CHAPTER 2

PLANE GEOMETRY: CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS

2.1 Circles
2.2 Polygons
2.3 Perimeter of Polygons
2.4 Area of Polygons

At the end of the chapter, students are expected to

 define and compute circumference and area of a circle;

 define, enumerate and illustrate polygons and their types and properties;
 compute perimeters and areas of triangles, quadrilaterals and any regular
polygons.

Most of the structural designs are inspired by geometry. Understanding the foundation of geometry
is vital in constructing or building solid structural designs. In this chapter, students will learn concepts and
applications of circles and polygons.

2.2 Polygons

A polygon is a closed plane figure formed by line segments. Each side must intersect exactly
two other sides but only at their endpoints.

Not a polygon Polygon Not a Polygon

(not formed by line segments) (not closed)

Parts of a Polygon:

1) Side/Edge – one of the line segments that make up a polygon. Adjacent sides are pairs of sides
that share a common endpoint.

2) Vertex – endpoint of each side of the polygon. Adjacent vertices are endpoints of a side.

3) Diagonal – line segment joining two non-adjacent vertices of the polygon.

4) Interior Angle – angle formed two adjacent sides inside the polygon.
5) Exterior Angle – angle that is adjacent to and supplementary to an interior angle of the
polygon.

A polygon can also be defined as a union of line segments such that each vertex is a
common endpoint of two adjacent line segments, no two adjacent line segments intersect except at an
endpoint; and no two line segments with the same endpoint are collinear.

Types of Polygons:
1) Equiangular Polygon – polygon with congruent angles.
2) Equilateral Polygon – polygon with congruent sides.
3) Regular Polygon – polygon that is equiangular and equilateral at the same time.
4) Irregular Polygon – polygon that is neither equiangular nor equilateral.
5) Convex Polygon – polygon with all of its interior angles less than 𝟏𝟖𝟎°. It also refers to a polygon
in which a line segment joining any two points in the interior lies completely within the figure.

Example 1:

6) Concave Polygon – polygon with at least one interior angle that measures more than 𝟏𝟖𝟎°. It
also refers to a polygon in which a line drawn through a concave polygon, depending on exactly
where you draw it, can intersect the polygon in more than two places.

Nomenclature of Polygons
 Polygons are named according to their number of sides. Generally, a polygon with n sides
is called an n-gon. To form the name of polygons with 13 to 99 sides, begin with the prefix for the
tens digit, then followed by kai (Greek word for “and”); add the prefix for the units digit; and lastly,
attach the suffix “-gon”.
Number of sides Name of the Polygon
n n-gon
3 Triangle or Trigon
4 Quadrilateral or Tetragon
5 Pentagon
6 Hexagon
7 Heptagon
8 Octagon
9 Nonagon or Enneagon
10 Decagon
11 Undecagon or Hendecagon
12 Dodecagon
13 Tridecagon or Triskaidecagon
14 Tetradecagon or Tetrakaidecagon
15 Pentadecagon or Pentakaidecagon
16 Hexadecagon or Hexakaidecagon
17 Heptadecagon or Heptakaidecagon
18 Octadecagon or Octakaidecagon
19 Enneadecagon or Enneakaidecagon
20 Icosagon
30 Triacontagon
40 Tetracontagon
Number of sides Name of the Polygon
50 Pentacontagon
60 Hexacontagon
70 Heptacontagon
80 Octacontagon
90 Enneacontagon
100 Hectogon or Hecatontagon
1,000 Chiliagon
10,000 Myriagon
1,000,000 Megagon
𝟏0100 Googolgon

Similar Polygons

A ratio is the quotient of one quantity divided by another quantity. It is how many times
bigger one thing is than another. It's a number you multiply by to get one thing from another. But
remember, when you find the ratio of two quantities, they must be in the same units.

A proportion is an equation that shows that two ratios are equivalent. The general form of
𝑎 𝑐
a proportion is = , where neither b nor d is equal to zero. The cross products of a proportion
𝑏 𝑑
are ad and bc. The cross products of a proportion are equal.
Example 2:

𝑥 10
a. Solve the proportion = 15.
3
Solution:

𝑥 10
= 15  15x = 30  x = 5.
3

b. Two angles are supplementary. Find their measures if they are in the ratio 1/5.

