AERO306

Aerodynamics

Lecture 9
Finite Wing Theory
Dr Sebastian Timme
Outline of Today’s Lecture

• Helmholtz’s Vortex Theorems

• Biot-Savart Law

• Basics of Finite Wing Theory

• Downwash and induced drag

• Prandtl’s Lifting Line Theory

• Examples

Required reading: Chapter 5, Sections 5.1 – 5.3, 5.7 and 5.8

Helmholtz’s Vortex Theorems I

1. The strength of a vortex filament is constant along its length.


straight vortex filament
of constant strength


infinite wing

 L   V 

 Helmholtz’s Vortex Theorems II

2. A vortex filament cannot end in a fluid; it must extend to the

boundaries of the fluid (which can be ±∞) or form a closed path.
infinite wing:


bound vortex
finite wing:
  free trailing vortex
+b/2



starting vortex

-b/2

free trailing vortex
 Biot-Savart Law

• Until now we have seen straight vortex filaments. In general

vortex filaments can also be curved.
• The Biot-Savart law can be used to establish the velocity induced
in a point due to any vortex filament.
induced velocity due to dl:
 tdl  r
dV 
4 | r |3

induced velocity due to

whole filament l:

 tdl  r
4  | r |3
V

Biot-Savart law is general result of potential theory (useful for electromagnetics and
inviscid, incompressible flow). It is a tool to describe more complex physics.
 Biot-Savart Law – Example 1

Velocity in P due to straight vortex filament of infinite length.


 tdl  r

V
4  | r |3
h

l Vz Velocity is perpendicular on plane spanned


r by (tdl x r) and of magnitude V = /(2h).

tdl This is the known result from discussion of

potential vortex.

 Note: Biot-Savart Law in 2D for straight filament

  
Vz   sin d 
2
 cos  
 2

4h  1 4h 1
 Biot-Savart Law – Example 2

Velocity in P due to straight vortex filament of semi-infinite length.

   
Vz   sin d   cos   / 2


4h  / 2 4h

Velocity is perpendicular on plane spanned

by (tdl x r) and of magnitude V = /(4h).


tdl
A h
Vz
Why study Finite Wing Theory?

• We want to derive aerodynamic coefficients of wings from

aerofoil data.

• We want to derive aerofoil data from wing data.

• We want to convert aerodynamic coefficients between wings of

different aspect ratio.
 Downwash and Induced Drag

• Aerofoil data are for infinite wings, real wings however are finite and
there are 3D effects
• Lift is due to pressure difference between upper and lower side
infinite wing
low pressure
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
high pressure

Front view
tip vortex

– – – – – – – – – –
+ + + + + + + + + +
finite wing

• Tip vortices induce small downward velocity component – downwash

Downwash and Induced Drag

• Net contribution from wing tip to lift is zero for finite wing

L’

b
Some pictures

lift U
 Downwash and Induced Drag
• Local aerofoil section sees a reduced
angle of attack
• Local lift is perpendicular to local wind,
thus there is a force component in
direction of V∞, called induced drag.
• We find drag also for inviscid flow!
d’Alembert’s paradox!

e    i

V∞
w

Due to downwash the geometric angle of attack is reduced by the induced

angle of attack.
Downwash and Induced Drag

• The total drag on a finite wing (at moderate angle of attack) is

sum of profile drag and induced drag.
• The profile drag includes drag due to skin friction, pressure
drag as a result of separation, and wave drag.

