Table Describing The Vestibulocochlear Nerve

EAR
Table describing the vestibulocochlear nerve:
Feature Description
Name Vestibulocochlear nerve
Cranial nerve number VIII
Function Transmits sensory information from the
inner ear to the brain
Composition Two branches: vestibular branch and
cochlear branch
Vestibular branch function Transmits signals related to balance and
spatial orientation
Vestibular apparatus Includes the semicircular canals and
otolith organs
Cochlear branch function Transmits auditory information from the
cochlea to the brain
Cochlea Spiral-shaped organ responsible for
detecting sound waves and converting
them into electrical signals
Pathway Signals from both branches travel along
nerve fibers to the vestibular and
cochlear nuclei in the brainstem
Higher centers Signals are then transmitted to higher
centers in the brain, including the
thalamus and auditory cortex
Clinical conditions Disorders of the vestibulocochlear nerve
can cause balance problems, vertigo,
hearing loss, tinnitus, and other
symptoms
Testing Vestibular and auditory testing can help
diagnose disorders of the
vestibulocochlear nerve
Table describing the facial nerve:
Feature Description
Name Facial nerve
Cranial nerve number VII
Function Controls muscles of facial expression,
tear and saliva secretion, and taste
sensation for the anterior 2/3 of the
tongue
Composition Motor, sensory, and parasympathetic
fibers
Motor function Controls muscles of facial expression,
including the forehead, eyelids, mouth,
and neck
Sensory function Provides taste sensation for the anterior
2/3 of the tongue
Parasympathetic function Stimulates tear and saliva secretion
Pathway Originates in the pons and exits the skull
via the stylomastoid foramen
Branches Five main branches: temporal,
zygomatic, buccal, mandibular, and
cervical
Temporal branch Innervates the frontalis, orbicularis oculi,
and corrugator supercilii muscles
Zygomatic branch Innervates the orbicularis oculi and
zygomaticus muscles
Buccal branch Innervates the orbicularis oris and
buccinator muscles
Mandibular branch Innervates the muscles of the lower face,
including the depressor anguli oris,
mentalis, and platysma
Cervical branch Innervates the platysma muscle
Clinical conditions Bell's palsy, Ramsay Hunt syndrome,
tumors, trauma, and infections can
affect the facial nerve
Testing Clinical examination, electromyography,
and imaging studies can help diagnose
facial nerve disorders
Table summarizing the distribution of the functional components of the facial nerve:
Functional Component Distribution

Motor Controls muscles of facial expression
Branches into five main branches:
- Temporal branch: innervates the
frontalis, orbicularis oculi, and corrugator
supercilii muscles
- Zygomatic branch: innervates the
orbicularis oculi and zygomaticus
muscles
- Buccal branch: innervates the
orbicularis oris and buccinator muscles
- Mandibular branch: innervates the
muscles of the lower face, including the
depressor anguli oris, mentalis, and
platysma
- Cervical branch: innervates the
platysma muscle
Sensory Provides taste sensation for the anterior
2/3 of the tongue
Originates in the geniculate ganglion
located in the temporal bone
Parasympathetic Stimulates tear and saliva secretion
Originates in the superior salivatory
nucleus located in the pons
Travels with motor component to
lacrimal and salivary glands
Table summarizing the anatomy of the ear:
Structure Description Function

Outer ear Consists of the pinna and Collects sound waves and
external auditory canal directs them toward the
middle ear
Pinna Visible part of the outer Collects sound waves and
ear made of cartilage and directs them into the
skin external auditory canal
External auditory canal Tube-like structure lined Conducts sound waves to
with hair and wax- the tympanic membrane
producing glands
Middle ear Consists of the tympanic Amplifies and transmits
membrane, ossicles, and sound waves from the
eustachian tube outer ear to the inner ear
Tympanic membrane Thin, semi-transparent Vibrates in response to
membrane that separates sound waves and
the outer ear from the transmits them to the
middle ear ossicles
Ossicles Three small bones Amplify and transmit
(malleus, incus, and sound waves
stapes) that transmit
vibrations from the
tympanic membrane to
the inner ear
Eustachian tube Connects the middle ear Regulates pressure within
to the nasopharynx the middle ear and helps
drain fluid
Inner ear Consists of the cochlea, Converts sound waves
vestibule, and semicircular
canals
Converts sound waves
vestibule, and semicircular into electrical signals that
canals are sent to the brain
Cochlea Spiral-shaped structure Transforms sound waves
filled with fluid and lined into electrical signals that
with hair cells are sent to the brain via
the auditory nerve
Vestibule Central part of the inner Helps detect changes in
ear that contains the head position and linear
utricle and saccule acceleration
Semicircular canals Three fluid-filled canals Help detect rotational
oriented in different planes movements of the head
Auditory nerve Nerve that transmits Carries information about
electrical signals from the sound to the brain for
cochlea to the brain processing
Table summarizing the anatomy of the middle ear:
Structure Description Function

Tympanic membrane Thin, semi-transparent Vibrates in response to
membrane that separates sound waves and
the outer ear from the transmits them to the
middle ear ossicles
Ossicles Three small bones Amplify and transmit
(malleus, incus, and sound waves
stapes) that transmit
vibrations from the
tympanic membrane to
the inner ear
Malleus Hammer-shaped bone Transmits vibrations to the
that attaches to the incus
tympanic membrane
Incus Anvil-shaped bone that Transmits vibrations from
connects the malleus to the malleus to the stapes
the stapes
the malleus to the stapes
the stapes
Stapes Stirrup-shaped bone that Transmits vibrations from
connects the incus to the the incus to the fluid in the
oval window of the inner ear
cochlea
Oval window Membrane-covered Transmits vibrations to the
opening in the inner ear fluid in the inner ear
that receives vibrations
from the stapes
Round window Membrane-covered Helps protect the sensitive
opening in the inner ear hair cells of the cochlea
that equalizes pressure
within the inner ear
Eustachian tube Connects the middle ear Regulates pressure within
to the nasopharynx the middle ear and helps
drain fluid
Table summarizing the blood supply and nerve supply of the structures of the ear:
Structure Blood supply Nerve supply