Solution:
Let x represent the measure of the first angle.
Then 180 - x represents the measure of the second angle.

𝑥 1
=5  5x = 180 - x  6x = 180  x = 30. Thus, the angles are 30 and 150.
180−𝑥
Two polygons are similar if their corresponding interior angles are congruent and their
corresponding sides are proportional. Putting it simply, similar polygons have the same shape
but may differ in size.

Consider the similar polygons below:

y1
y2
x1
x2
A1 A2

The following relations between the two polygons are obtained using the concept of ratio and
proportion:

1. The ratio of any two corresponding sides of similar polygons are equal.
𝑥1 𝑦1
=
𝑥2 𝑦2

2. The ratio of the areas of similar polygons is the square of the ratio of any two
corresponding sides.
𝐴1 𝑥1 2 𝐴1 𝑦1 2
=( ) 𝑜𝑟 =( )
𝐴2 𝑥2 𝐴2 𝑦2

3. The ratio of the perimeters of similar polygons is equal to the ratio of any two
corresponding sides. That is,
 𝑃1 𝑥1 𝑃1 𝑦1
= 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑃2 𝑥2 𝑃2 𝑦2

Exercise:

1. Use the diagram below to answer questions (a) to (d).

a) Is the polygon convex or concave?

b) How many diagonals can be drawn from vertex A?
c) How many sides does the polygon have?
d) What is the name of the polygon?

2. Use the diagram below to answer questions (a) to (d).

a) Is the polygon convex or concave?

b) How many diagonals can be drawn from vertex A?
c) How many sides does the polygon have?
d) What is the name of the polygon?
2.2.1 Triangles

Triangle is a closed figure formed by three noncollinear points connected by line segments called
sides. It can also be defined as polygon of three sides.

Properties of Triangle

Side

Side of a triangle is a line segment that connects two vertices. Triangle has three sides, it is
denoted by a, b, and c in the figure below.

B
c
A
a
b

Vertex

Vertex is the point of intersection of two sides of triangle. The three vertices of the triangle are
denoted by A, B, and C in the figure above. Notice that the opposite of vertex A is side a, opposite
to vertex B is side B, and opposite to vertex C is side c.

Included Angle or Vertex Angle

Included angle is the angle subtended by two sides at the vertex of the triangle. It is also called
vertex angle. For convenience, each included angle has the same notation to that of the vertex,
that is, angle A is the included angle at vertex A, and so on. The sum of the included angles of the
triangle is always equal to 180°.

A+B+C=180∘

Altitude, h

Altitude is a line from vertex perpendicular to the opposite side. The altitudes of the triangle will
intersect at a common point called orthocenter.
Median, m

Median of the triangle is a line from vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side. A triangle has
three medians, and these three will intersect at the centroid. The figure below shows the
median through A, denoted by mA.

Classification of Triangles According to Sides

1. Equilateral is a triangle with three congruent sides and three congruent angles. Each angle
measures 60.
2. Isosceles is a triangle with two congruent sides and two congruent angles.
3. Scalene is a triangle with no congruent sides and no congruent angles.
Triangles can be classified by angles. All tirangles have at least two acute angles. Use the third
angle to classify the triangle.

Classification of Triangles According to Angles

1. Right Triangle is a triangle with one angle that measures exactly 90.
2. Obtuse Triangle is a triangle with one obtuse angle.
3. Acute Triangle is a triangle with three acute angles.

Exercise 2.2.1:

I. State if each of the following statements is always, sometimes, or never.

1. A right triangle is isosceles.
2. An obtuse triangle has exactly two acute angles.
3. An equilateral triangle is also an equianglular.
4. An obtuse triangle is isoscele.
 5. An Scalene triangle is an acute triangle.
II. Tell whether the angle measures are those of a triangle. If so, classify the triangle as acute,
right, or obtuse.
1. 35, 35, 90 4. 100, 46, 54
2. 90, 52, 38 5. 110, 37, 33
3. 74, 55, 51

2.2.2 Quadrilaterals
Quadrilateral is a polygon of four sides and four vertices. It is also known as tetragon or
quadrangle. The sum of its interior angles is always 360. There are 6 types of quadrilaterals,
namely: square, parallelogram, rectangle, rhombus, trapezoid, and trapezium. Each type of
quadrilateral has unique properties that make it distinct form other types.