C D  c d  C D ,i
induced drag due
to downwash
C D ,i  C L sin  i  C L i
capital letters for 3D coefficients
CL C L2
i   C D ,i 
 
lower case letters for 2D coefficients
cd  cd , f  cd , p

 is aspect ratio,  =b2/S

(Very basics of Prandtl’s) Lifting Line Theory

bound vortex
finite wing:
 free trailing vortex
+b/2



starting vortex

-b/2

free trailing vortex
(Very basics of Prandtl’s) Lifting Line Theory

• Assume the starting vortex has travelled far, far, far downstream.
• Following the Kutta-Joukowski theorem, the bound vortex
produces lift: b/2
 L( y0 )   V  ( y0 )  L   L( y )dy  Lb
b / 2
(recall the lectures on Thin Airfoil Theory)
• Free-trailing vortices induce additional downwash.
Activity

The Biot-Savart law can be used to establish the velocity induced in any
point due to any curved vortex filament: 
tdl
 tdl  r A
4  | r |3
V 

For a 2D semi-infinite straight vortex h r

filament, the expression simplifies to:
free-trailing vortex
 
V n  sin d
2

4h  1 Vz
P

What is the velocity induced in a point P located in a plane

through A perpendicular to the vortex filament?
a)
b)
c)
(Very basics of Prandtl’s) Lifting Line Theory

• Downwash induced by trailing vortices

at y=±b/2, downwash
w(y) approaches infinity!

This is unrealistic.

   
w( y )    
 4 (b / 2  y ) 4 (b / 2  y ) 
Recall Biot-Savart Law for semi-
infinite straight vortex filament
(Very basics of Prandtl’s) Lifting Line Theory

• Thus, horseshoe vortex model is not realistic.

• Instead of a single horseshoe vortex, represent wing by many
horseshoe vortices with the bound vortex part coinciding along
the lifting line
superposition of circulation
(Very basics of Prandtl’s) Lifting Line Theory

• Go over to an infinite number (i.e. continuous distribution)

Velocity dw induced at y0 Velocity induced at y0 due

due to trailing vortex at y to entire vortex sheet
1 (d / dy )dy 1
b/2
(d / dy )dy
dw( y0 )  
4 y0  y
 w( y0 )  
4 
b / 2
y0  y
(Very basics of Prandtl’s) Lifting Line Theory

• Recall relation between effective and induced angle of attack

e    i
  e  i
Induced Angle of Attack

• For induced angle of attack, we find

w( y0 )
tan  i ( y0 )     i ( y0 )
V
• Using downwash
(d / dy )dy
b/2
1
w( y0 )  
4 
b / 2
y0  y
we find for induced angle of attack
(d / dy )dy
b/2
1
 i ( y0 ) 
4V 
b / 2
y0  y
Effective Angle of Attack

• Recall Kutta-Joukowski Theorem for some spanwise station

L( y 0 )   V  ( y 0 )
 V ( y 0 ) 2( y 0 )
L( y 0 )  cl ( y 0 )  V c( y 0 ) 
1
 
2
 cl ( y 0 )  1 
2  V c ( y 0 )
2 2
V c( y 0 )
where the aerofoil lift coefficient is
cl ( y0 )
cl ( y0 )  a0  e ( y0 )   L 0 ( y0 )    e ( y0 )    L  0 ( y0 )
a0
with a0 ≈ 2

• Combine for the effective angle of attack

2 ( y 0 )
 e ( y0 )    L  0 ( y0 )
a0V c( y 0 )
(Very basics of Prandtl’s) Lifting Line Theory

• Recall relation between effective and induced angle of attack

e    i
  e  i

• Everything combined and rearranged, we find for

2 ( y 0 ) (d / dy )dy
b/2
1
 ( y0) 
a0V c( y 0 )
  L 0 ( y 0 ) 
4V 
b / 2
y0  y
(Very basics of Prandtl’s) Lifting Line Theory

• This is the fundamental equation of Prandtl’s lifting line theory

2 ( y 0 ) (d / dy )dy
b/2
1
 ( y0) 
a0V c( y 0 )
  L 0 ( y 0 ) 
4V 
b / 2
y0  y

• It simply tells us that the local angle of attack is the sum of effective
and induced angle of attack.
• The only unknown is (y)  recall Thin Airfoil Theory and g(s)

• Once we have (y0), we find

• Lift distribution along span using Kutta-Joukowski L( y0 )   V  ( y0 )
b/2
• Total lift by integrating along the span L   b / 2
L( y )dy
b/2
• Induced drag as Di( y0 )  L sin  i  L i  Di  
b / 2
L( y ) i ( y )dy
Example – Elliptical Wing