Outer ear Auricular branch of the Auriculotemporal nerve
posterior auricular artery (V3), auricular branch of
and superficial temporal the vagus nerve (CN X)
artery
Middle ear Middle meningeal artery, Tympanic branch of the
maxillary artery, and glossopharyngeal nerve
petrosal branch of the (CN IX), chorda tympani
middle meningeal artery nerve (CN VII), and
sympathetic fibers from
the carotid plexus
Inner ear Labyrinthine artery, a Vestibulocochlear nerve
branch of the anterior (CN VIII)
inferior cerebellar artery
Table summarizing the development of each part of the ear:

Ear structure Embryonic origin Developmental timeline
Outer ear Surface ectoderm Develops during the fifth
to sixth week of embryonic
development. The
auricular hillocks grow out
from the first and second
branchial arches to form
the auricle. The external
acoustic meatus forms
from an invagination of the
surface ectoderm.
Middle ear First and second branchial Develops during the fourth
arches to seventh week of
embryonic development.
The tympanic cavity and
Eustachian tube form from
the first pharyngeal
pouch, while the ossicles
develop from the
mesenchyme of the first
and second branchial
arches.
Inner ear Otic placode Develops during the third
week of embryonic
development. The otic
placode invaginates to
form the otic vesicle,
which gives rise to the
membranous labyrinth of
the inner ear. The bony
labyrinth forms around the
membranous labyrinth by
the eighth week of
embryonic development.
Table outlining the contents of the middle ear:
Structure Description
Tympanic membrane Thin, semitransparent membrane that
separates the external ear canal from the
middle ear
Ossicles Three tiny bones (malleus, incus, and
stapes) that transmit sound vibrations
from the tympanic membrane to the
inner ear
Eustachian tube A narrow tube that connects the middle
ear to the back of the throat, helping to
equalize air pressure in the middle ear
Mastoid air cells Small, air-filled cavities within the
mastoid process of the temporal bone,
which can become infected in some
cases of middle ear infection (otitis
media)
Middle ear muscles Two tiny muscles (tensor tympani and
stapedius) that help regulate the
movement of the ossicles in response to
loud noises
Lateral wall A bony wall that separates the middle
ear from the inner ear
Medial wall A thin, bony wall that separates the
middle ear from the inner ear and
contains the oval window, a membrane-
covered opening through which sound
vibrations are transmitted to the inner
ear
Posterior wall A bony wall that separates the middle
ear from the mastoid air cells
Anterior wall A bony wall that separates the middle
ear from the internal carotid artery, a
major blood vessel in the neck
Table outlining the boundaries and contents of the middle ear:
Boundary Content
Lateral wall Tympanic membrane
Medial wall Ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes), oval
window
Posterior wall Mastoid air cells
Anterior wall Internal carotid artery, auditory tube
(eustachian tube)
Superior wall Tegmen tympani (thin bony plate
separating the middle ear from the brain)
Nerve supply of external ear in a table
External Ear Structure Nerve Supply Function

Auricle/Pinna Auriculotemporal nerve Sensation, helps direct
(CN V3) and Greater sound waves into the ear
auricular nerve (C2, C3) canal
External Auditory Canal Auriculotemporal nerve Sensation and helps
(CN V3) and Auricular secrete cerumen
branch of Vagus nerve
(CN X)
Tympanic Membrane Auriculotemporal nerve Sensation and conveys
(CN V3) and Auricular sound waves to the middle
branch of Vagus nerve ear
(CN X)
Middle Ear Chorda Tympani (CN VII) Chorda Tympani: taste to
and Tympanic plexus anterior 2/3 of tongue,
(sympathetic fibers) Tympanic plexus:
regulation of middle ear
muscles
Eustachian Tube Pharyngeal plexus (CN X) Regulation of pressure and
and Tensor veli palatini drainage between the
(CN V3) middle ear and the
pharynx
Nerve supply of internal ear in a table
Internal Ear Structure Nerve Supply Function

Cochlea (Organ of Corti) Cochlear nerve (CN VIII) Sensory input for hearing
Semicircular Canals Vestibular nerve (CN VIII) Sensory input for balance
and spatial orientation
Vestibule Vestibular nerve (CN VIII) Sensory input for linear
acceleration and head
position
Round Window Vestibulocochlear nerve Receives and transmits
(CN VIII) pressure changes in the
cochlea
Note: The internal ear is primarily innervated by the vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII), which is responsible for
transmitting sensory information related to hearing and balance.
Nerve supply of middle ear in a table
Middle Ear Structure Nerve Supply Function

Tympanic Cavity Tympanic plexus Regulation of middle ear
(sympathetic fibers) and muscles and secretion of
Lesser petrosal nerve (CN mucus
IX)
Ossicles (Malleus, Incus, Tensor tympani muscle Control of ossicle
Stapes) (CN V3) and Stapedius movement for sound
muscle (CN VII) transmission and
protection from loud
sounds
Chorda Tympani Chorda Tympani nerve Taste sensation to the
(CN VII) anterior two-thirds of the
tongue and
parasympathetic
innervation to the
submandibular and
sublingual glands
Note: The middle ear is primarily innervated by the tympanic plexus (sympathetic fibers) and the lesser petrosal
nerve (CN IX), which regulate middle ear muscles and the secretion of mucus. The ossicles, including the malleus,
incus, and stapes, are controlled by the tensor tympani muscle (CN V3) and the stapedius muscle (CN VII). The
chorda tympani nerve (CN VII) provides taste sensation to the anterior two-thirds of the tongue and
parasympathetic innervation to the submandibular and sublingual glands.
Muscle related to the ear in a table
Ear Muscle Location Nerve Supply Function