Classifications of Quadrilaterals

There are two broad classifications of quadrilaterals; simple and complex. The sides of simple
quadrilaterals do not cross each other while two sides of complex quadrilaterals cross each other.

Simple quadrilaterals are further classified into two: convex and concave. Convex if none of the
sides pass through the quadrilateral when prolonged while concave if the prolongation of any
one side will pass inside the quadrilateral.

The following formulas are applicable only to convex quadrilaterals.

Special Quadrilateral Diagram

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with 2

pairs of parallel sides.

A rectangle is a parallelogram with 4

right angles.
 A rhombus is a parallelogram with 4
sides of equal length.

A square is a parallelogram with 4 right

angles and 4 sides of equal length.

Exercise 2.2.2

I. Complete the statement using all or some.

1. ______ rectangles are squares.
2. ______ rhombuses are parallelogram.
3. ______ squares are rhombuses.
4. ______ parallelogram are squares.
5. ______ squares are rectangles.
6. ______ rhombuses are squares.
7. ______ rectangles are rhombuses.
8. ______ rhombuses are rectangles.

2.2.3 Properties of a Regular Polygon

A regular polygon of n sides can be subdivided into n congruent isosceles triangles, whose
base is a side of the polygon. The common vertex of these isosceles triangles is the center of the
polygon.

1) Perimeter (P) of a Regular Polygon – product of the length of a side (s) and the number of sides
(n). That is, 𝑷 = 𝒏𝒔.

2) Central Angle of a Regular Polygon (𝜽) – angle opposite to a side of a polygon. It also pertains
to the angle formed by two lines from the center of the polygon to two adjacent vertices. Since a
 360°
regular polygon is equiangular, then the measure of each central angle is given by 𝜽 = n , where
n represents the number of sides.

3) Apothem (a) – altitude of the isosceles triangles that can be formed from a regular polygon. It
bisects the central angle and its opposite side. To measure the apothem, we apply the formula

𝑠
a = ° (given is s, the length of the side of the polygon)
2 tan(180
𝑛 )

180
𝑎 = 𝑟 cos ( ) (given is r, the radius or circumradius)
𝑛

4) Interior Angle (I.A) – the measure of each interior angle of a regular polygon can be computed
180°(n−2)
by using the formula 𝑰.𝑨.= .
𝑛

5) Sum of Interior Angles (S.𝑰.𝑨.) – total measure of all interior angles in a polygon. It is calculated
by the formula 𝑺.𝑰.𝑨. = 𝟏𝟖𝟎°(𝒏−𝟐).

6) Diagonal – line segment drawn from the vertex to a non-adjacent vertex. The total number of
distinct diagonals of a regular polygon is given by

𝑛
𝐷= (𝑛 − 3)
2

7) Area (A) – is the amount of two-dimensional space that a plane figure occupies. To find the area
of a regular polygon, one can apply any of the two formulas:

1 𝑛𝑠 2
(a) 𝐴 = 𝑃. 𝑎. (b) 𝐴 = 180°
2 4 𝑡𝑎𝑛( )
𝑛

Example:

Find the area of a regular octagon whose sides measures 4 units. Determine the number of distinct
diagonals that can be drawn from each vertex and the sum of its interior angles.

Solution:

An octagon is an 8-sided polygon. Thus, n = 8. Given s = 4 units. Hence, we have the area:

𝑛𝑠 2
𝐴=
180°
4 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 𝑛 )
 8(4)2 128
A= 180°
= 4 tan 22.5° = 77.25 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
4 𝑡𝑎𝑛( 8 )

Number of diagonals:
𝑛 8
𝐷 = 2 (𝑛 − 3) = 2 (8 − 3) = 20

Sum of interior angles:

𝑺.𝑰.𝑨. = 𝟏𝟖𝟎°(𝒏−𝟐) = 1,080.