• Let’s assume an elliptical circulation distribution (y)

2
 2y   0   ( y  0)
 ( y)  0 1   
 b 

• Following the Kutta-Joukowski theorem, we will have an elliptical

lift load distribution
2
 2y  Since (±b/2) = 0, there is no
L( y )   V  0 1   lift at wing tips. 
 b 
 Example – Elliptical Wing

• Let’s calculate the downwash

(d / dy )dy
b/2
1
w( y0 )  
4 
b / 2
y0  y d 4 0
 2
y
dy b  2y 
2

1  
0 b/2
y  b 
w( y0 )  2
b  1  4 y
b / 2
2
/b  y
2 1/ 2
 y
dy
0

using transformation , we get ; and

 for the change of integration boundaries

0
w( y0 )   The downwash is constant for an elliptical
2b circulation distribution!

Homework – work with our textbook to derive the expression for downwash
Example – Elliptical Wing

• Let’s calculate the induced angle of attack

• we can see immediately that i is also constant
w 0
i   
V 2bV
• another useful result is found from the lift equation
b/2 b/2 2
 2y 
L( y )   V   ( y)dy   V  
b / 2
  0
b / 2
1    dy
 b 
o using transformation , we get ; and
for the change of integration boundaries

b b
L( y )   V  0  sin 2  d   V  0 
20 4
then
b 2V SC L S CL CL
1
 V SC L   V  0 
2
 0   i  2 
2  
4 b b  
Example – Elliptical Wing

• Induced drag follows immediately

C L2 Induced drag is inversely

C D ,i  C L i  C D ,i 
 proportional to the aspect ratio

• Ideally, we have very high aspect ratio design

• There must be a compromise between aerodynamic and
structural (integrity) design!
Example – Elliptical Wing

• How to create an elliptical circulation distribution?

• for a wing without geometric or aerodynamic twist, we
have
e    i is constant along span
• then
Lift force is elliptical
cl  2 ( e   L 0 ) is constant along span

L( y )
L( y )  q c( y )cl  chord c( y ) 
q cl
• Thus, we need an elliptical planform
• Difficult to manufacture, but tapered wings are good
enough approximation
Why do we want an elliptical wing?

• for a general planform, it can be worked out that the

induced drag is
C L2
C D ,i  with span efficiency factor e  1
e

• for an elliptical planform, we find e = 1 and thus the lowest

induced drag
Activity

Induced drag is observed even in inviscid, irrotational flow.

Using Prandtl’s lifting line theory, this drag component depends on
the lift produced by the finite wing and its aspect ratio.
C L2
C D ,i 
e
Consider an elliptical finite wing of span b=80 m and a wing area of
845 m2 producing a lift coefficient of 0.8 at sea level density of
1.225 kg/m3 and a free-stream velocity of 200 m/s.

What is the power required to overcome the induced aerodynamic

drag?

a) 557 kW
b) 111 MW
c) 557 kN
Exercise

(Exercise 16 from Exercise Sheet). Finite Wing Theory

Consider a finite wing with aspect ratio and elliptical planform.
The aerofoil section is thin and symmetric. Calculate the lift and
induced drag coefficients when angle of attack is five degrees

0.439 and 0.00766

25.15 and 25.13
0.439 and 0.0175
Summary of Today’s Lecture

After this lecture you should be familiar with

• the Helmholtz’s vortex theorems

• the Biot-Savart law applied to simple quasi-2D problems

• the basics of finite wing aerodynamics

• the elliptical wing

Required reading: Chapter 5, Sections 5.1 – 5.3, 5.7 and 5.8

Chapter Overview (based on ed. 5)

5.1 Introduction: Downwash and Induced Drag

5.2 The Vortex Filament, The Biot-Savart Law, and Helmholtz’ Theorem
5.3 Prandtl’s Classical Lifting Line Theory
5.7 Historical Note: Lanchester and Prandtl – The Early Development of
5.8 Historical Note: Prandtl – the Man