Auricularis muscles In and around the Facial nerve (CN Movements of the
auricle/pinna VII) ear, including
raising, lowering,
and retracting the
auricle
Tensor Tympani Middle ear Mandibular division Controls the
of trigeminal nerve movement of the
(CN V3) malleus bone in
response to loud
sounds
Stapedius Middle ear Facial nerve (CN Controls the
VII) movement of the
stapes bone in
response to loud
sounds
Tensor Veli Palatini Soft palate Mandibular division Controls the
of trigeminal nerve opening and
(CN V3) closing of the
Eustachian tube
during swallowing
and yawning
Note: The auricularis muscles are a group of muscles that surround the auricle or pinna and are responsible for its
movements. The tensor tympani muscle controls the movement of the malleus bone in response to loud sounds,
while the stapedius muscle controls the movement of the stapes bone. Both muscles serve to protect the delicate
structures of the inner ear from damage caused by loud noises. The tensor veli palatini muscle controls the
opening and closing of the Eustachian tube during swallowing and yawning, helping to equalize pressure between
the middle ear and the pharynx.
All the diseases and management of ear in a table
Ear Disease Symptoms Causes Management

Otitis externa Pain, swelling, Bacterial or fungal Topical antibiotics,
(Swimmer's ear) redness, discharge infection, irritation ear drops, pain
relief medication,
and keeping the
ear dry
Otitis media Earache, fever, Bacterial or viral Antibiotics, pain
(Middle ear hearing loss, infection, relief medication,
infection) dizziness Eustachian tube decongestants,
dysfunction and observation in
mild cases. Surgery
in some cases to
place pressure
equalizing tubes
(PE tubes) or
remove the
adenoids in
children.
Ménière's disease Vertigo, tinnitus, Abnormal fluid Dietary changes,
hearing loss, ear buildup in the inner medication for
fullness ear vertigo and nausea,
hearing aids, and
sometimes surgery
Cholesteatoma Pus-like drainage, Benign growth of Surgery to remove
hearing loss, skin cells in the the growth and
tinnitus, vertigo middle ear repair any damage
to the middle ear
Tinnitus Ringing, buzzing, Exposure to loud Management may
or other sounds in noise, hearing loss, include addressing
the ears certain medications underlying causes,
or health sound therapy, or
conditions cognitive-
behavioral therapy
Earwax blockage Hearing loss, Buildup of earwax Removal with
earache, tinnitus, irrigation, ear
dizziness drops, or manual
removal by a
healthcare
professional
Note: The management of ear diseases varies depending on the specific condition and severity of symptoms. It is
important to seek medical attention for persistent or severe ear symptoms.
Diseases of external ear with management and complications in a table
External Ear Symptoms Causes Management Complications

Disease
Otitis externa Pain, swelling, Bacterial or Topical Chronic or
(Swimmer's redness, fungal antibiotics, ear recurrent
ear) discharge infection, drops, pain infections,
irritation relief hearing loss,
medication, spread of
and keeping infection to
the ear dry surrounding
tissues or bone
Cellulitis Pain, redness, Bacterial Oral or Spread of
swelling, fever infection of the intravenous infection to
skin antibiotics, surrounding
pain relief tissues, sepsis
medication,
wound care
Frostbite Numbness, Exposure to Gradual Tissue death,
tingling, pain, extreme cold warming of the
redness, affected area,
Exposure to Gradual Tissue death,
tingling, pain, extreme cold warming of the infection,
redness, affected area, gangrene
swelling pain relief
medication,
wound care
Sunburn Redness, pain, Exposure to Pain relief Increased risk
swelling, ultraviolet (UV) medication, of skin cancer,
blistering radiation from cooling premature
the sun compresses, aging of the
topical skin
ointments,
avoiding
further sun
exposure
Note: The management of external ear diseases may vary depending on the specific condition and severity of
symptoms. Complications may arise if the condition is left untreated or poorly managed. It is important to seek
medical attention for persistent or severe ear symptoms.
The diseases of middle ear with management and complications in a table
Middle Ear Symptoms Causes Management Complications

Disease
Otitis media Earache, fever, Bacterial or Antibiotics, Chronic or
(Middle ear hearing loss, viral infection, pain relief recurrent
infection) dizziness Eustachian medication, infections,
tube decongestants, hearing loss,
dysfunction and spread of
observation in infection to
mild cases. surrounding
Surgery in tissues or
some cases to bone,
place pressure development
equalizing of
tubes (PE complications
tubes) or such as
remove the mastoiditis or
adenoids in
children.
such as
mastoiditis or
adenoids in meningitis
children.
Mastoiditis Ear pain, Bacterial Antibiotics, Spread of
redness, infection of the pain relief infection to
swelling behind mastoid bone medication, surrounding
the ear, fever sometimes tissues or
surgery to brain, hearing
drain pus or loss, facial
remove paralysis,
damaged meningitis,
tissue brain abscess
Cholesteatoma Pus-like Benign growth Surgery to Spread of
drainage, of skin cells in remove the infection to
hearing loss, the middle ear growth and surrounding
tinnitus, vertigo repair any tissues or
damage to the bone, hearing
middle ear loss, facial
paralysis,
meningitis
Otosclerosis Hearing loss, Abnormal bone Hearing aids, Hearing loss,
tinnitus, growth in the medication, tinnitus,
dizziness middle ear surgery to dizziness
replace the
stapes bone or
place a
cochlear
implant
Barotrauma Ear pain, Changes in air Pain relief Hearing loss,
hearing loss, pressure, such medication, ruptured
dizziness as during air decongestants, eardrum,
travel or scuba sometimes infection
diving surgery to
repair a
ruptured
eardrum or
ruptured
eardrum or
place a
pressure
equalizing tube
(PE tube)
Note: The management of middle ear diseases may vary depending on the specific condition and severity of
The diseases of inner ear with management and complications in a table
Inner Ear Symptoms Causes Management Complications

