当饮用一些蜂蜜水。
人为的食物污染要靠国家质量监管部门和执法部门的联动，将这种污染逐渐杜绝、根除。
3．包装材料造成的污染
包装材料中化学物质的转移成为污染食品的一个来源。塑料广泛用作食物的包装材料，
在塑料的制造中,往往要加入有机过氧化物或金属盐，作为引发聚合反应的催化剂。塑料的
加工过程中，为了改变塑料的性能，往往要加入一些添加剂——塑料助剂，如增加柔软性的
增塑剂，防止氧化的抗氧剂，增加热稳定性的稳定剂等，当塑料用作食物包装塑料时，这些
塑料助剂也可能进入食物中，污染食物，影响我们的健康。
如果采用纸作为食品的包装材料,经脲醛树脂或三聚氰胺-甲醛树脂处理的具有湿强度
-1
的纸张中的甲醛会污染食物，而食品中甲醛的允许含量只有 5mg•kg 。
此外,在蜡纸、报纸及许多书写类纸张中含有不少不能直接入口的化学品，如多环芳烃、
铅、镉等。
7.7.6 化学性食物中毒的预防
化学性食物中毒的因素比较复杂，针对不同的中毒原因釆取针对性的措施，才能更有效
地预防。主要预防原则如下：
(1)农药严格保管、使用。农药要有专人保管、专库存放、专车运输、专用容器盛装，
防止与食品交叉污染；
（2）严格控制农药使用量，选用高效、低毒、低残留的品种，减少对人畜及周围环境
的污染；
（3）施用农药后一定在安全间隔期满后，方能收获农作物供应市场，尤其是蔬菜和瓜
果；
（4）禁止用加工粮食的磨、碾子磨压农药制剂。粮仓灭虫时，严禁药剂与粮食直接接
触；
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（5）凡是有毒化学品,一定要在包装上注明“有毒”等明显的标志，经农药处理过的粮
食种子应有专仓专人保管，严防误食中毒；
（6）从市场上购回的蔬菜要用清水短时间浸泡、反复冲洗，既新鲜又干净、安全。水
果宜洗净削皮后食用。草莓、桑甚等水果用淡盐水浸泡可以消毒、杀菌；
（7）儿童食品严禁添加任何国家标准外的一些食品添加剂。
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Appendices
Appendix II Target Text
Chapter 7: Contamination and Toxicity of Food

Diseases caused by contaminated food are the most widespread health problem in the world.
Studies have shown that at least one-third of the major illness and death are related to foodborne
diseases. In addition, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and some tumors are also related to diet,
and more than 65% of human cancers are caused by food contamination.
In the early days of human civilization, different regions and ethnic groups formed taboos
related to food hygiene and safety to varying degrees based on long-term life experience. Two
thousand and five hundred years ago, Confucius, a famous sage in China, had proposed the
principle of Five no-eating, which means if you found deteriorated grain, spoiled fish and meat, do
not eat, a bad taste and smelly food, a terrible cook and non-seasonal food all do not eat. This is an
earlier view of food safety in China.
The main ways environmental poisonous substances enter our bodies are diet, breathing, and
skin. As the saying goes that the disease comes from our mouth. Food contaminated by germs,
pesticides, fertilizers or heavy metals can cause acute or chronic food poisoning if the human body
imperceptibly ingests these toxic substances. People’s eating habits, food hygiene and safety are
closely associated with the occurrence or consequences of foodborne diseases. Food poisoning
refers to a non-infectious acute and subacute disease caused by ingestion of toxic or harmful
substances along with food or ingestion of toxic or harmful substances while eating.
7.1 Food Poisoning
The potential sources of food hazards fall into three categories which listed as followed.
Endogenous hazards
It refers to naturally existing poisoned or harmful ingredients in food, such as Tetrodotoxin,
D(-)-Amygdalin hydrate, presenting with physiological effects components in food such as trypsin
inhibitors and nutrient imbalances in food, etc.
Exogenous hazards
Exogenous hazards include microbial contamination in food, such as orally transmitted
bacteria (viruses), bacterial toxins, fungal toxins, and food additives such as nitrite. Chemicals
accidentally infiltrate food, such as residual pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PHA)
in smoked food. And the other pollutants, like heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls, etc.
Induced hazards
It means that harmful substances in food or creatures undergo processing and storage, such as
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oxidation of oils and fats, nitrite reacts with amines or amides to generate N-nitroso compounds
and so on.
Food poisoning can be divided into four types, which are pathogenic chemicals, toxic animals
and plants, environmentally contaminated, bacteria and other microbial contamination.
Food poisoning usually shows its symbols in a short time, a sudden ongoing illness after
eating a certain food, often accompanied by vomiting, headache, diarrhea and other gastroenteritis
symptoms, severe coma, shock, and even death.
Food poisoning caused by microbial contamination in food is the most important public
health problem in terms of food safety. Microbial food poisoning tops all other types of food
poisoning, the most common of which is acute bacterial, caused by food contaminated with
pathogenic bacteria or toxins produced by bacteria. It has something to do with people’s eating
habits in different regions. For example, the United States likes to eat meat, eggs, pastries, etc. So,
staphylococcal food poisoning is most common; Japan likes to eat sashimi, and vibrio
parahaemolyticus food poisoning is the most common; in China, there are many edible livestock,
poultry, and eggs, so salmonella is also most common.
Biotoxins are divided into protein toxins and non-protein toxins based on their chemical
composition, with chemical structures including almost all types of chemical structures, such as
simple small molecule compounds, complex organic compounds, and even large molecule proteins.
The exotoxin produced by bacteria is a protein toxin, which is the most harmful to human beings,
such as botulinum toxin, tetanus toxin, and Shigella dysentery toxin. Their lethal doses for human
injection are all below the microgram level.
7.2 Bacteria and Its Toxins
Pathogenic microorganism, named pathogenic bacteria, refers to some diseased
microorganism in environmental animals or plants. There are also many non-pathogenic
saprophytic microorganisms in nature, some of which can cause food deterioration under certain
conditions, and some can produce toxic substances in the human body. Too careful to eat
food-container with saprophytic microorganisms or microbial toxins, people would be positioned
with different symptoms. The microorganisms that can produce toxins in food mostly are bacteria
and mold.
Bacterial food poisoning is the most common type in our life. Bacteria, the large branch of its
family, about a few microns in size, can be spherical, rod-shaped, arc-shaped, or spiral-shaped, and
dividing is its main mode of reproduction. Bacteria are divided into good and bad flora. It is a high
adapter to the environment; some can survive and reproduce at extremely low temperatures (e.g,
minus 18°C), while others can live at extremely high temperatures (plus 100°C) or even saturated
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salt solution.
Bacterial food poisoning often occurs during hot weather seasons. On the one hand, due to
high temperatures, it is suitable for the growth and reproduction of bacteria. On the other hand, the
defense function of the human gut decreases in summer, making it easy to get sick. The incidence
of bacterial food poisoning is high, except for pseudomonas and botulism, the rest of them have a
low fatality rate, fast recovery, and no leftover symptoms normally, but the elderly and weak may
cause death if rescue is not timely. Food poisoning is mainly caused by pathogens and their toxic
metabolites, and the various food with pathogens are mainly as follows:
Salmonella: raw meat, poultry, milk, eggs;
Clostridium perfringens: raw meat, poultry, vegetables, dried foods, spices;
Staphylococcus；raw milk, leftover rice etc;
Botulinum Toxin: raw or rare fish, seafood, cooked meats and certain vegetables;
Bacillus cereus: cereals, meat products, vegetables, dried foods, spices;
Vibrio parahaemolyticus: seafood, like fish, shrimp, crab, shellfish and others;
Colon bacillus: raw meat, poultry, vegetables, milk, dairy products;
Campylobacters: raw milk, poultry.
The most common bacterial toxins that includes salmonella, Staphylococcal enterotoxin
(SE) and botulinum.
7.2.1 Salmonella Toxins
There are many types of Salmonella, and the most common contributor of food poisoning are
Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonella enteritidis, Salmonella suipestifer, Salmonella hirschfeldi C
etc. Salmonellas does not produce exotoxins, but endotoxins are more toxic. Food poisoning
caused by it is generally for ingesting a large number of germs, The greater the number of viable
cells ingested, the greater the chance of poisoning. Salmonella food poisoning is infectious, the
main clinical symptoms are acute gastroenteritis, with vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain etc, and
central nervous system such as headache, high body temperature and other symptoms. The
incubation period of the disease is 12-36h, some cases keep in 6h or 48-72h. Salmonella food
poisoning has a high incidence and short incubation, but rare death. Its fatality rate nearly
0.3%-0.5% in recent years.
That mostly occurs from May to October each year especially from July to September. Most
cases are caused by animal food, especially meat, such as sick or dead livestock meat, sauce meat,
cooked meat, etc. Fish, poultry, and egg production, and very few are generated from plant foods.
Salmonella does not decompose proteins in meat and produced indole. In that way, the meat
contaminated with salmonella even multiplied in a considerable number, people would taste its
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changes in sensory. Therefore, people should take full heat to sterilize meat stored for a long time
even if does not spoil.
7.2.2 Staphylococcal Enterotoxin (SE)
Staphylococcus has three branches, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermis, and
Staphylococcus saprophytes, of which Staphylococcus aureus can produce enterotoxin in a
suitable environment. It is a simple protein composed of a single unbranched peptide chain
containing many lysine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, etc. Its relative molecular mass is about
30,000; the isoelectric point is 7.0-8.6, featuring soluble in water and insoluble in organic solvents
and highly heat-resistant. So, the general cooking temperature cannot remove its toxicity. Only
heated at 210℃-248℃ can eliminate for 30 min.
The main symptoms of food poisoning caused by Staphylococcus aureus are acute
gastroenteritis, such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, etc. Its incubation period is
mostly 2-5h, the shorter only 40m, people treated can be recovered within tens of hours. The food
suitable for Staphylococcus aureus to multiply and produce mainly includes milk and dairy
products, cured meat, eggs and starchy foods. Besides, contaminated food had sterilized, the living
bacteria cell can be killed and toxins still exists, which we should know.
7.2.3 Botulinum Toxins.
Botulinum toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum with strong toxicity to humans and
animals, is a strong neurotoxin, 0.01mg can be lethal and fatality rate of about 30%-80%. The
latent period is generally within 6-36h and sometimes lasted for 8-10 days. The shorter time, the
more severe disease. Symptoms first show of botulism are nausea, vomiting etc, and in severe
cases, respiratory paralysis and death, most of which occur within 3-7 days after the onset of the
disease.
Clostridium botulinum buds feature higher temperatures and are very sensitive to heat, thus
the toxin can be destroyed at 80℃ for 30 min or 100℃ for 10-20 min by heating.
Due to the botulinum toxin, more than 90% of the food poisoned comes from plant food in
our country, mainly soybean paste, stinky tofu, fermented soya beans, salted, or otherwise. If food
containing Clostridium botulinum is fermented that often happened in oxygen-deficient and high
temperatures, which can be reproduced.
7.3 Fungi Polluted and Mycotoxin Poisoning
Fungi are a major category of protozoan fungi. Fungi that can infect people or livestock are
called pathogenic fungi. Fungal toxic metabolites that can cause human or livestock poisoning are
called mycotoxins.
In the early 18th century, humans discovered that moldy grains could cause food poisoning in
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humans. In 1960, aflatoxin was found in the poisoning deaths of 100,000 turkeys in the UK, and
more than 200 kinds of mycotoxins have been found since then. Acute mycotoxins poisoning may
occur after people or animals ingest food or feed contaminated with toxins. Some mycotoxins are
ingested in small amounts, for a long time and continuously, and can also cause chronic poisoning
or cancer in humans or animals.
Mycotoxin poisoning has the following characteristics: (1) eating food contaminated by mold;
(2) general cooking methods, and heating treatment can not destroy or remove toxins in food; (3)
no infectivity or immunity; (4) obviously seasonal and regional.
7.3.1 Aflatoxin Poisoning
There are about 200 known mycotoxins and aflatoxin is just one of them, which of sixty
percent of the Aspergillus flavus can produce toxins. Aflatoxin, the most potent chemical
carcinogen we know, is 75 times more likely to cause liver cancer than dimethylnitrosamine. And
its toxicity is 100 times greater than dichlorvos, 68 times greater than arsenic (III) oxide and 10
times greater than potassium cyanide. It mainly causes cancers in the liver, gastric, kidney and
rectal and tumors in the breast, ovaries, small intestine and other parts.
Food is highly susceptible to aflatoxin contamination, especially grains, oil crops and
fermented food. When food in moldy, there is a yellow or yellow-green substance usually as
Aspergillus flavus. Owing to it, contaminated raw materials and products of food are a great
problem we faced, among of them the most easily contaminated is oil crops. So, the peanuts and
its processed products have the highest toxin, followed by soybeans, sesame seeds and cottonseeds.
There is a greater chance of contamination of maize and rice in grains.
Aflatoxin is relatively stable in neutral and acidic conditions, and heat resistant. So, we can
destroy 20% in boiling water for 2h and only reach 280℃ before lysis. The best approach to
prevent food poisoned is properly store it to prevent mildew and not eat them.
Among naturally contaminated foods, aflatoxin B1 is the most common, with the strongest
toxicity and carcinogenicity. The acute toxicity of aflatoxin is very strong, which can cause acute
toxic hepatitis. Continuous ingestion can also cause chronic poisoning, leading to liver
enlargement, severe fatty liver disease, and cirrhosis.
7.3.2 Ergot Poisoning
Ergot, which is shaped like an animal horn, is an important disease of wheat, barley, rye, rice,
millet, corn, sorghum and oats and other major grains. Among them, black ergot is the main
parasitic fungus that attacks cereal crops and causes ergot disease. Ergot poisoning will cause
when people and livestock eat ergot contaminated grains.
Poisoning can be caused by eating food containing more than 1% ergot, and fatal poisoning
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can be caused by the content of 7%.