Exercises 2.2.3:

Answer as directed.

1. What is the measure of an interior angle of a regular pentadecagon?

2. What is the sum of the interior angles of a regular icosagon?
3. The number of diagonals of a regular polygon is 35. Find the area of the polygon if its
apothem measures 10 centimeters.
2.2.4 Inscribed and Circumscribed Polygons

Inscribed Polygons

An inscribed polygon is a polygon whose vertices lie on the circle. It is a “polygon in a circle.”

Remarks:

1. All triangles and regular polygons can be inscribed in a circle.

2. If a quadrilateral is inscribed in a circle, its opposite angles are supplementary.
3. If a parallelogram is inscribed in a circle, it must be a rectangle.
4. If a right triangle is inscribed in a circle, then the hypotenuse is a diameter of the circle. Conversely,
if one side of an inscribed triangle is a diameter, then the triangle is a right triangle, and the angle
opposite the diameter is a right angle.

In an inscribed square, the radius of the circle is given by

𝑠√2
𝑟=
2

where 𝑠 is the measurement of the side of the square.

Example 1 Find the radius of the circle in the figure given below.

Solution

𝑠√2
r 𝑟=
2
5√2
5 cm =
2

𝑟 = 3.54 𝑐𝑚
In an inscribed triangle, the radius of the circle is given by

𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑟=
4𝐴
a c
where A is the area of the triangle. If the area is unknown, r

𝑎𝑏𝑐 b
𝑟=
4√𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
where 𝑠 = .
2

Example 2 Find the radius of the circle in the figure given below.

Solution
5+4+5
𝑠= =7
2
5 in 5 in (5)(4)(5)
𝑟=
4√7(2)(3)(2)
100
𝑟=
4√84
4 in
𝑟 = 2.73 inches

If the inscribed polygon is regular, then the measure of its side can be determined by

𝑠 = 𝑟√2(1 − cos 𝜃)

360°
where 𝑟 is the radius of the circle and the central angle 𝜃 = (n is the number of sides of the polygon.)
𝑛

Example 3 Find the measure of the side of the square inscribed in a circle whose radius is 10 meters.
Solution
360°
𝜃= = 90°
4

𝑠 = 10√2(1 − cos 90°)

𝑠 = 10√2
10 m
𝑠 = 14.14 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠

Example 4 Find the measure of the side of a regular pentagon inscribed in a circle whose radius is 13
millimeters.

Solution
360°
𝜃= = 72°
5
𝑠 = 13√2(1 − cos 72°)
13 mm
𝑠 = 15.28 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
Circumscribed Polygons

If each side of a polygon is tangent to a circle, then it is said to be a circumscribed polygon, that is, the
polygon is circumscribed about the circle. It is a “circle in a polygon.”

Remarks:

1. A quadrilateral can only be circumscribed about a circle if the sums of its opposite sides are the same.
In case of parallelograms, it is valid only for a rhombus (a square.)
2. All triangles and regular polygons can be circumscribed about a circle.

Given a triangle circumscribed about a circle, the radius of the circle can be determined by

𝐴
𝑟=
𝑠
or
(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)
𝑟=√
𝑠

𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
where A is the area of the triangle and 𝑠 = .
2

Example 5 Find the radius of the circle in the figure given below.

Solution
20 cm 14 + 20 + 20
𝑠= = 27
2

20 cm (13)(7)(7)
𝑟=√
27
14 cm

𝑟 = 4.86 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠

If a regular polygon is circumscribed about a circle with radius 𝑟, then the measure of the side 𝑥 of the
regular polygon can be determined by

180
𝑥 = 2𝑟 tan ( )
𝑛
where n is the number of sides of the regular polygon.

Example 6 Find the measure of the side of the regular hexagon circumscribed about a circle with
radius 36 mm.

Solution
180
𝑥 = 2(36) tan ( )
6
𝑥 = 41.57 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠

36 mm

Name Date
Program Score

Activity 2.2.4: Inscribed and Circumscribed Polygons

Directions: Provide an illustration of the figures described below and answer as directed.