Disease
Ménière's Vertigo, Abnormal fluid Dietary Hearing loss,
disease hearing loss, buildup in the changes, vertigo, social
tinnitus, ear inner ear medication to isolation,
pressure reduce fluid depression
buildup and
manage
symptoms,
sometimes
surgery
Acoustic Hearing loss, Noncancerous Surgery to Hearing loss,
neuroma tinnitus, tumor on the remove the facial paralysis,
vertigo, facial nerve that tumor, balance
numbness controls radiation problems,
hearing and therapy brain damage
balance
Labyrinthitis Vertigo, Viral or Antibiotics or Hearing loss,
hearing loss, bacterial antiviral vertigo,
tinnitus, ear infection of the medication, balance
pain inner ear medication to problems,
manage chronic
symptoms, dizziness
sometimes
surgery
dizziness
sometimes
surgery
Perilymph Hearing loss, Abnormal Bed rest, Hearing loss,
fistula vertigo, opening in the avoiding vertigo,
tinnitus, ear inner ear that activities that balance
fullness allows fluid to cause changes problems
leak out in air pressure,
surgery to
repair the
fistula
Ototoxicity Hearing loss, Damage to the Discontinuing Permanent
tinnitus, inner ear the offending hearing loss,
dizziness caused by medication or tinnitus,
medication or avoiding the balance
chemical exposure, problems
exposure hearing aids or
cochlear
implants
Note: The management of inner ear diseases may vary depending on the specific condition and severity of
The tumours of external and middle ear and mastoid with their cause and management in a table
Type of Tumor Causes Symptoms Diagnosis Management

Exostoses and Unknown, but Gradual Physical Observation,
osteomas may be related hearing loss, examination, surgical
to repeated recurrent ear imaging removal if
exposure to infections, studies (e.g. causing
cold water or tinnitus, ear CT scan), significant
other fullness or audiological symptoms or
environmental pressure. tests. complications.
factors.
Basal cell Exposure to UV Slow-growing Biopsy, Surgical
carcinoma radiation, mass or ulcer imaging removal,
history of skin on the skin of studies. radiation
cancer. the ear or ear
canal, may
mass or ulcer imaging removal,
on the skin of studies. radiation
cancer. the ear or ear therapy.
canal, may
have bleeding
or crusting.
Squamous cell Exposure to UV Rapidly Biopsy, Surgical
carcinoma radiation, growing mass imaging removal,
history of or ulcer on the studies. radiation
smoking or skin of the ear therapy,
alcohol use. or ear canal, chemotherapy.
may have
bleeding or
crusting.
Cholesteatoma Abnormal Hearing loss, Physical Surgical
growth of skin ear pain, examination, removal,
cells in the drainage or imaging antibiotics,
middle ear, discharge from studies (e.g. management
usually due to the ear, CT scan), of hearing loss
chronic middle tinnitus, audiological or other
ear infections vertigo. tests. complications.
or trauma.
Glomus tumor Benign tumor Pulsatile Physical Surgical
arising from tinnitus, examination, removal,
the cells of the hearing loss, imaging radiation
glomus body, a ear fullness, studies (e.g. therapy,
specialized pain or MRI), embolization.
structure pressure, audiological
involved in visible reddish tests.
regulating or bluish mass
blood flow. behind the
eardrum.
Acoustic Benign tumor Hearing loss, Physical Observation,
neuroma arising from tinnitus, examination, radiation
(vestibular the Schwann vertigo, facial imaging therapy,
schwannoma) cells of the weakness or studies (e.g.
vestibular numbness, MRI),
arising from tinnitus, examination, radiation
the Schwann vertigo, facial imaging therapy,
schwannoma) cells of the weakness or studies (e.g. surgical
vestibular numbness, MRI), removal.
nerve. May be balance audiological
sporadic or problems. tests.
associated
with genetic
disorders such
as
neurofibromato
sis type 2.
Note: This table provides a simplified overview of tumors of the external and middle ear and mastoid. The actual
presentation, diagnosis, and management of these tumors may be more complex and varied. It is important to
consult with a healthcare provider for proper evaluation and treatment recommendations.
Aetiology of sensorineural and conductive types of hearing loss in a table
Type of Hearing Loss

Conductive Hearing Loss
Earwax blockage
Otitis externa
Otitis media
Perforated eardrum
Otosclerosis
Cholesteatoma
Tumors in the ear
Foreign object in the ear canal
Abnormal bone growth in the middle ear
Sensorineural Hearing Loss
Aging
Noise exposure
Genetics
Viral infections (such as measles or mumps)
Bacterial infections (such as meningitis or syphilis)
Head injury
Ototoxic medications (such as certain antibiotics or chemotherapy drugs)
Meniere's disease
Acoustic neuroma
Multiple sclerosis
Note: The causes of hearing loss may vary from person to person and may not be limited to the above mentioned
factors. It is important to consult with a healthcare professional for proper evaluation and treatment
recommendations.
Autoimmune disease of inner ear, investigation and management in a table
Autoimmune Disease of Investigations Management

Inner Ear
Autoimmune Inner Ear Blood tests to detect Corticosteroids,
Disease (AIED) autoimmune antibodies immunosuppressants, and
(such as ANA, anti-SSA/ other medications may be
SSB, anti-dsDNA) and prescribed to manage
inflammatory markers symptoms and slow the
(such as ESR, CRP). progression of hearing
Diagnostic imaging tests loss. Hearing aids,
such as MRI or CT scan cochlear implants, and
may also be done. other assistive devices
Specialized tests for may be recommended to
hearing, such as speech improve communication
audiometry and auditory abilities. In some cases,
brainstem response (ABR) intratympanic injections of
tests, may be used to corticosteroids or biologic
assess the severity of agents may be used to
hearing loss. deliver medication directly
to the inner ear. Referral to
an otolaryngologist or an
audiologist may be
necessary for further
evaluation and
management.
Note: The management of autoimmune diseases of the inner ear may vary depending on the severity and
progression of the disease, and may require a multi-disciplinary approach involving various healthcare
professionals. It is important to consult with a healthcare provider for proper evaluation and treatment
recommendations.
All the investigations and hearing test with indications and results of ear in a table
Investigation/Test Indications Results Comments