7.3.3Metamorphic Sugarcane Poisoning
Metamorphic sugarcane poisoning is an acute food poisoning that damages the central
nervous system caused by a toxin (3-nitro propionic acid) produced by a fungus called Arthrinium.
It often happens in early spring (February-April) in northern China. Sugarcane produced in the
provinces of Guangdong, Guangxi and Fujian was transported and stored in the north for several
months during the winter. When a large number of sugarcanes accumulated and heated in places
lacking ventilation, so that it carried Arthrinium and produced poison in the suitable temperature
and humidity, which caused acute food poisoning when sold in the spring.
The outbreak of sugarcane poisoning is urgent, and the shortest incubation period is only 10
minutes. The victim’s name is a child. The initial symptoms of poisoning include dizziness,
vomiting, and visual impairment, followed by eye deviation, paroxysmal convulsions, limb rigidity,
flexion, pronation, hands presenting as chicken feet, coma to death, and diffuse changes in EEG.
5% -10% of children have sequelae of lifelong disability.
7.3.4 Patulin in Fruits
Fruit contains more than 80% water, its PH generally below 4.5, and acidic food that is
suitable for the growth of a variety of molds and yeast. After the mold infects fresh fruit, it can
make the peel soften and form disease spots, depression, soft pulp rot, and so on. Certain molds
can take advantage of the nutrients in the flesh of fresh fruits to multiply and produce toxins. The
juice of 1kg of rotten apples contained nearly 1mg of Patulin, and the toxin was still detectable in
flesh 1cm away from the rotten part.
Patulin produced by penicillium and aspergillus has carcinogenic and teratogenic effects on
experimental animals, mainly damaging the central nervous system. So far, people have found no
cases of patulin directly causing human diseases.
7.3.5 Prevention of Microbial Food Poisoning
The causes of food poisoning are often related to food storage temperature, time, handling
contamination, and personal hygiene. In response to the above controllable factors and successful
experiments in some countries, the World Health Organization has launched 10 measures to make
sure safe processed food:
(1) Make and eat now, not long;
(2) Food such as poultry, meat and milk must be cooked before consumption. Raw food is
easy to bring disease-causing pathogens;
(3) Choose processed food;
(4) Cooked food should be stored within 4-5h at high or low temperatures;
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(5) Cooked food that has been stored must be reheated before it can be eaten;
(6) Avoid contact between raw and cooked food, which will re-infect cooked food with
bacteria;
(7) Keep the kitchen clean and ensure that cooking utensils, knives and forks are clean;
(8) Wash hands before cooking food;
(9) Keep insects, rabbits, rats and other animals away from food;
(10) Keep drinking and cooking water clean and boil or disinfect it.
7.4 Toxins in Plant Foods
There are more than 300,000 species of plants in nature, but only a few hundred are used for
human consumption. China is rich in plant species, with over 1,300 poisonous plants belonging to
140 families.
Although food, drugs, and poisons are completely different concepts, many poisonous plants
are used as drugs, insecticides and sterilizers due to their strong biological activities. From the
view of chemistry, the difference between drugs and poisons is mainly in “quantity”. Sometimes
the toxic components in different parts of the plant content are different when the non-toxic parts
of the edible plant when the toxic parts of the plant are medicinal plants or toxic plants. Some of
the plants themselves have strong toxicity, which can lead to food poisoning if ingested. Some are
caused by ingestion of certain plants that have not removed their toxic components. According to
the nature of toxic substances contained in toxic plants, phytotoxin can be roughly divided into the
following categories.
1. Alkaloid Toxins
Alkaloids are a class of nitrogenous organic compounds, mostly crystalline solids, bitter and
pungent, insoluble or slightly insoluble in water, and soluble in organic solvents. Alkaloids
combines with acids can form salts that are more soluble in water than in organic solvents.
The main poisonous plants containing alkaloids are Mandala, red apex, sprouted potato,
poisonous celery and mushroom, and other plants. The alkaloids contained in these plants are toxic
to humans, mainly acting on the central nervous system and the botanical nervous system. Most of
the victims show nervous system dysfunction.
2. Cyanide Toxins
Cyanoside molecule contains cyanogen, featuring hydrolyzation that can produce
hydrocyanic acid. Such toxins are found in the pits of many edible plants, such as cassava, almond,
peach kernel, plum kernel, cherry kernel, bayberry kernel, flaxseed, and so on. They would
hydrolyze in the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, and intestines to form hydrogen cyanide. After the
human body absorbs it, the cyanide ion combines with iron in cytochrome oxidase, preventing
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cytochrome oxidase from transferring oxygen, inhibiting normal cell respiration, and causing
tissue hypoxia. It also increases the amount of carbon monoxide and lactic acid in the body and
falls into internal asphyxia. The hydrogen cyanide also acts on the respiratory and vascular center,
paralyzing them and ultimately causing death.
3. Saponin Toxins
Saponins are named alkali saponins, and their aqueous solution would generate bubbles like
soapy liquid after oscillation, so they are called saponins. It`s mostly white amorphous powder and
rarely crystalline compounds and relatively large molecular. Insoluble in benzene, ether,
chloroform, and other organic solvents and soluble in water for its nature. These toxins are found
in legumes, such as acacia and soap pods and also found in autumn green beans. This toxin can
lead to hemolysis and stimulate the gastrointestinal tract and affects the function of the central
nervous system, which shows excitement and then paralyzed the respiratory center until death.
4. Protein Toxins
The seeds of some plants contain toxic proteins, which remain in the oil residue after being
pressed, such as mace, croton, and acacia bean. The toxic components in castor beans are mainly
ricin, with a content of 2.8%-3.0%. Ricin is the highest toxin in toxic plants, which can be
destroyed by high temperatures and eliminated by boiling for more than 2 hours. Pure ricin is
colorless and odorless crystallization, stable to heat, acid, and base. It has a long incubation period,
generally 1-3 days, mostly 18-24h after eating. Patients initially feel an intense stimulation of the
larynx and a burning sensation; in severe cases, there can be hemifacial, coma, drop in blood
pressure, and due to liver, kidney, and heart failure, eventually to death. It is 385 times more toxic
than a nerve agent and 6,000 times more toxic than cyanide; a 70-100 ㎍ can be fatal. So, ricin can
kill an adult with as few as eight seeds and a child with two to six. If mixed with food or drinking
water, it can devastate a community, and there is no specific cure for it. That also triggered a major
concern for some terrorist groups and extremists. It has been used in many international espionage
activities. For example, a famous activity “Markov Umbrella Case” happened in London in 1978.
A Bulgarian agent who had defected to the UK was poisoned by a specially made ricin umbrella
from the former Soviet Union. The USA Centers for Disease Control listed allium toxin as a
medium-threat biotoxin weapon after then.
The main toxic component in Croton is crotin, which is a kind of toxic globulin. It has strong
stimulation and corrosion effect on gastrointestinal mucosa and can cause nausea, vomiting, and
abdominal pain. Crotin has poor heatproof and loses its toxicity when encounters heating. A
quarter drop of croton oil can cause severe diarrhea and 20 drops can cause death.
Acacia bean leaves, roots, and seeds all contain toxins, with seeds being the most toxic. The
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seeds contain acacia protein (red-bean toxin), which causes the cell to agglomerate at very low
concentrations (1:100, 000). The symptoms of poisoning are nausea, vomiting, and colic. In severe
cases, coma, respiratory and circulatory failure, and acute renal failure lead to death.
5. Nitrite
Some vegetables such as cabbage, spinach, leek, and beet leaves contain more nitrate, and
under certain conditions, it can be reduced to nitrite. Nitrite can make the normal low
methemoglobin in the blood into methemoglobin (MHB) so that the blood of methemoglobin
greatly increased and forms methemoglobinemia. The methemoglobin not only loses its function
of carrying oxygen, but also prevents the release of normal hemoglobin, resulting in tissue hypoxia,
which can lead to dyspnea, circulatory failure, coma, and even death.
In addition to the above toxins, other poisonous plants are listed in table7-1
Table 7-1 Other Poisonous Plants
Poisoning Toxic
Symptoms Preventives
Types Substance
Sprouting potatoes Solanine: potatoes Solanine has a strong stimulating effect on the gastrointestinal 1.Store in a low-temperature,
poisoning (potatoes generally sprout in mucosa, a paralyzing effect on the respiratory center, and can non-direct sunlight area or bury
poisoning) spring and its buds cause cerebral edema and congestion. Human cannibalism with sand to prevent sprouting.
contain a lot of 0.2-0.4g can cause poisoning throat scratching and burning 2.Do not eat potatoes with too
Solanine;skin in sensation in the middle stage of poisoning, followed by many sprouts and black-green
potatoes that with gastrointestinal symptoms, severe vomiting, and diarrhea. skin.
black and green also Severe cases can be caused by heart failure, respiratory 3.Thoroughly remove the buds,
has this toxin paralysis, and death. bud eyes, and surrounding part
s.
4.Solanine decompose when exp
osed to acid, and a small
amount of vinegar can be addd
during cooking.
Kidney bean poison Phytohemagglutinnin, The incubation period lasts for tens of minutes to 10 ho Stir fry well when cooking
ing (Beans, kidney saponin urs, and digestive and neurological symptoms such as na
beans, hyacinth usea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, dizziness, and h
bean) eadache may occur
Poisonous mushroo The main toxins are Gastroenteritis symptoms, neuropsychiatric symptoms, lytic Master the morphological
m poisoning can ha gastrointestinal toxin, symptoms, substantial organ damage symptoms, and characteristics of various poison
ve immediate onset neurotoxin, blood vegetative solar dermatitis symptoms. In particular, delayed ous mushrooms, learn folk expe
(such as fly agaric toxin, plasma toxin intoxication often follows gastrointestinal symptoms with a rience, improve the ability to
poisoning) and del and so on false recovery period, and then suddenly worsens with identify poisonous mushrooms,pr
ayed onset (such as symptoms of liver, kidney, and other organs injury. event the occurrence of accident
Amanita verna, A al ingestion poisoning.
matoxin, Amanita vi
rosa, Lepiota helveo
la poisoning)
Fresh day lily colchicine The incubation period is 0.5-4h, with nausea, vomiting, a Soaked in water or scalded in
Poisoning bdominal pain, diarrhea, dizziness, headache, xerostomia boiling water and thoroughly fried
and dry throat before eating or drying (colchicine
is easily soluble in water)
Ginkgo seed Ginkgolic acids The incubation period is 1-12h. In addition to gastrointestinal Do not eat raw ginkgo or spoiled
Poisoning symptoms, headaches and convulsions often occur. In severe ginkgo, raw ginkgo to remove the
cases, people lose consciousness and coma, and die within 1-2 shell, add water boiling hot boil
days through, discard water for
consumption
Ricinus communis Tetrahydrocannabino 1-4h after food onset, dizziness, dry mouth, nausea, limbs Do not eat castor oil, its
oil Poisoning l, cannabidiol, canna numbness, severe cases of abnormal excitement, then container should be clearly mar
binol turn to depression, lethargy ked to prevent ingestion
Moentjang tina Eleostearic acid, Iso After eating l hour, severe vomiting, diarrhea, toxin Store separately from cooking oil,
Poisoning aleuric acid absorption into the blood, gastroenteritis, and albuminuria oil storage containers are clearly
marked to avoid ingestion
Cottonseed oil goss Gossypol Symptoms of low fever, dizziness and headache occurred Do not eat cottonseed oil
ypol poisoning 1-4 hours after eating. Nausea, vomiting, abdominal that has not been refined
pain, diarrhea, severe cases may be due to respiratory and detoxicated, and the
paralysis, cardiac dysfunction and even death content of free gossypol
should not exceed 0.02%
after heating and alkali refining
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Castor seed oil pois Ricinine, ricin About a day after ingestion, acute gastroenteritis symptoms, To prevent ingestion, containers
oning hemorrhagic dysentery, severe cases of jaundice, containing castor oil should be
hemoglobinuria, convulsions, coma, and even death clearly marked
Darnel Temulentine The incubation period is 0.5-4h, with dizziness, nausea, Don’t mix the wheat with darnel
vomiting, blurred vision, abdominal pain, convulsions, red
ness, chills, rapid heart rate
Stizolobium cochinc Dizziness, nausea, vomiting, joint pain, numbness of Add water to boil remove,soak in
hinens poisoning Glycosides biotoxins hands and feet, abdominal pain, abdominal distension and water for 3-5 days, bleach until
frequent urination, convulsions colorless before cooking
Siberian cocklebur Xanthine, toxin, The incubation period is 4-5h, the first gastrointestinal Prevent eating xanthium
poisoning alkaloid symptoms, then headache, coma, convulsion, severe cases seeds, xanthium buds
of jaundice, anuresis, finally respiratory paralysis death
Uncooked soybean trypsin inhibitors Nausea, vomiting, bloating, diarrhea, etc. occurred after 0.5-lh Soybean milk should be boiled
milk poisoning and heated for several minutes
before eating
Hemlock poisoning Coniine 0.5h after eating, he developed bitter mouth, burning The vertical cut surface of
sensation in mouth, throat and stomach, dizziness, headache, hemlock root has dense flaky
nausea, vomiting, quadriplegia, and finally died of respiratory separation, but watercress does
paralysis not. Don't pick cress by mistake
when picking cress
7. 5 Contamination and Toxins in Animal Foods