1. A square frame whose side measures 48 cm is inscribed in a circle. Find the radius of the circle.

2. A triangle whose sides measure 70 m, 90 m, and 120 m, respectively, is inscribed in a circle. Find the
diameter of the circle.

3. A regular hexagon is inscribed in a circle whose diameter is 77 millimeters. Find the measure of the
side of the regular hexagon.
 4. A triangle whose sides measure 3 m, 4 m, and 5 m, respectively is circumscribed about a circle. Find
the radius of the circle.

5. A regular heptagon is circumscribed about a circle whose diameter is 152 cm. Find the measure of
the side of the regular heptagon.

2.3 Perimeter of Polygons

A perimeter of a polygon is the sum of all the lengths of the sides of the polygon.

2.3.1 TRIANGLE

The polygon with the smallest number of sides is called triangle. It has 3 sides and 3 internal angles
that sums up to 180𝑜 .

𝑏 𝑐
𝑐 𝑎
𝑎 𝑏
𝑐 𝑎
𝑏

Figure 1. THE TRIANGLES

The table below is the classifications of triangles according to the type of its sides and angles.

Table 1. TYPES OF TRIANGLE

By Side By Angle

Equilateral Triangle Acute Triangle

(It has 3 equal sides) ( It has 3 angles less than 𝟗𝟎𝒐 )

Isosceles Triangle Right Triangle

(It has two equal sides) (It has one right angle)

Scalene Triangle Obtuse Triangle

 (It has no equal sides) (It has 1 angle greater than 𝟗𝟎𝒐 )

PERIMETER OF THE TRIANGLE

The perimeter 𝑃 of the triangle is the sum of all the lengths of its sides. That is,

𝑃 = 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐

Example 1. Find the perimeter of a triangle with sides measuring 5 centimeters, 9 centimeters and 11
centimeters.
5
9

Solution: The perimeter of the given triangle11

with sides 𝑎 = 5 cm, 𝑏 = 9 cm, and 𝑐 = 11 cm, respectively, is

𝑃 = 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
𝑃 = 5 + 9 + 11

𝑃 = 25 cm.

For a regular polygon, the perimeter 𝑃 is

𝑃 = 𝑛𝑠,

where: 𝑛 is the number of sides and 𝑠 is the length of each side.

REGULAR TRIANGLE

When the sides of a triangle are equal, the triangle is called an equilateral triangle. Equilateral triangle
is also called an equiangular triangle because it has also 3 equal internal angles, that is, 60o each. Because it
has 3 equal sides, equilateral triangle is a regular polygon.

Figure 2. An Equilateral Triangle

To find the perimeter of an equilateral triangle, simply multiply the length of its side by 3, that is,

𝑃 = 3𝑠.

where 𝑠 is the length of the side of the equilateral triangle.

Example 2. Find the perimeter of an equilateral triangle with each side measuring 4 centimeters.

Solutions: The perimeter of the given equilateral triangle with side 𝒔 = 𝟒𝒄𝒎 is

𝑷 = 𝟑𝒔
 𝑷 = 𝟑(𝟒)

𝑷 = 𝟏𝟐 𝒄𝒎

Example 3. Find the coordinates of point 𝑪 such that triangle 𝑨𝑩𝑪 is equilateral triangle of side 12 units.

𝐶(𝑥. 𝑦)

𝐴(0. 0) 𝐵(𝑏. 0)

Solution: Since 𝐴𝐶 = 12, then 𝑏 = 12 also. And (𝐴𝐶)2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , that is, 122 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2. Likewise,

𝐶(𝑥. 𝑦)

𝑏 𝑏
𝑦
𝑥

𝐴(0. 0) 𝐵(𝑏. 0)

(𝐵𝐶)2 = (𝑏 − 𝑥)2 + 𝑦 2 , that is, (12)2 = (12 − 𝑥)2 + 𝑦 2 . Expanding this last equation,

𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 + 122 + 𝑦 2 = 122 ,

and using 122 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 in this last equation to obtain

−24𝑥 + 122 = 0,

−24𝑥 = −122

𝑥 = 6 units

Substituting 𝑥 = 6 in the equation 122 = 62 + 𝑦 2 to solve 𝑦, we have

𝑦 2 = 122 − 62

𝑦 = √122 − 62

𝑦 = 6√3 units

Thus, the coordinate of point 𝐶 is 𝐶(6, 6√3).