Otoscopic exam Evaluation of the Normal or Performed using an
external ear canal abnormal otoscope, a
and eardrum appearance of the handheld
ear canal and instrument with a
eardrum light and
magnifying lens
Pure-tone Assessment of Audiogram Performed in a
audiometry hearing sensitivity showing the softest soundproof booth
sounds that can be using headphones
heard at different and a machine that
frequencies produces tones at
different
frequencies and
volumes
Tympanometry Assessment of Tympanogram Performed using a
middle ear function showing the handheld device
and eardrum amount of pressure that changes the
movement needed to move air pressure in the
the eardrum ear canal
Speech audiometry Assessment of Speech reception Performed in a
hearing ability for threshold (SRT) soundproof booth
speech and word using headphones
recognition score and a recorded
(WRS) voice
Auditory brainstem Assessment of Waveform showing Performed using
response (ABR) hearing nerve and the electrical small electrodes
brain function activity of the attached to the
hearing nerve and scalp while the
brain in response
to sounds
attached to the
scalp while the
brain in response patient listens to
to sounds clicking sounds
Otoacoustic Assessment of Presence or Performed using a
emissions (OAEs) inner ear function absence of sounds small probe in the
generated by the ear canal while the
inner ear in patient listens to
response to sounds clicks or tones
Note: The indications, results, and comments for each investigation/test may vary depending on the specific
condition and context in which it is performed. It is important to consult with a healthcare professional for proper
evaluation and interpretation of results.
Audio metric test types, indications, uses , results in a table
Audiometric Test Indications Uses Results

Pure-tone Assess hearing Determine hearing Audiogram
audiometry sensitivity thresholds for showing the softest
different sounds that can be
frequencies heard at different
frequencies
Speech audiometry Assess speech Evaluate the ability Speech reception
perception ability to hear and threshold (SRT)
understand speech and word
recognition score
(WRS)
Tympanometry Assess middle ear Evaluate eardrum Tympanogram
function movement and showing the
middle ear amount of pressure
pressure needed to move
the eardrum
Acoustic reflex Assess middle ear Evaluate the Graph or waveform
testing muscle reflexes function of the showing changes in
stapedius muscle sound transmission
in the middle ear when a loud sound
is presented
Otoacoustic Assess inner ear Evaluate the Presence or
emissions (OAEs) function function of the hair absence of sounds
cells in the inner generated by the
ear inner ear in
response to sounds
Note: The indications, uses, and results for each audiometric test may vary depending on the specific condition
and context in which it is performed. It is important to consult with a healthcare professional for proper evaluation
and interpretation of results.
Clinical tests of hearing , indication and their interpretation in a table
Clinical Test Indication Interpretation

Whisper Test Quick screening test for The patient is asked to
hearing loss repeat words whispered at
different distances from
the ear. Inability to hear
whispered words suggests
hearing loss.
Tuning Fork Tests (Rinne Assess hearing and The tuning fork is struck
and Weber) distinguish between and placed on the mastoid
conductive and bone behind the ear
sensorineural hearing loss (Rinne) or on the midline
of the forehead (Weber).
The patient indicates
which ear hears the sound
louder. Abnormal results
can suggest conductive or
sensorineural hearing loss.
Pure Tone Audiometry Evaluate hearing The patient wears
sensitivity and determine headphones and is
the degree and type of presented with tones at
hearing loss different frequencies and
volumes. The patient
indicates when they hear a
sound, and the results are
plotted on an audiogram.
Speech Audiometry Evaluate speech The patient is presented
perception ability and with recorded speech at
distinguish between different volumes and
conductive and asked to repeat what they
sensorineural hearing loss hear. Results can include a
Speech Reception
Threshold (SRT) and Word
Recognition Score (WRS).
Abnormal results can
suggest conductive or
sensorineural hearing loss.
Tympanometry Assess middle ear A probe is inserted into
function and distinguish the ear canal and air
between different types of pressure is varied to
hearing loss measure the movement of
the eardrum. Results can
include a tympanogram,
which can indicate normal
middle ear function,
conductive hearing loss,
or other conditions
affecting the middle ear.
Auditory Brainstem Evaluate hearing function Electrodes are placed on
Response (ABR) and diagnose auditory the scalp and a series of
nerve and brainstem clicks or tones are
disorders presented. The response
of the auditory nerve and
brainstem is recorded and
analyzed for
abnormalities.
Otoacoustic Emissions Evaluate inner ear function A small probe is placed in
(OAEs) and detect hearing loss in the ear canal and sounds
infants and young children
A small probe is placed in
the ear canal and sounds
infants and young children are presented. The
response of the inner ear
is recorded and analyzed
for abnormalities.
Electrocochleography Assess inner ear function Electrodes are placed on
(ECochG) and diagnose Meniere's the scalp and a probe is
disease and other inner placed in the ear canal.
ear disorders Sounds or electrical
signals are presented and
the response of the inner
ear is recorded and
analyzed for
abnormalities.
Note: The interpretation of test results can vary depending on the individual patient and their specific condition. It
is important to consult with a healthcare professional for proper evaluation and interpretation of results.
Type of tuning fork test , process,indication and interpretation in a table
Tuning Fork Test Process Indication Interpretation