7.5.1 Contamination and Toxicity of Livestock Diseases
1. Anthrax Infected
Anthrax is an infectious disease in cattle, sheep, and horses. The pathogen is bacillus
anthracis, which is greatly dangerous to humans and animals and without effective treatment for
now. Skin contact or air inhalation is the main channel of infection in humans, but gastrointestinal
anthrax can be caused by food contaminated with anthrax while eating.
Bacillus anthracis, would die at a temperature of 55℃-58℃ for 10-15min before spore with
weak resistance, However, it only could be killed at 140℃ in the process of calefaction for 3min
or at 100℃ steaming in 5min, which has strong resistance.
Livestock suffering from acute anthrax (electric shock type) loses consciousness, suddenly
falls ill and shakes to death, bleeding from the seven orifices, difficulty breathing, incomplete
blood coagulation, and a dark pitch-like appearance. The main lesions are the submaxillary lymph
nodes, pharyngeal lymph nodes, and mesenteric lymph nodes, which are brick red in cross-section
and swollen and hardened.
As its virulence, anthrax is used by some people to make biological weapons.
2. Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD)
Foot and mouth disease has always been listed as the first infectious disease among Class A
animals by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the Office International Des Epizooties (OIE).
It is an acute, febrile, and contagious infectious disease caused by a virus in Diacodexis,
commonly found in cattle, sheep, and pigs. The pathogen is the foot-and-mouth disease virus,
which is found in the saliva, feces, meat, and milk of infected animals. People are infected due to
frequent consumption of raw milk or other unsterilized animal products, or contact with diseased
animals.
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The symptoms of the disease show a slight rise in body temperature, xerostomia, fever, mouth
pain, flushing of the mouth mucosa, small and regular blisters and rot at the corners of the mouth
and lips, inflammatory or blisters between the toes and ulceration in a few days later.
3. Mad Cow Disease
Mad cow disease, also known as bovine spongiform encephalopathy, is a serious infectious
disease that harms the central nervous system of cattle. Cattle infected with this disease gradually
become spongy like cheese-like bodies, like a “brain paste”, ultimately leading to death. Mad cow
disease spread on a large scale in the UK in the mid-1980s and later spread to countries such as
France. In 1996, it was found in the UK that eating beef can cause a similar and fatal disease in
humans, which is a new variant of creutzfeldt-jakob disease. It has been identified that animal
protein feed is the “main channel” for transmitting mad cow disease.
7. 5.2 Polluted and Toxic of Fish and Shellfish
There are about 170 poisonous fish species in China. According to the toxic parts and the
nature of toxins, we can divide them into 8 kinds as followed, dolphin poisonous, high histamine
containing, gall poisonous, muscle toxic, liver toxic, ichthyootoxic fish, serum toxic, and mucus
toxic fish.
1. Tetrodotoxin
Among Marine fish, there are about 500 toxic species, the pufferfish being the most common.
Its meat is delicious, but the viscera, ovaries, blood, skin, head, and other parts with highly toxic.
If improper processing or ingestion can cause losing of one’s life.
Tetrodotoxin is a kind of alkaloid, insoluble in water, and easily decomposes in an alkaline
solution. It is not stable in the blow of PH3 and above PH7. It is non-toxic when keep in the
sodium hydroxide solution with 4% for 20mins. For its thermostability, about 20% of the toxins
were destroyed while heating to 100℃ for 30min, and heating to 120℃ within 20mins, some
toxins still remained. Tetrodotoxin is a severe neurotoxin that can paralyze nerve cells in 30
minutes. It has been reported that 0.5 ㎎ of tetrodotoxin can kill a person. It mainly paralyzes the
nerves, inhibits the respiratory center, and finally died from respiratory paralysis. Puffer fish
poisoning is mostly accidental eating. Eating it during 10-45 minutes, the lip and tip of the tongue
will numb, then the wrist and limbs gradually being dull and numb. And there are movement
disorders, no sound, dysphagia, blood pressure dropped, arrhythmia, and severe cases that will
show unconsciousness, respiratory arrest, and death.
Tetrodotoxin is not only found in pufferfish but also in Marine creatures such as Salamander,
Charonia tritonis, and Astropectinidae. It is produced from conch and symbiotic bacteria and
accumulates in the pufferfish through the food chain.
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2. Histamine in Fish
For fish muscle with green skin and red meat contains more hemoglobin, so their histidine is
higher. Being contaminated bacteria that are rich in histidine decarboxylated and in a suitable
condition, a large of histidine will be decomposed and decarboxylated to produce histamine.
Eating fish containing high histamine will cause allergic poisoning, which usually shows
symptoms during 1-3 hours after ingestion. Its main are headache, dropped blood pressure,
accelerated heart rate, vomiting and diarrhea, and other symptoms.
There are many fish species with high histamine, green skin, and red meat, such as decapterus
maruadsi, mackeral, pneumatophorus japonicus, tuna, sardines and so on. That can cause allergic
symptoms in humans, such as blushing, dizziness, heartbeat, shortness of breath, and decreased
blood pressure. The main cause of the disease is fish spoilage, incomplete pickling, or failure to
remove internal organs.
3. Toxic Bile of Fish
Bile poison fish covers black carp, grass carp, chub, carp, and other fish. Contained bile toxin
in bile can damage humans who ingested the liver and kidney, nervous system, and circulatory
system symptoms that main reason is eating bile from fish. The onset of toxin is a rapid and severe
illness and finally died in eight or nine days.
4. Paralytic Toxin in Shellfish
Peridineae of marine plankton, many of them contain toxins. Some non-toxic shellfish ingest
the poisonous algae that contained toxins, and humans eat those poisoned shellfish to show a
reaction. Initially, the tongue, lips, and fingers feel numb, then passed to the limbs and neck,
accompanied by headache thirst, vomiting, and other symptoms. Some severe cases show
difficulty breathing, suffocation, and death.
The paralytic toxin in shellfish is stable to heat and cannot be eliminated by cooking. Only
can be removed keep stocked in clean water for 1-3 weeks.
7. 5.3 Preventions in Animal Food Poisoning
To prevent animal food poisoning, we should take the following precautions:
(1) Do not eat poultry and domestic animals that have died of disease;
(2) Livestock and other meat must be processed and cooked before eating, avoid eating raw
food or half-cooked meat products;
(3) Resolutely refuse to eat wild animals;
(4) Do not eat fish caught along the coast that we do not know well or have not eaten before.
Table 7-2 lists some other cases of toxic animal poisoning.
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Appendices
Table 7-2 Some Toxic Animals Poisoning