2.3.2 QUADRILATERALS

A quadrilateral is a 4-sided polygon. An irregular quadrilateral includes trapezium, trapezoid,

parallelogram, kite, rhombus and as simple as rectangle. While square is a regular quadrilateral.
 trapezium trapezoid isosceles trapezoid parallelogram
d

kite rhombus rectangle square

d
Figure 3. Some Common Quadrilaterals

To find the perimeter 𝑃 of an irregular quadrilateral, simply add the lengths of its sides, that is

𝑃 =𝑎+𝑏+𝑐+𝑑

𝑑
𝑎
𝑐

Figure 4. An Irregular Quadrilateral

Example 4. Find the perimeter of the quadrilateral with sides 5 cm, 7 cm, 9 cm and 11 cm.

Solution: The perimeter of the quadrilateral with the given sides 𝑎 = 5𝑐𝑚, 𝑏 = 7𝑐𝑚, 𝑐 = 9𝑐𝑚, and 𝑑 = 11𝑐𝑚
is

𝑃 =𝑎+𝑏+𝑐+𝑑

𝑃 = 5 + 7 + 9 + 11

𝑃 = 32 cm

REGULAR QUADRILATERALS

For a square and rhombus, the perimeter is obtained by the formula,

𝑃 = 4𝑠,

where 𝑠 is the length of the side of the square( or rhombus).

𝑠 𝑠

𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

𝑠 𝑠
 Figure 4. A square and a rhombus

Example 5. Find the perimeter of a square with each side measuring 2 inches.

Solutions: The perimeter of the given square with sides 𝒔 = 𝟐 inches is

𝑷 = 𝟒𝒔 = 𝟒(𝟐) = 𝟖 inches.

OTHER REGULAR POLYGONS

Other regular polygons of sides greater than 4 includes pentagon(5-sided) , hexagon(6-sided),

heptagon(7-sided), octagon(8-sided), etc.

Example 6. Find the perimeter of a regular pentagon with each side measuring 3 inches.

3 𝑖𝑛.

Solutions: The perimeter of the given regular pentagon with sides 𝒔 = 𝟑 inches is

𝑷 = 𝟓(𝟑) = 𝟏𝟓 inches.

Example 7. The perimeter of a regular hexagon is 18 centimeters. How long is each side?

𝑠
Solutions: Since 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟖 and 𝑷 = 𝟔𝒔, then

𝟔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟖

and 𝒔 = 𝟑 cm.

Thus, the length of each side of the given regular hexagon is 𝒔 = 𝟑 𝒄𝒎.

Try this:

1. Find the perimeter of a regular hexagon with each side measuring 8 meters.
 2. The perimeter of a square is 20 feet. How long is each side?

3. The perimeter of a regular pentagon is 100 centimeters. How long is each side?

4. What is the perimeter of an equilateral triangle of height 20 units?

ℎ = 20

5. What is the perimeter of an equilateral triangle formed by connecting the 3 centers of the three
circles with equal radii of 15 units and are tangent to each other?

Find

Name Date
Program Score

Activity 2.3: Perimeter of Polygons

Direction: Answer the following as required.

1. Find the perimeter of the triangle shown.

4
8
12

2. What is missing side length of a triangle whose perimeter is 40 cm and two sides are 10 cm each.

3. The width and length of a rectangle are two consecutive numbers. If the perimeter is 30 cm,
calculate its width.
4. Peter builds a square with a side of 12 cm from some wire. If from the same wire, he builds a
rectangle with a width of 6 cm, what is the length of the rectangle?

5. The square in the figure has a perimeter of 24 cm. The blue triangle has a perimeter of 15 cm. What
is the perimeter of the red figure?