Rinne Test A vibrating tuning Assess for Normal hearing:
fork is held against conductive hearing The sound is heard
the mastoid bone loss versus longer through the
behind the ear, and sensorineural air than through
the patient is asked hearing loss bone. Conductive
to indicate when hearing loss: The
they no longer hear sound is heard
the sound. The longer through
tuning fork is then bone than through
held close to the the air.
ear without Sensorineural
touching it, and the hearing loss: Air
patient is asked to and bone
indicate when they conduction are
no longer hear the reduced equally.
sound.
Weber Test A vibrating tuning Assess for Normal hearing:
fork is placed on unilateral hearing The sound is heard
the midline of the loss equally in both
patient's forehead, ears. Unilateral
and the patient is hearing loss: The
asked to indicate sound is heard
which ear they hear louder in the ear
the sound in. with better hearing.
Bing Test A vibrating tuning Assess for Normal hearing:
fork is held against conductive hearing The sound
the mastoid bone loss and to becomes louder
behind the ear, and differentiate when the ear canal
the examiner between occlusion is occluded.
intermittently of the ear canal Conductive hearing
occludes and and middle ear loss: There is no
opens the ear canal dysfunction change in the
with their finger. loudness of the
sound with
occlusion of the ear
canal. Middle ear
dysfunction: The
sound becomes
quieter with
occlusion of the ear
canal.
Schwabach Test A vibrating tuning Assess for Normal hearing:
fork is held against conductive hearing The examiner and
the mastoid bone loss patient hear the
behind the ear, and sound for the same
the patient is asked amount of time.
to indicate when Conductive hearing
they no longer hear loss: The patient
the sound. The hears the sound
examiner then
holds the tuning
loss: The patient
hears the sound
examiner then longer than the
holds the tuning examiner.
fork against their
own mastoid bone
and compares the
length of time they
hear the sound to
the patient's
response.
Stenger Test Two identical Assess for Normal hearing:
tuning forks are unilateral hearing The patient
used, one held near loss and to perceives the
each ear. The fork distinguish sound as coming
held near the ear between actual from the ear with
with better hearing versus perceived better hearing.
is quieter than the hearing loss Unilateral hearing
fork held near the loss: The patient
ear with poorer perceives the
hearing. sound as coming
from the ear with
poorer hearing.
Perceived hearing
loss: The patient is
pretending not to
hear the sound in
the ear with poorer
hearing.
Note: The interpretation of test results can vary depending on the individual patient and their specific condition. It
is important to consult with a healthcare professional for proper evaluation and interpretation of results.
Peripheral receptors and physiology of auditory and vestibular systems in a table
Aspect Peripheral Auditory System Vestibular System

Receptors
Location Cochlea in the External, middle, Inner ear
inner ear and inner ear
External, middle, Inner ear
inner ear and inner ear
Receptor Type Hair cells Hair cells Hair cells
Function Convert sound Transmit sound Detect head
waves into neural waves from the movements and
signals outer ear to the position in space
cochlea in the inner
ear
Anatomy Cochlea contains Outer ear includes Vestibular organs
the organ of Corti the pinna and ear include the utricle,
with rows of inner canal; middle ear saccule, and
and outer hair cells contains the semicircular canals
ossicles; inner ear
includes the
cochlea and
vestibular organs
Physiology Sound waves Sound waves are Head movements
cause vibration of transmitted cause fluid in the
the basilar through the outer vestibular organs
membrane, which and middle ear to to move, which
causes hair cells to the inner ear, triggers hair cells
bend and trigger where they cause to send neural
neural impulses the basilar impulses
membrane to
vibrate and trigger
hair cells to send
neural impulses
Pathway to the Cochlear nerve Auditory nerve Vestibular nerve
Brain fibers synapse with fibers synapse with fibers synapse with
neurons in the neurons in the neurons in the
cochlear nucleus in cochlear nucleus, vestibular nuclei in
the brainstem then travel to the the brainstem, then
superior olivary travel to the
complex, inferior
colliculus, and
auditory cortex in
the brainstem, then
travel to the
complex, inferior cerebellum,
colliculus, and thalamus, and
auditory cortex in other areas in the
the brain brain involved in
balance and spatial
orientation
Functions Affected Hearing loss and Hearing loss and Balance problems
by Disorders tinnitus balance problems and vertigo
The special sense physiology in a table
Special Sense Receptor Type Transduction Neural Brain Region

Mechanism Pathway Involved
Vision Photoreceptor Light energy to Optic nerve to Primary visual
cells (rods and electrical optic chiasm to cortex in
cones) signals optic tract occipital lobe
Hearing Hair cells in Mechanical Auditory nerve Auditory cortex
cochlea vibrations to to cochlear in temporal
electrical nucleus to lobe
signals superior olivary
nucleus to
inferior
colliculus to
medial
geniculate
nucleus
Olfaction Olfactory Chemicals in Olfactory nerve Olfactory
receptor cells air to electrical to olfactory cortex in
in nasal signals bulb to temporal lobe
epithelium olfactory tract
Gustation Taste receptor Chemicals in Facial nerve, Gustatory
cells in taste saliva to glossopharyng cortex in insula
buds electrical eal nerve, and and frontal
signals vagus nerve to operculum
solitary
nucleus to
thalamus to
operculum
solitary
nucleus to
thalamus to
gustatory
cortex
Touch Various types Mechanical Various Somatosensor
of sensory pressure to peripheral y cortex in
receptors (e.g. electrical nerves to parietal lobe
Meissner's signals spinal cord to
corpuscles, thalamus to
Merkel cells, somatosensory
Pacinian cortex
corpuscles)
Proprioception Muscle Stretch and Peripheral Cerebellum
spindles, Golgi tension to nerves to and
tendon organs, electrical spinal cord to somatosensory
and joint signals cerebellum and cortex
receptors somatosensory
cortex
Note: This table provides a simplified overview of the physiology of the special senses. The actual neural pathways
and brain regions involved may be more complex and varied.
Describe about facial nerve and it’s disorder in a table
Aspect of Facial Nerve Description Common Disorders