Poisoning
Toxic Substance Symptoms Preventives
Types
Toxic honey Varies depending on the Latent period of 24-48 hours. Clinical symp Pay attention to the toxic plants of the
poisoning toxic plants of the honey toms are more prominent in the digestive honey source and strengthen honey testing
source. In China, there tract, nervous system, and kidneys, such as work. Suspected toxic honey to
are mainly plants dry mouth, numbness in the lips and industrial use and do not consume it
alkaloids such as tongue, nausea, vomiting, dizziness,
wilfordine, Tripterygium headache, fever, abdominal pain, upper
hypoglaucum, and plants renal pain, and liver enlargement.
of Gelsemium Juss.
Fish egg poisoning Short incubation period, nausea, vomiting, During the spawning season, fish eggs
(such as Qinghai abdominal pain, diarrhea, some have dry are highly toxic and should be removed
Lake naked carp, Fish egg toxin, mouth, dizziness, fast pulse, chest tightness, thoroughly. During processing and
beluga carp, toxic globulin etc. Severe cases may experience spasms, pickling, fish eggs must also be removed
grouper, catfish, convulsions, coma, or even shock. During
etc.) the spawning season, fish eggs are highly
toxic and should be removed thoroughly.
Animal liver and Acute poisoning of bile Headache, skin flushing, nausea, vomiting, Do not excessive consumption of animal
fish liver poisoning acid and vitamin A, abdominal discomfort, loss of appetite, liver
followed by peeling, generally can heal by
themselves
Fish bile poisoning cytotoxicity, and Short incubation period, nausea, vomiting, Do not blindly consume fish bile for
(such as grass neurotoxins abdominal pain, diarrhea, liver and kidney treatment. When using it, follow medical
carp,carp chub, and damage, neurological abnormalities, severe advice and do not overdo it
black carp) poisoning, shock, coma and death
Ciguatoxin Ciguatoxin, maitotoxin, The incubation period is several hours, and Do not consume poisonous fish (Sphyraen
poisoning (toxic fish parrotfish toxin (20 the main symptoms are nausea, vomiting, us, sea bass, andpagrosomus major)) and
muscle viscera and times more toxic than sensory abnormalities, motor disorders, mollusks
gonad, in some globefish) dizziness, muscle weakness, etc. Most
mollusks) patients die from respiratory paralysis
Thyroid poisoning Thyroxine The incubation period is 12-24 hours. When The thyroid gland should be removed to
slaughtering livestock, dizziness, headache, avoid accidental ingestion
mania, convulsions, palpitations, symptoms
of gastroenteritis, excessive sweating, fever,
hair loss, peeling, hand tremors, etc
Adrenaline Adrenaline The incubation period is short, and the main When slaughtering livestock, the adrenal
poisoning symptoms are pain in the pit of the heart, glands are removed to avoid accidental
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dizziness, and ingestion
tachycardia. Some patients have pale faces,
dilated pupils, and a aversion to cold.
7.6 Toxins Produced in Food Processing