Anatomy The facial nerve is the N/A
seventh cranial nerve and
originates in the
brainstem. It travels
through the temporal bone
and branches out to the
muscles of the face, ear,
and scalp.
Function The facial nerve controls Bell's palsy, Ramsay Hunt
the muscles of facial syndrome, facial nerve
expression, as well as the
lacrimal and salivary
Bell's palsy, Ramsay Hunt
syndrome, facial nerve
expression, as well as the trauma, tumors, infections
lacrimal and salivary
glands. It also transmits
taste signals from the
anterior two-thirds of the
tongue.
Symptoms of Disorder Weakness or paralysis of Facial droop or weakness,
the muscles of facial inability to close the eye or
expression, drooping of blink fully, decreased tear
the eyelid or corner of the production, dry mouth,
mouth, drooling, dryness altered sense of taste
of the eye or mouth, loss
of taste sensation on the
anterior two-thirds of the
tongue.
Diagnosis Physical examination, N/A
imaging studies (e.g. MRI),
nerve conduction tests,
electromyography (EMG),
blood tests for infections
and autoimmune
disorders.
Treatment Depends on the Medications, physical
underlying cause and therapy, surgery,
severity of the disorder. rehabilitation,
For Bell's palsy and management of
Ramsay Hunt syndrome, underlying conditions.
corticosteroids and
antiviral medications may
be prescribed. Physical
therapy and facial
exercises may also be
helpful. In severe cases,
surgical procedures such
as facial nerve
surgical procedures such
as facial nerve
decompression or repair
may be necessary.
Prognosis Varies depending on the Varies depending on the
cause and severity of the cause and severity of the
disorder. Most cases of disorder. Early diagnosis
Bell's palsy and Ramsay and treatment may
Hunt syndrome resolve improve outcomes.
within several weeks to
months. However, some
cases may lead to
permanent facial
weakness or
disfigurement.
Note: This table provides a simplified overview of facial nerve disorders. The actual presentation, diagnosis, and
management of facial nerve disorders may be more complex and varied. It is important to consult with a healthcare
provider for proper evaluation and treatment recommendations.
The causes of otalgia:

● Ear infections (otitis externa, otitis media)
● Trauma or injury to the ear
● Eustachian tube dysfunction
● Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disorder
● Sinus infections
● Dental problems (tooth abscess, impacted wisdom teeth)
● Throat infections (tonsillitis, pharyngitis)
● Neuralgia (nerve pain)
● TMJ disorder
● Swimmer's ear (inflammation of the ear canal due to water exposure)
● Foreign object in the ear
● Earwax buildup
● Mastoiditis (inflammation of the mastoid bone behind the ear)
● Tumors of the ear or surrounding structures
● Referral pain from other areas of the head and neck.
Applied anatomy topics of human ear in a table
Applied Anatomy Topics of Human Ear

Structure and functions of external, middle and inner ear
Nerve supply of the ear
Blood supply of the ear
Muscles related to the ear
Landmarks of the external ear
Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
Ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes)
Oval window and round window
Eustachian tube
Mastoid process and mastoid air cells
Cochlea and vestibular system
Auditory and vestibular pathways
Cranial nerve VIII (vestibulocochlear nerve)
Facial nerve (CN VII) and its relation to the middle ear
Petrous part of temporal bone and its relationship to the ear
Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) and its relationship to the ear
Applied anatomy topics of human ear with their importance and surgical precision and implement in a table
Applied Anatomy Topics Importance Surgical Precision

of Human Ear
Structure and functions of Understanding the High
external, middle and inner anatomy and physiology
ear of the ear is essential for
the diagnosis and
management of ear
diseases and disorders.
Nerve supply of the ear Knowledge of the nerve Moderate
supply of the ear helps in
localizing the origin of pain
and in assessing the
function of the auditory
and vestibular systems.
Blood supply of the ear The blood supply of the Moderate
ear is important for
surgical procedures that
involve the ear, as well as
for understanding the
pathophysiology of ear
diseases.
Muscles related to the ear Knowledge of the muscles Low
related to the ear is
important for
understanding their role in
hearing and balance, as
well as for surgical
procedures that involve
these muscles.
Landmarks of the external The landmarks of the High
ear external ear are important
for identifying the site of
disease or injury and for
surgical procedures
involving the external ear.
Tympanic membrane The eardrum is a vital High
(eardrum) structure for hearing and
any injury or disease can
affect hearing. Knowledge
of its anatomy is important
for its surgical
management.
Ossicles (malleus, incus, The ossicles are the High
stapes) smallest bones in the
human body and are
important for sound
transmission. Surgical
procedures involving the
ossicles require a high
ossicles require a high
degree of precision.
Oval window and round These are important High
window structures for sound
transmission to the inner
ear. Surgical procedures
involving these structures
require a high degree of
precision.
Eustachian tube Knowledge of the anatomy Moderate
and function of the
Eustachian tube is
important for the
management of middle ear
Mastoid process and The mastoid process and High
mastoid air cells air cells are important for
hearing and balance.
Knowledge of their
anatomy and function is
important for surgical
procedures that involve
these structures.
Cochlea and vestibular These structures are High
system important for hearing and
balance. Knowledge of
their anatomy and function
is important for the
diagnosis and
management of ear
Auditory and vestibular Knowledge of the Moderate
pathways pathways involved in
hearing and balance is
important for
understanding the
pathophysiology of ear
Cranial nerve VIII Knowledge of the function Moderate
(vestibulocochlear nerve) of the vestibulocochlear
nerve is important for the
diagnosis and
management of ear
Facial nerve (CN VII) and The facial nerve is closely High
its relation to the middle related to the middle ear
ear and surgical procedures
involving the middle ear
require a high degree of
precision to avoid damage
to this nerve.
Petrous part of temporal The petrous part of the High
bone and its relationship temporal bone is a
to the ear complex and delicate
structure that houses the
ear and many other
important structures.
Knowledge of its anatomy
is essential for surgical
ear.
Temporomandibular joint The TMJ is closely related Moderate
(TMJ) and its relationship to the ear and its
to the ear dysfunction can lead to
ear pain and other ear-
related symptoms.
ear pain and other ear-
related symptoms.
Knowledge of this
relationship is important
for the diagnosis and
management of ear
Applied anatomy and surgical procedures done of human ear in a table
Applied Anatomy and Importance Surgical Precision