Some of the toxins produced in the process of food processing are exogenous. For example,
to help maintain the nutrition and food quality in the processing, packaging, transportation, and
storage, some food additives are properly used. If used too much or improperly, the food will
contain toxic. Some changes happen in the processing, such as peroxides of oil and so on. Several
toxins are commonly produced in food processing.
1．N-nitroso Compounds
N-nitroso compounds include two types: nitrosamines and nitrosamines. Among the more
than 120 N-nitroso compounds that have been tested, 92 have been confirmed to cause cancer in
animals, and no animal has been spared. There are also reports on the carcinogenic effect on
human beings. It is preliminarily determined that there has nasopharyngeal cancer, esophageal
cancer, gastric cancer, liver cancer, and bladder cancer.
Nitrosamines are not easily hydrolyzed and are relatively stable under neutral and alkaline
conditions. They can slowly decompose under acidic or ultraviolet light irradiation. Nitrite amine
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is relatively active and unstable under both acidic and alkaline conditions.
The content of N-nitroso compounds in natural foods is very low, usually below 10μg•kg-1.
But precursors of these substances are widely present in nature, such as nitrites and amines. These
precursor substances can form nitrosamines and nitrosamines under suitable conditions. Nitrates
and nitrites are widely distributed in food, especially in vegetables with high levels, such as celery
(629mg • kg-1), chives (423mg • kg-1), and radishes (337mg • kg-1).
Nitrate and nitrite are often used as color formers in meat-curing products. They can fix and
enhance meat color, increase food flavor, and inhibit the growth of bacteria, especially botulinum.
Nitrate can be reduced to nitrite in food, water or the gastrointestinal tract to produce toxicity. In
particular, the ability of infants to secrete gastric acid is lower than that of adults. When they eat
food containing nitrate, it is more likely to be poisoned by nitrite. As food additives, nitrate and
nitrite entered the human body may form nitrite amine compounds with carcinogenic effects under
certain conditions.
At present, it is found that the content of nitrosamines is higher in some specially processed
foods. For example, fish and meat are rich in amines, and the condiments used in curing often
contain nitrosamine precursors, such as nitrate in crude table salt. Sometimes people also directly
add nitrate and nitrite to fish and meat products as colorants and bacteriostat. Under suitable
conditions, the above substances can form nitrite amine. Therefore, China stipulates that the
amount of sodium nitrate used in meat products and meat cans shall not exceed 0.5g•kg-1, and the
amount of sodium nitrite shall not exceed 0.15g•kg-1; The residual amount is calculated by sodium
nitrite, and it shall not exceed 0.05g•kg-1 for canned meat and 0.03g•kg-1 for meat products. Many
Japanese people suffer from gastric cancer, which is related to eating pickles and sea fish. Because
there are more amine compounds in sea fish and more nitrate and nitrite in pickled vegetables, they
can be combined into nitrite amine in the body.
Spinach, celery, and other vegetables contain high levels of nitrate. Vegetables containing
nitrate will be converted into nitrite under suitable processing conditions. For example, pickled
vegetables contain a type of white mold that can reduce the nitrate contained in the vegetables to
nitrite.
Nitrate and nitrite are often used as food preservatives. In ancient times, people used “nitrates”
to pickle meat products. Nitrate will be converted into nitrite under anoxic conditions, so the actual
anti-corrosion effect comes from nitrite. Amine compounds in food are found in meat and fish.
Although the precursors of synthetic nitrosamines and nitrite amine exist in our food, as long as
we do not eat moldy food and have good eating habits, we can reduce the synthesis of carcinogens
in our bodies.
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Appendices
In addition to the above the intake of nitrate, nitrite, protein, and so on as precursors in the
body synthesis of nitrosamines, nitrite amine in daily life are also produced in such occasions:①
tobacco contains nicotine in the combustion of 4-dimethylnitrosamine-1 - (2-pyridine) -1-butanone
(NNK), it is the main pathogenic factor of lung cancer;②The strong carcinogen nitroso pyrrolidine
can be produced in the frying of salted meat processed with nitrite.③some drugs, pesticides, and
cosmetics enter the body, they react with the nitrite entered at the same time to produce nitrite
compounds. For example, drugs such as terramycin, and amidopyrine, and pesticides such as
chloroxuron and dimefox can be converted into corresponding nitrite amine compounds in the
stomach.
People who consume large amounts of nitrate and nitrite are susceptible to metheminemia.
This disease is more common in infants, and its clinical manifestations are cyanosis of lips and
nails, purple spots in the skin, and other symptoms of hypoxia. Because the ferrohemoglobin,
which undertakes the oxygen transport task, turns into methemoglobin under the action of nitrite, it
loses its original ability to bind to oxygen, resulting in hypoxia in the body.
Nitrite is one of the most acutely toxic substances in food additives. The amount of poisoning
is 0.3-0.5g and the fatal amount is 3g. Deaths from nitrate and nitrite poisoning have occurred in
many areas of our country. In addition to acute toxicity, the nitrate and nitrite that enter the human
body through various channels will also be transformed into carcinogenic nitroamine compounds
in the body. Nitroamine can be synthesized by nitrite and secondary amines in the human stomach,
if amines or amides and nitrate, and nitrite are exist in food together, nitrosamine can be formed.
Nitrates are easily converted to nitrite in human saliva or gastric juice. Besides, various meat
can provide protein of the amino group, amino acids, and dimethylamine contained in fish
(especially fish roe). These foods can decompose amino groups in the cooking or in the metabolic
process of the human body, and further combine with nitroso to generate nitrosamine compounds,
this process is called nitrosylation. Halogen ion, thiocyanate group and thiourea, and other
substances can promote nitrosylation in the human body, and the rank of their strength on it is
SOT42- <Cl- <Br- <SCN- <I- <thiourea.
The method to eliminate the carcinogenicity of nitrosamines in food is not only to limit the
amount of nitrate and nitrite used in food and the content of nitrosamines but also to block the
generation of nitrosamines in the body. Vitamin C can block nitrosamines, while vitamin A has the
carcinogenic effect of inhibiting nitrosamines. Substances that have a significant inhibitory effect
on nitrite include allicin, tea polyphenols, etc. So, vitamin C, vitamin A, garlic, green tea, and
others have inhibitory effects on the carcinogenesis of nitrosamines. People should pay attention to
supplementing meat with convenience foods such as ham sausages and lunch meat.
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The formation process of nitrosamines requires certain conditions, coupled with the human
body's own immune function. Generally, the content of nitrosamines in food is not harmful to
humans. We should pay attention to some long-term dietary habits to avoid health crises.
2．Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH)
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) are chemical carcinogens with large quantities,
in living organisms. More than 200 PAH have been discovered, of which more than 10 have potent
carcinogenic effects, and Benzoapyrene (Bap) is a major food contaminant among PAH
compounds.
The content of PAH in natural food is very low, and larger amounts of PAH in some foods
mainly come from processing and environmental pollution. For example, some food is
contaminated by direct contact with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) produced by fuel
combustion when it is smoked, grilled, or scorched during processing. Lipids in food also can form
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a pyrolyzed or polymerized at high temperatures, the thermal
polymerization of lipids at 700℃, can be produced 1.2-8.88mg (Bap) per 1kg. In the process of
grilled meat, the fat dropped on the fire can also produce Benzoapyrene (Bap) by thermally
polymerizing and adhering to the surface of the meat. The authorities have done a sample survey
and found that the amount of Benzoapyrene (Bap) per 1kg of mutton kebabs greatly exceeded the
food standard(1 ㎍•kg-1) set by the WTO. No Bap was detected in fish, meat, and poultry before
processing, and the content of Bap in smoked products after processing was the highest (4.65 ㎍
•kg-1), followed by fried products (0.791 ㎍•kg-1), baked goods (0.641 ㎍•kg-1), pickled products
(0.581 ㎍•kg-1), while the steamed products were not detected. It can be seen that the content of
Bap in food is closely related to cooking and processing methods. The incidence rate of gastric
cancer is twice as high as that in general areas after long-term consumption of smoked food.
Therefore, it is better not to grill food with flame, but to use an electric furnace or high-quality fuel
in the process of food drying and smoking. The polluted of oil, packaging materials (such as
paraffin in wax paper and ink in waste newspaper contain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) and
the polluted of coal tar and asphalt in asphalt roads etc, are all ways to cause food polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons polluted during food processing.
The main measures to prevent PAH-contaminated food prevent directly polluted food. Do not
smoke while eating; do not dry grain on asphalt roads; choose an electric furnace or high-quality
fuel; avoid direct contact between food and charcoal fire and eat less fried food and do not
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repeatedly use heated oil as well as do not use wax paper or waste paper even other papers when
wrapping food for immediate consumption.
3. Toxicity Caused by Additives
It is necessary to properly use some food additives during the processing, packaging,
transportation, and storage so that it can maintain nutrition, enhance the sensory properties and
extend food storage time. However, the amount used should be controlled at the lowest and most
effective levels. If used too much or improperly, it will bring toxicity to the food.
At present, it is believed that food additives cause toxicity, mainly in the following aspects.
1) Contamination of impurities in food additives
Food poisoning caused by harmful impurities in additives often occurs at home and abroad.
The arsenic poisoning incident in Japanese milk powder was caused by the addition of excessive
disodium hydrogen phosphate (containing 3% to 9% of arsenic), which poisoned 10, 000 infants
and killed 130.
2) Cause an Allergic Reaction
Saccharin can cause skin pruritus and solar allergic dermatitis. Many substances in spices can
cause inflammation of respiratory organs, cough, swollen throat, skin itching, constipation,
headache, edema, and arthritis.
3) Internal Accumulation Problem
In some countries, vitamin A is added to children's food as a fortifier. Because it is fat soluble,
it can accumulate in the body. If these fortifiers are added to mayonnaise, milk powder and
beverages. After 3-6 months of continuous ingestion, they will cause anorexia, weight loss,
insomnia and other symptoms. Excessive intake of vitamin D can also lead to increased serum
calcium and total cholesterol and excessive deposition of bone marrow calcium, which may lead to
a lack of appetite, vomiting, constipation, weight loss, growth stagnation, etc.
4) Problems of Transformation in Food Additives
After food additives are added to food and get into the human body to cause transformed
problems. Some products that experienced transformation are toxic. For example, in food in the
process of storage, ringworm red pigment is converted into endo fluorescein, and saccharin is
metabolized into cyclohexylamine in the body. The content of these substances is too high and
they are toxic to the human body.
7.7 Contaminated food by Harmful Chemicals in the Environment
The pollution and poisoning of chemicals in food mainly include pesticides, fertilizers,
hormones and so on.
Chemical food poisoning refers to the acute poisoning process in which a healthy person
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ingests a normal amount of food without sensory abnormality, but contains some or several
“chemical poisons”. The poisons that enter the human body with food have abnormal effects on
the body tissues’ organogenesis, damage the human body’s normal physiological functions, and
cause functional or organic pathological changes.
Chemical food poisoning accounts for about one-third of the total food poisoning in China
every year. The common ones include organic phosphorus, organochlorine (broad-spectrum
insecticides), organic mercury (agricultural fungicides), arsenides (arsenic, rice foot poison, etc.),
lead compounds, and methanol.
The main characteristics of chemical food poisoning are (1) Rapid onset, short incubation
period, and mostly within a few minutes to hours; (2) Severe poisoning, long time in the disease,
higher morbidity and mortality; (3) There were no obvious seasonal and regional effects, and no
specific food poisoning; (4) ingestion of highly toxic chemicals or food contaminated with toxic
chemicals; (5) Sporadic onset, greater chance.
A variety of chemical pollutants with food continuously get into the body, accumulating for a
long time in the body to reveal chronic harm (such as the melamine milk powder incident), which
of these hazards have a potential impact on people.
The long-term harm of chemical pollutants mainly refers to “three carcinogenic effects”,
which are named carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic. Carcinogenic chemicals pollute the air,
water and soil and directly or indirectly pollute our food. If enter into human body, they would
cause cancer. About 90% of cancers are caused by chemicals and about 35% of them are related to
food. Some chemical pollutants can cause genetic information and genetic material of biological
cells to mutate so that the daughter cells after division have new genetic characteristics different
from the mother cells. Certain chemical pollutants can cause mutations in the genetic information
and genetic material of biological cells, so the dividing daughter cells have new genetic
characteristics that differ from those of the mother cells. Even some chemical pollutants enter the
fetus’s placenta, causing fetal malformations.
7. 7.1 Pollution of Pesticides on Food
Humans use pesticides to eliminate plant diseases, pests and weeds to ensure a stable and
high yields in grains. At present, there are various chemical pesticides about 1,400 in the world,
which are divided into insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, plant growth regulators, grain
fumigants, etc as usage.
Pesticides play a positive role in higher agricultural yields, but extensive use also causes food
pollution. Initially, we sprayed many pesticides on farmland, vegetable fields or fruit trees,
grassland, and forests to prevent some insects from damaging them. However, pesticides have also
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killed beneficial insects and birds and caused damage to soil, plants, and rivers, bringing pollution,
poisoning, and even death to humans, animals, etc. Long-term use of pesticides also makes pests
stronger and more resistant, and we only have to increase the amounts of pesticides. As a result,
crops have absorbed a large number of these pesticides, and people have ingested the seriously
polluted grain products for a long time, which greatly affects our health. The ways in which
pesticides polluted food mainly include the following aspects:
(1) Food crops are directly polluted when farmland is used.
(2) Polluted aquatic products through irrigation water.
(3) Food crops polluted by pesticides deposited in the soil.
(4) Polluted food crops by floating pesticides in the atmosphere.
(5) The pesticide residues in the feed are transferred into livestock food.
1. Organochlorine Pesticides
Organochlorine is a kind of high-efficiency broad-spectrum pesticide with good stability,
insoluble or slightly soluble in water. Thus, it is uneasy to degrade in nature, enriched in organisms
as well as left in food for a long time. Entering the body, that can be accumulated in adipose tissue
for a long time due to its fat solubility, which is mainly divided into benzene and cyclopentadiene
as raw materials. The former includes hexachlorocyclohexane and DDT, acaricidal agents such as
tedion and dicofol, and bactericides such as pentachloronitrobenzene, chlorothalonil and
Daofengning. The latter include chlordane, heptachlor, aldrin etc. Besides, turpentine-based
camphene insecticides, camphechlor, and terpene-based terpene polychlorinated are the branches
of the latter. Organochlorine pesticides mainly exist in the husks (skins) of food crops. Some or all
pesticides can be removed by processing and peeling and some can be heated to remove. That
toxicity to the human body is mainly invading the nervous system and causing hematopoietic
organ disorders.
2. Organophosphorus Pesticides
Organophosphorus compounds are insecticides that with efficient, broad-spectrum, and
fast-decomposed. There are pesticides with highly toxic to humans and animals, such as parathion
and phosphorus, and some with low toxicity, such as dimethoate and chlorophenols. It is greatly
easy to decompose in nature and left in food in a short time. There is more acute poisoning as it
rapidly decomposed in organisms, and the main reason to poison is the contamination of food by
organophosphorus pesticides. Organic phosphorus mainly inhibits cholinesterase. When the human
body loses the ability to decompose acetylcholine and a large amount of them accumulates in the
body to cause nervous system dysfunction and show a series of symptoms. In terms of mild cases,
the persons would experience dizziness, atony, drowsiness, muscle tremor, spasm, miosis, elevated
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blood pressure, rapid heartbeat, dyspnea, pulmonary edema, speech disorders, and even to death in
severe cases. Organophosphorus pesticides can enter the human body through the respiratory tract,
skin, mucous membrane, and digestive tract. Some pesticides can cause delayed neurotoxicity in
people who ingest them by mistake.
3. Organic Mercury Pesticides
Organic mercury pesticides commonly used in China, like Xilisheng (ethylmercury chloride),
Sailisan (phenylmercuric acetate) and Gurenle (ethylmercury phosphate) and others pesticides,
which are mainly used to seed for treat and prevent rice blast. These mercury-containing pesticides
are highly toxic to higher animals, with a half-life of 10-30 years in the soil. Some types of
mercury are accessible in the body, and some can combine with organic matter to convert into
highly toxic methyl and ethyl mercury. They can then combine with proteins to form substances
disrupting important enzyme activity. For high residual toxicity, they have been replaced by
organic sulfur pesticides.
Some kinds of mercury are free in the body, and some can combine with organic matter in
the body to transform into highly toxic methylmercury and ethyl mercury, which can then combine
with proteins to form substances that destroy the activity of important enzymes. Due to high
residual toxicity, it has been replaced by organic sulfur pesticides.
4. Arsenide
The compound arsenic is one of the earliest man-made drugs by humans, known as Arsene.
Among the artificial drugs of arsenic, arsphenamine is the most representative that is used to kill
trypanosome and syphilis.
Most of them are white powder or crystals with highly toxic, such as arsenic trioxide and rice
Zinc methane arsenate etc. Other arsenic compounds, like calcium arsenate, calcium arsenite, and
lead arsenate, are widely used to kill agricultural pests. Similar in appearance to salt and starch,
they are easy to be eaten by mistake.
In the case of acute poisoning, the patient has a burning sensation in the esophagus, nausea,
severe vomiting, diarrhea, decreased temperature and blood pressure. As for severe patients have
restlessness, limb pain, convulsions, coma, and uremia. Arsenide poisoning also leads to severe
damage to skin mucous membrane, which shows that hyperkeratosis of the skin, including ecdysis,
alopecia, pigmentation (dark brown or gray diffuse plaque), white stripes on nails, erosion and
congestion of eye conjunctiva, nasal septum, oral cavity, etc.
5. Carbamate Pesticide
Carbamate pesticides, such as carbaryl, carbofuran, métholcarb, and Hopcide, are new
insecticides. They have strong insecticidal selectivity, fast action, and are less prone to accumulate
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poisoning in the human body, making them widely used. It can inhibit cholinesterase in vivo so
that it does not form carbamate, and can synthesize nitrosamine carcinogen with nitrite.
6. Herbicide
Herbicides are pesticides to weed or control weeds.
In recent years, there is a short but strong “rootless soybean sprout” has appeared in the
farmers’ market as the best seller for its fresh, tender, and unnecessary peel. However, the
consumers who usually eat do not know that it was cultivated with herbicides to shorten the
production cycle. According to scientific research, departments brought the information and data
provided, generally, herbicides have harmful effects on carcinogenic, teratogenic, and mutagenic
humans. For a short time to grow, herbicide residues on soybean sprouts are more harmful to
human health. Soybean sprouts have always been used as a health food to clear away and relieve
heat, and diuresis and reduce edema. If a large of pesticides used, soybean sprouts will become one
of the carcinogenic substances.
Table 7-3 lists several pesticide poisoning symptoms and preventive measures.
Table 7-3 Several Pesticides Poisoning Symptoms and Preventive Measures.
Toxic Substance Symptoms Preventives
Organic phosphorus pesticide The manifestations are muscle tremor, spasm, It is strictly prohibited to use containers containing pesticides to
poisoning: Efficient insecticides pupil narrowing, blood pressure rising, rapid hold food, and avoid using pesticides and food in the
include parathion (1605), demeton heartbeat, dyspnea, pulmonary edema (a large same warehouse; Avoid placing vegetables and fruits that
(1059), dimethoate, trichlorfon, amount of red foam liquid is discharged from the have been sprayed with pesticides and have not yet reached
dichlorvos, fenitrothion, mouth and nose) and coma. a safe interval on the market; Wash and peel fruits before
malathion(4049), methamidophos etc consumption
Organic mercury pesticide poisoning: Oropharynx and epigastrium burning, Strictly implement the pesticide management and use system,
after ingestion of Silisan salivation, grayish bleeding of gingival It is strictly prohibited to consume grains mixed with
(ethyl mercury chloride), mucosa, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, severe organic mercury pesticides. Beware of accidental consumption
Celisan (phenylmercury acetate), renal failure, edema, and finally death due to of poultry and livestock poisoned by organic mercury
Gurenle (ethyl mercury phosphate), coma and dyspnea, pesticides
Organochlorine pesticide poisoning occurs with Strengthen pesticide storage,

Organochlorine pesticide poisoning in half an hour to several hours of onset, Prohibit the use of organochlorine pesticides on vegetables,
with oral mucosal corrosion, pharyngeal fruits, and tea-leaves
congestion, nausea, vomiting, upper abdominal
pain, increased blood pressure, slow
heartbeat, muscle twitching, severe coma or
even death.
Gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, Strengthen pesticide storage to prevent accidental ingestion;
Sulfur pesticide poisoning vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea are the Prohibition of alcohol consumption before and after the use
main symptoms, followed by headaches, of organic sulfur pesticides
dizziness, palpitations, decreased blood
pressure, and even death due to heart failure
and respiratory paralysis.
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7.7.2 Polluted of Food on Fertilizers

Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are the three major elements required for plant growth,
and fertilizers are supplied and supplemented around these three elements. In recent decades, due
to the excessive input of nitrogen fertilizer, especially in the greenhouse and other facility
agriculture, a large amount of nitrate has accumulated in agricultural products. Although this has
little impact on crops themselves, there is potential harm to human health throughout the food
chain.
3．The Harm of Fertilizers to Human Body
Nitrogen in soil is generally converted to nitrate by chemical and biochemical reactions and
absorbed by crops. In a normal nitrogen nutrition condition, healthy plants do not accumulate free
nitrate and nitrite. After these two forms of nitrogen enter the plant, they roll out the reduction
reactions under the action of nitrate and nitrite reductase. The formed intermediate products
hydroxylamine and ammonia combined with organic acids and transformed into amino acids,
which is an important source of plant amino acid and protein nitrogen. Since the activity of nitrite
reductase in plants is much higher than that of nitrate reductase and reduced to nitrite, it would
reduce to NH3 as its higher activity. Thus, the plant usually does not accumulate too much nitrate.
However, if the fertilize is improperly applied that includes types of fertilizer, the amount and the
time and ways of application, and effected environmental factors, it will cause higher nitrate in
crops. Although nitrate is less toxic than nitrate, nitrate can produce an irreversible reaction with
hemoglobin to form nitrosylhemoglobin without the ability to carry oxygen and cause suffocation.
Meanwhile, nitrate that in human intestines works on nitrate reductase will be converted to nitrite.
It is mainly to the precautious accumulation of nitrate in the human body to prevent the harm
of fertilizers toward human health.
4．Methods to Prevent Accumulation of Nitrate in the Body
In 1973, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations(FAO) stipulated that acceptable daily intake (ADI) nitrate in food should be
0-3.65 ㎍ per kilogram of body weight and acceptable daily intake of nitrite should be 0-0.13 ㎍ per
kilogram of body weight. Too much nitrate should be prevented, and if it has been absorbed,
people should try to remove it from the human body as soon as possible.
First of all, we can use more farm manure and less fertilizer to prevent food and vegetables
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being polluted by nitrogen fertilizer to fundamentally eliminate nitrate entering the human body.
Secondly, we can choose crops and vegetables that contain less nitrate as our daily food. Generally
speaking, vegetables consumed roots, stems and leaves as main are the higher content of NO3-,
while vegetables mainly consumed their fruits are less content of NO3-. The rank of nitrate content
in vegetables as follows: root vegetables>potato and taro vegetables>green leafy
vegetables>cabbage vegetables>leek and garlic >beans>melons>solanaceous vegetables>perennial
plants>edible fungi.
The other factors caused nitrite poisoning；
(1) Accidental ingestion. It usually occurs in construction sites, and the incubation period is
short about within20min-3h. For the poisoning rate to reach 100%, its fatality rate is high.
(2) Pollution. Use a utensil containing nitrite to load flour.
(3) Natural food spoiled. Fresh vegetables, seafood, and leftovers keep for a long time and
produce a large amount of nitrite after being contaminated by bacteria. After 8 days of decay, its
nitrite content can reach 146mg•kg-1; The nitrite content of cooked porridge began to increase after
4 hours reaching 184mg•kg-1 at the next day to store.
(4) The water in some areas or the overnight water in dirty pots contains more nitrate or
nitrite, which can cause poisoning after drinking.
(5) Newly pickled dishes. The content of nitrite began to increase after 2-4 days of pickling
and reached its peak on 7-8 days. The content of nitrite in spoiled pickled radish leaves was up to
229.6mg•kg-1.
There are measures to prevent nitrite poisoning: firstly, we should pay attention not to eat
rotten and cooked or newly pickled vegetables that have been stored for a long time (about 20
days); then, we can often eat garlic, drink tea and take vitamin C to block nitrosamines produced in
the body. Unfortunately, nitrite poisoning happened we faced, catharsis and emesis should be
conducted immediately, and the toxins left in the gastrointestinal tract should be discharged as
soon as possible. Methylthioninium Chloride and vitamin C are specific drugs for nitrite poisoning,
which can reduce methemoglobin to hypo methemoglobin. The intravenous dose is 10-15mL of
1% methylthioninium Chloride for adults each time. A large amount of vitamin C is taken orally
and 500mg is injected intravenously.
7.7.3 Heavy Metal Pollution of Food
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1. Sources and Hazards of Heavy Metal Pollution

The soil itself contains a certain amount of heavy metal elements, many of which are trace
nutrients required for crop growth, such as manganese, copper, zinc, etc. These trace elements
form essential trace elements for the human body through the food chain. With the advancement of
industrialization, many metals from pollution sources can pollute the atmosphere, water bodies,
soil, animals, and plants, which can directly or indirectly enter the human body and endanger
human health. Excessive heavy metals can cause chronic poisoning. There have been reports of
trace elements such as nickel, beryllium, cadmium, cobalt, titanium, zinc, manganese, lead, tin in
the environment causing diseases and even cancer.
The pollution of metals in food mainly includes heavy metal pollution in water and residues
in fertilizer manufacturing. Human and animal bodies can absorb and accumulate a large amount
of toxic heavy metals through food, with mercury, cadmium, and lead being the most common,
including zinc, copper, cobalt, nickel, tin, etc. Generally, heavy metals produce toxic effects
through the concentration and amplification of food chains in organisms (Section 2.4).
2. Measures to Prevent the Accumulation of Heavy Metal Elements in the Body
Research has shown that the accumulation of metals in the human body is one of the
important reasons for certain diseases and aging of the body. From the age of 25 onwards, various
metals begin to accumulate in the body, first settling in soft tissues, then entering bones, and then
nerve tissues. Once metal particles enter the human body, they have high stability and accumulate
over time, exhibiting various signs of aging such as brown spots on the skin, nutritional disorders
in muscle tissue, and brittle bones. According to this theory, scientists believe that preventing the
absorption of heavy metals, altering the physical properties of metals in the human body, and
promoting metal excretion are important strategies for treating diseases and prolonging life. Some
foods can expel heavy metals from the body. Mung beans have a heat-clearing and detoxifying
effect. US scientists have found that mung beans are also the most effective food for dispelling
various heavy metals in the human body. Brown algae in kelp can slow down the absorption of
harmful trace elements such as strontium by the human body and can combine with metals such as
strontium to form insoluble compounds that can be expelled from the body. Tea can accelerate the
excretion of harmful radioactive metals in the human body. The tea polyphenols and vitamin C in
tea work together to combine with strontium, allowing strontium to enter the bones to be excreted
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from the body. Garlic and eggs also have a lead detoxification effect, beans, and soy products,
peanuts can reduce the lead content in the blood, and milk and dairy products have the effect of
preventing lead absorption. Soybean paste has the effect of accelerating the excretion of
radioactive substances in the human body. The plasma protein in pig blood can make nickel, lead,
mercury, and other harmful metal particles discharged from the digestive tract. Carrot has the
effect of driving mercury away, and their pectin components can combine with mercury,
effectively reduce the concentration of mercury ions in the blood, and accelerate the elimination of
mercury ions in the body.
Although the controlling of food pollution cannot completely eliminate heavy metals in the
human body, we have not yet found a fundamental solution to metal pollution at now, especially
low-concentration heavy metal pollution. Perhaps using food for pollution control and
detoxification are currently our best choice.
7.7.4 Pollution of Environmental Hormones and Antibiotic
Environmental hormones, also known as endocrine disruptors, refer to the foreign substances
that interfere with the synthesis, secretion, internal transport, binding, action, or decomposition of
hormones in an organism. That can affect its stability, reproduction, development, or behavior. The
famous environmental hormones mainly refer to estrogen-like substances, which can be roughly
divided into four categories.
(1) Natural and synthetic estrogen, such as estradiol genistein, diethylstilbestrol, ethinyl
estradiol, hexylestradiol, estradiol, benzoate cellulose and so on, which belong to the female
estrogen in the body.
(2) Industrial chemicals used in daily production, such as alkyl phenols, surfactants,
polyoxyethylene alkyl, bisphenol A, phthalic anhydride.
(3) fat-soluble organic chlorides. Pesticides and their metabolites, such as organochlorine
pesticides.
(4) p-allylphenol,3, 9-dihydroxyanthracene and other substances.
Environmental hormones have similarities in chemical structure, such as having a benzene
ring (except for tributyltin), relatively simple structure, difficulty to dissolve in water, and poor
biodegradability. The investigation found that in many areas, including the Great Lakes Region,
there are many kinds of wild animals with genital and reproductive abnormalities. After birds eat
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the contaminated fish, the male body shows feminization, which causes gender imbalance. Both
fish and birds have reproductive abnormalities. Many of the existing Florida pumas exhibit both
developmental and reproductive abnormalities. The male body not only has a small number of
sperm but also has many hidden seminal vesicles. Most people believe that this is due to the
influence of female hormone chemicals such as DDT, polychlorinated biphenyls, and dioxins
released into the environment.
In recent years, reproductive abnormalities such as breast cancer, gonad canceration,
infertility, and gonad accessory organ abnormalities have been on the increase. In addition to
environmental factors, this phenomenon is mostly related to hormones contained in our food.
Nowadays, cows, sheep, pigs, and chickens can be slaughtered after being fed with special feed for
only a few months. At the farmers' market, some tomatoes have to bulge up a “general’s belly”,
while others have a “wolf tooth stick” at the end, which is called a “hormone vegetable”. Some
vegetable farmers spray “hormone” or “auxin gas” on the residual parts of vegetables to speed up
the growth of vegetables, improve vegetable yield and increase income, which often leads to
vegetable deformity or discoloration. If people consume "hormonal vegetables" for a long time, it
will lead to a decrease in human immunity, obesity, osteoporosis, and even serious consequences
such as deformities, cancer, and mutagenicity, seriously endangering human health.
Antibiotics are used to treat animal diseases, such as mastitis, enteritis, pneumonia, trauma,
and foot infection. With the use of antibiotics, many animal diseases can be controlled. However,
the abuse of antibiotics will cause adverse consequences. On the one hand, it will produce
microorganisms resistant to antibiotics, and on the other hand, it will cause allergic reactions in
some people. Therefore, it is prohibited to sell milk squeezed from antibiotic-treated cows within
48 hours. Milk containing 1% of antibiotic is still at risk of allergic reaction. The phenomenon of
“clenbuterol” poisoning in recent years is due to the addition of a drug called clenbuterol
hydrochloride and hydroxymethyl tert butyl adrenaline to feed, which can increase feed conversion
rate, growth rate, and carcass lean meat rate by more than 10%. Therefore, it is known as
“clenbuterol”. It has the characteristics of fast distribution and slow elimination after entering the
human body. Eating pig organs and meat that have been fed with “lean meat extract” can cause
symptoms such as dizziness, vomiting, and palpitations, posing a high risk for patients with
hypertension, heart disease, and other conditions. Leptin itself is also a stimulant, and athletes who
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consume meat from pigs fed with “clenbuterol” fail urine tests.
7.7.5 Other Chemical Food Poisoning
There are various types of toxic chemicals, and the toxins that cause poisoning are mostly
highly toxic and easily absorbed by the digestive tract in the body. Due to improper storage, use,
transportation, and safekeeping of various chemical toxins, it is common for them to contaminate
food or cause accidental poisoning. In addition to the above-mentioned chemical food poisoning,
other common chemical food poisoning listed in Table 7-4.
Table 7-4 Other Chemical Food Poisoning
Poisoning Names Poisoning Symptoms Prevention Measures

Similar to arsenic poisoning, but the symptoms are mild, Don’t used enamel utensils to store or boil acidic food;
including gastrointestinal symptoms, abdominal pain and Enamel for food should be boiled with 40% acetic acid
Antimony poisoning gastrocnemius muscle cramps. In severe cases, people can die before use;
of coma. Preventing accidental ingestion.
After ingestion of barium salt poisoning, nausea, vomiting, Barium containing compounds must be properly stored
and palpitations occur within 30-24 hours. The symptoms are to prevent ingestion. Well salt with high barium can only
Barium salt poisoning characterized by progressive centripetal muscle paralysis, low be consumed after removing it.
blood potassium, and ultimately death for respiratory muscle
paralysis.
30 minutes to 3 hours after ingestion due to fluoride Store strictly and separate from food to prevent
poisoning, symptoms of upper abdominal burning pain and accidental ingestion. When using organic fluorine
Fluoride poisoning
gastroenteritis may occur, including dizziness, general pesticides, strict adherence to pesticide usage regulations
soreness, weakness, hand and foot convulsions, collapse, and should be observed.
death due to respiratory failure.
Zinc phosphide poisoning comes on after ingestion for 10min The rat poison should be kept by specially assigned
Zinc phosphide to several hours, dry mouth, nausea, numbness of throat, person, and attention should be paid to the use and
poisoning burning sensation of epigastrium, garlic odor in breath and storage of rat poison bait to avoid accidental ingestion
vomit, liver pain, jaundice, coma and death. and misuse. Not eating poisoned animals.
The incubation period of rancid oil poisoning is 30 minutes to Antioxidants are used to avoid oil oxidation and
Rancid oil poisoning 12 hours, leading to stomach discomfort, nausea, vomiting, rancidity;
abdominal pain, diarrhea, weakness, headache, fever, and sore Do not consume rancid fats
throat. Symptoms of disease keep 1-4 days antioxidants are
used to avoid oil oxidation and rancidity.
Headaches, nausea, stomachache, blurred vision, etc., which Controlling the methanol in alcohol is strictly prohibited,
can then develop into dyspnea, respiratory center paralysis, and the use of nonedible alcohol to prepare alcohol is
cyanosis, coma, and even death. Individuals who have strictly prohibited. If encountering methanol poisoning,
Methanol poisoning
recovered their overall state often experience visual alkaline drugs such as 6g sodium bicarbonate per hour
impairment or even blindness. can be administered until the urine is alkaline (pH7.5).
Besides, there are still exist some pollution as followed:
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1．Man-made Chemical Pollution

In recent years, some source mills and traders neglected laws and the health of consumers and
have added some non-food additives into food to realize a maximized profit, such as the Solvent
Red 23 incident in1996 and the melamine scandal in 2007 etc, especially the latter had a negative
effect in the national. It is mainly used as raw material to produce formaldehyde resin (MF) as well
as flame retardant, water-reducing agent and formaldehyde cleaner, etc. As the current protein
detection standard is to use Kjeldahl determination to calculate the protein content from the total
nitrogen content. Generally, the average content of protein in nitrogen is about 16%, while C3N6H6
has a relatively high nitrogen/carbon ratio and a nitrogen content of about 66%. If added 0.1 g
melamine per 100g of milk can increase the protein by 0.625% as theory. Therefore, the addition
of melamine will make the protein test content of food on the high side to help substandard food
pass the test of food inspection agencies. Melamine, white crystalline powder, with no smell or
taste, is difficult to be found in many food additives. Now, the General Administration of Quality
Supervision (AQSIQ) has stipulated that the content of melamine in dairy food should not exceed
2.5mg•kg-1.
It mainly affects the human urinary system, especially for infants. Children who have stones,
on the one hand, should provide treatment as symptoms, on the other hand, drink more purified
water (distilled water) in their diet, and children over 12 months old can also appropriately drink
some honey water.
Only joint efforts both the national quality supervision departments and law-enforcing
department to gradually crackdown and eradicate man-made food pollution.
2.Packaging Materials Pollution
Chemicals in packaging materials transfer are a source of contaminated food. Plastics are
widely used as food packaging materials in the society. Organic peroxides or metal salts are
usually added as catalysts to trigger polymerization in manufacturing plastics. And in the process
to change the performance, it is necessary to add additives, such as plasticizers for better flexible,
antioxidants to prevent oxidation, stabilizers for better thermal stability, etc. While the plastics
used in food packaging, these plastic additives may seep into food, contaminate food and do harm
to human health.
When paper is used as a food packaging material, formaldehyde in high wet strength paper
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treated with urea-formaldehyde resin or melamine-formaldehyde resin will contaminate food, but
the acceptable level of formaldehyde in food is only 5mg·kg-1.
In addition, wax paper, newspapers and many writing papers also contain many chemicals
that cannot be directly taken orally, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, lead, cadmium, etc.
7.7.6 Prevention of Chemical Food Poisoning
For more complex factors of chemical food poisoning, effective prevention can take targeted
action on various based on food poisoning, So the main prevented principles are as follows:
(1) Strictly store and use pesticides. Pesticides should be stored by exclusive personnel,
warehouse, vehicles, and containers to prevent cross-contamination with food.
(2) Strictly controlling the amount of pesticide, efficient, low toxicity, and residue can be
selected to reduce the pollution to people, animals, and the surroundings.
(3) Crops, especially vegetables and fruits can harvest to exchange in the market until after
the safety interval while applying pesticides.
(4) It is prohibited to use grinding or milling machines for processing grain to grind pesticide
preparations. When granary is exterminating insects, it is strictly forbidden to directly contact the
medicament with the grain.
(5) All toxic chemicals must be marked with obvious signs such as “toxic” on the package.
The grain seeds treated with pesticides should be kept by exclusive warehouse personnel to
prevent accidental poisoning.
(6) Vegetables purchased from the market should be soaked in clean water for a short time
and rinsed repeatedly to make sure fresh, clean, and safe. Fruits should be washed and peeled
before eating, like strawberries, mulberry, and others can be sterilized in brackish water.
(7) It is strictly prohibited to add some food additives that disobey national standards to
children’s food.
103
Appendix Ⅲ Glossary
Nums ST TT
1 每日允许摄入量 Acceptable daily intake（ADI）
4 黄曲霉毒素 Aflatoxin
5 黄曲霉毒素 B1 Aflatoxins B1
6 生物碱类毒素 Alkaloid toxoid
7 氨基比林 Amidopyrine
8 相思子毒蛋白 Arbin
9 砒霜 Arsenic(III) oxide,Arsenic trioxide
10 胂凡纳明 Arsphenamine
11 节菱孢霉 Arthrinium
12 谷氨酸 Asparagic acid
13 黄曲毒菌 Aspergillus flavus
14 槭海星 Astropectinidae
15 蜡样芽抱杆菌 Bacillus cereus
16 苯并［a］芘 Benzoapyrene(Bap)
17 肉毒毒素 Botulinum toxin BTX
Bovine spongiform
18 牛海绵状脑病
encephalopathy(BSE)
19 道丰宁 C3H3O2CL5
20 砷酸钙 Calcium arsenate
21 亚砷酸钙 Calcium arsenite
22 毒杀芬 Camphechlor
23 莰烯类 Camphene
24 弯曲菌 Campylobacter.
25 氨基甲酸酯 Carbamate
26 西维因 Carbaryl
27 呋喃丹 Carbofuran
28 法螺 Charonia tritonis
29 冰片 Chlorbicyclen
30 敌白果 Chlorophos
31 白菌清 Chlorothalonil
32 枯草隆 Chloroxuron
33 DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
34 肉毒梭菌 Clostridium botulinum
104
Appendices
35 肉毒梭菌芽泡 Clostridium botulinum buds

36 产气荚膜杆菌 Clostridiumperfringen
37 巴豆素 Crotonosine
38 氰化物 Cyanide
39 氢氰酸 Cyanoside acid
40 氰苷分子 Cyanoside molecule
41 环己胺 Cyclohexylamine
42 环戊二烯 Cyclopentadiene
43 细胞色素氧化酶 Dytochrome oxidase
44 苦杏仁苷 D-Amygdalin hydrate
45 蓝圆鰺 Decapterus maruadsi
46 脱羧 Decarboxylation
47 偶蹄兽 Diacodexis
48 敌敌畏 Dichlorvos
49 三氯杀螨醇 Dicofol
50 甲氟磷 Dimefox
51 乐果 Dimethoate
52 二甲胺 Dimethylamine
53 磷酸氢二钠 Disodium hydrogen phosphate
54 大肠杆菌 Colon bacillus
55 西力生 Ethylmercury chloride
56 谷人乐 Ethylmercury phosphate
57 白地霉菌 Geotrichum candidum
58 天冬氨酸 Glutamic acid
59 肝肿大 Hepatomegaly
60 六六六 Hexachlorocyclohexane
61 组胺 Histamine
62 组氨酸脱羧酶 Histidine decarboxylase
63 害朴威 Hopcide
64 低铁血红蛋白 Hypomethemoglobin
65 靛基质 Indole
66 砷酸铅 Lead arsenate
67 肝硬化 Liver cirrhosis
69 赖氨酸 Lysine
70 曼陀罗 Mandala
71 三聚氰胺 Melamine
72 三聚氰胺甲醛树脂 Melamine formaldehyde resin (MF)
105
73 二甲基亚硝胺 Methanamine
74 高铁血红蛋白 Methemoglobin
75 高铁血红蛋白症 Methemoglobinemia
76 速灭威 Métholcarb
77 亚甲蓝 Methylthioninium Chloride
78 真菌毒素 Mycotoxins.
79 新型克雅氏症 New variant creutzfeldt-jakob disease
80 亚硝胺 Nitrosamines
81 亚硝酸胺 Nitrosi amine
82 亚硝基吡咯烷 Nitrosopyrrolidine
83 N-亚硝基化合物 N-nitroso compounds
84 致病性细菌 pathogenic bacteria
85 病原真菌 Pathogenic fungus
86 病原微生物 Pathogenic microorganism
87 展青霉素 Patulin
88 五氯硝基苯 Pentachloronitrobenzene
89 肽链 Peptide chains
90 双鞭毛藻类 Peridineae
91 赛力散 Phenylmercuric acetate
92 鲐鱼 Pneumatophorus japonicus
93 鲭鱼 Pneumatophorus japonicus, mackerel
94 多氯联苯 Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)
95 多环芳烃 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)
96 氰化钾 Potassium cyanide
97 原生生物菌类 Protists fungus
98 红颠 Red apex
99 篦麻毒素 Ricin
100 糖精 Saccharin
101 蝾螈 Salamander
102 沙门氏菌 Salmonella
103 肠炎沙门氏菌 Salmonella enteritidis
104 丙型副伤寒沙门氏菌 Salmonella hirschfeldi C
105 鼠伤寒沙门氏菌 Salmonella typhimurium
106 猪霍乱沙门氏菌 Salmonella choleraesuis
107 皂苷 Saponin
108 志贺氏痢疾毒素 Shigella dysenteriae toxin
109 龙葵素 Solanine
106
Appendices
110 苏丹红 Solvent Red 23

111 金黄色葡萄球菌 Staphyloccocus aureus
112 葡萄球菌肠毒素 Staphylococcal enterotoxin (SE)
113 葡萄球菌 Staphylococcus
114 表皮葡萄球菌 Staphylococcus epidermis
115 腐生葡萄球菌 Staphylococcus saprophyticus
116 茶多酚 Tea polyphenols
117 三氯杀螨砜 Tedion
118 冰片基氯 Terpene polychlorinates
119 萜烯 Terpenes
120 土霉素 Terramycin
121 破伤风毒素 Tetanus antitoxin
122 河豚毒素 Tetrodotoxin
123 硫氰酸基 Thiocyanate group
124 硫脲 Thiourea
125 氯仿 Trichloromethane
126 蛋白酶抑制剂 Trypsin inhibitors
127 脲醛树脂 Urea-formaldehyde resins
128 副溶血性弧菌 Vibrio Parahemolyticus
129 稻脚毒 Zinc methanearsonate
107

功能对等理论下科普类文本汉英翻译实践报告 齐盼盼

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功能对等理论下科普类文本汉英翻译实践报告 齐盼盼

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A Report on C-E Translation of Popular Science Text from the

Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory: A Case Study of

Under the Supervision of Professor

the Graduate School of Xi’an University of Technology

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of Master of Translation and Interpreting

ｉｓｅ ｓｓｅｗ ｍ ｖ ｗ ｗ ｔｉａ ｌｔｏ

ｔｈ ｅｆｕ ｎ ｃｔｉｏ ａ ｌｅ ｃ ｅ ｔｈ ｅ ｏ ｒｙ ｉ ｔｒａ ｎ ｓ ｌａ ｔｉｏ ｎ ａ ｔｔｈ ｅ ｌｅ ｘ ｉｃａ ｌ ｓ

Chapter 1 Description of the Translation Task ........................................... 1

Chapter 1 Description of the Translation Task

1.1 Background of the Translation Task

1.2 Requirements of the Translation Task

Chapter 2 Description of the Translation Procedure

2.1 Analysis of the Source Text

2.1.1 A Brief Introduction of the Source Text

2.1.2 Language Features of the Source Text

2.2.1 Preparations before Translation Task

2.2.2 Preparations of Translation Theory and Methods

2.3 Translation Process

Chapter 3 Overview of the Translation Theory

3.1 Development of Functional Equivalence

Formal equivalence is source-oriented. It is designed to reveal the formal content of the

3.2 Core Concepts of Functional Equivalence

3.2.1 Lexical Equivalence

3.2.2 Syntactic Equivalence

3.2.3 Textual Equivalence

3.3 Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence in Translating Popular

Chapter 4 Case Analysis

4.1 Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level

4.1.1 Translation of Terminology

Table 2 Bacteria Terminology list

Table 3 Pesticides Terminology list

Table 4 Toxins terminology list

4.1.2 Translation of Polysemy

4.2 Functional Equivalence at Syntactic Level

4.2.1 Translation of Long and Complicated Sentences

4.2.2 Translation of Passive Voice

taste food changes in sensory.

4.2.3 Translation of Non-subject Sentences

4.3 Functional Equivalence at Textual Level

210℃-248℃下加热 30min 才能使毒性完全消除。

5.1 Major Findings of the Translation Practice

translation terms is an important task to ensure the accuracy of the translation.

5.2 Limitations of the Translation Practice

5.3 Suggestions for the Future Practice

[18] 傅勇林,唐跃勤.科技翻译[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社,2011.

[41] 杨司桂.再论奈达翻译理论之属性[J]. 湖南工业大学学报, 2017,22(02):117-121.

Appendix Ⅰ Source Text

中毒名称 中毒成分 中毒症状 预防措施

制品未检出，可见食品中 Bap 的含量与烹调加工方法有密切的关系。长期食用烟熏食物，胃

中毒名称 中毒症状 预防措施

误食 l0min 至数小时发病，口干、恶心、喉头麻木，上腹 毒鼠药要有专人保管，注意灭鼠毒饵的使用和保

Appendix II Target Text

Chapter 7: Contamination and Toxicity of Food

can be caused by the content of 7%.

7. 5 Contamination and Toxins in Animal Foods

Table 7-2 Some Toxic Animals Poisoning

7.6 Toxins Produced in Food Processing

Organochlorine pesticide poisoning occurs with Strengthen pesticide storage,

7.7.2 Polluted of Food on Fertilizers

1. Sources and Hazards of Heavy Metal Pollution

Poisoning Names Poisoning Symptoms Prevention Measures

of coma. Preventing accidental ingestion.

功能对等理论下科普类文本汉英翻译实践报告齐盼盼

功能对等理论下科普类文本汉英翻译实践报告齐盼盼

ｉｓｅｓｓｅｗｍｖｗｗｔｉａｌｔｏ

ｔｈｅｆｕｎｃｔｉｏａｌｅｃｅ ｔｈｅｏｒｙ ｉ ｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ ａｔｔｈｅ ｌｅｘｉｃａｌｓ

中毒名称中毒成分中毒症状预防措施

中毒名称中毒症状预防措施

误食 l0min 至数小时发病，口干、恶心、喉头麻木，上腹毒鼠药要有专人保管，注意灭鼠毒饵的使用和保