Surgical Procedures
Tympanic membrane Separates the external and Precise removal of debris
middle ear or foreign objects to avoid
damage
Middle ear ossicles Transmit sound vibrations Precise placement of
(malleus, incus, stapes) to the inner ear prosthetics or surgical
reconstruction to improve
hearing
Eustachian tube Maintains middle ear Precise dilation or
pressure and drainage reconstruction to improve
ventilation and drainage
Mastoid process Air-filled space connected Precise removal of
to the middle ear diseased tissue to treat
infections or tumours
Cochlea Converts sound vibrations Precise placement of
into electrical signals for cochlear implants to
the brain to interpret improve hearing in cases
of severe sensorineural
hearing loss
Facial nerve Controls facial movements Precise preservation
and sensation during surgeries to avoid
facial paralysis
Vestibular system Maintains balance and Precise removal of
spatial orientation
Precise removal of
spatial orientation vestibular nerve or
labyrinthine structures to
treat vertigo or tumours
Temporal bone Houses the ear and Precise removal or
adjacent structures reconstruction to treat
various ear disorders or
head and neck cancers
Surgical procedure-
Type of Incision Site of Incision Surgical Procedure

Postauricular Behind the ear Mastoidectomy,
Tympanoplasty,
Stapedectomy, Cochlear
Implantation,
Ossiculoplasty,
Labyrinthectomy, Acoustic
neuroma surgery
Transcanal Through the ear canal Myringotomy,
Tympanoplasty,
Stapedectomy,
Endolymphatic sac
surgery, Eustachian tube
dilation
Endaural Within the ear canal Myringotomy,
Tympanoplasty,
Stapedectomy,
Endolymphatic sac
surgery
Retroauricular Above and behind the ear Cochlear Implantation,
Acoustic neuroma surgery
Note: The site of incision and surgical procedure may vary depending on the specific disease, patient anatomy,
and surgeon preference.
Radiological anatomy , cause and interpretation of ear in a table

Radiological Anatomy Cause Interpretation
Air-filled cavities of the Normal anatomy Clear appearance on X-ray
middle ear or CT scan
Fluid or pus in the middle Otitis media, Eustachian Opacification of the
ear tube dysfunction middle ear on X-ray or CT
scan
Bone erosion in the middle Cholesteatoma, Chronic Destruction of the bony
ear or mastoid otitis media, Mastoiditis architecture seen on CT
scan
Tumor in the ear or Acoustic neuroma, Abnormal mass or growth
temporal bone Glomus tumor on CT or MRI scan
Abnormalities of the inner Meniere's disease, Changes in the
ear Congenital inner ear appearance of the cochlea
malformations and vestibule on CT or
MRI scan
Obstruction of the Wax impaction, Foreign Blockage of the ear canal
external auditory canal body seen on otoscopy and
sometimes confirmed with
imaging
Note: The interpretation of radiological findings should always be done in the context of the patient's clinical
presentation and history.
The name of all Important blood vessels with all of their branches and supplies and actions in Head and Neck
in a table form
Blood Vessel Branches Supplies Actions

Common Carotid None Supplies blood to Provides
Artery the head and neck oxygenated blood
to the brain, face,
and neck
Internal Carotid Ophthalmic, Supplies blood to Provides
Artery Posterior the brain oxygenated blood
communicating, to the anterior and
Anterior cerebral,
Middle cerebral,
Anterior choroidal
the brain oxygenated blood
to the anterior and
Anterior cerebral, middle cerebral
Middle cerebral, hemispheres, basal
Anterior choroidal ganglia, internal
capsule, thalamus,
and optic chiasm
External Carotid Superior thyroid, Supplies blood to Provides
Artery Lingual, Facial, the face and neck oxygenated blood
Occipital, Posterior to the muscles of
auricular, Maxillary, mastication,
Superficial tongue, scalp, face,
temporal and neck
Vertebral Artery None Supplies blood to Provides
to the brainstem,
cerebellum, and
occipital lobe
Basilar Artery None Supplies blood to Provides
to the brainstem,
cerebellum, and
occipital lobe
Circle of Willis Anterior cerebral, Supplies blood to Provides an
Middle cerebral, the brain anastomotic
Posterior cerebral, network of blood
Anterior vessels that
communicating, ensures adequate
Posterior blood supply to the
communicating brain
Jugular Vein Internal, External Drains blood from Carries
the head and neck deoxygenated
blood from the
brain, face, and
neck to the heart
Facial Vein None Drains blood from Carries
the face deoxygenated
blood from the face
to the internal
jugular vein
Maxillary Vein None Drains blood from Carries
the deep structures deoxygenated
of the face blood from the
deep structures of
the face to the
internal jugular vein
Superficial None Drains blood from Carries
Temporal Vein the scalp deoxygenated
blood from the
scalp to the
external jugular
vein
Note: This is not an exhaustive list of all the blood vessels in the head and neck region, but rather a selection of
the most important vessels and their branches. The functions and supplies of each vessel can vary based on
individual anatomy and may not apply to every patient.
Table describing the name of important blood vessels in the head and neck, along with their branches,
supplies, and actions:
Blood Vessel Branches Supplies Actions

Common Carotid External Carotid Head and neck, Supplies
Artery Artery Internal thyroid gland, face, oxygenated blood
Carotid Artery oral cavity, tongue, to the head and
nasal cavity, neck
pharynx
External Carotid Superior Thyroid Face, scalp, oral Supplies
Artery Artery Ascendi cavity, nasal cavity, oxygenated blood
ng Pharyngeal external ear, to the face, scalp,
Artery Lingual thyroid gland and neck
Artery Facial
Artery Occipital
Artery Posterio
thyroid gland and neck
Artery Facial
Artery Occipital
Artery Posterio
r Auricular
Artery Maxillar
y
Artery Superfic
ial Temporal Artery
Internal Carotid Ophthalmic Brain, eyes, Supplies
Artery Artery Posterio forehead, nose oxygenated blood
r Communicating to the brain
Artery Anterior
Cerebral
Artery Middle
Cerebral
Artery Posterio
r Cerebral Artery
Vertebral Artery Anterior Spinal Brainstem, Supplies
Artery Posterio cerebellum, spinal oxygenated blood
r Inferior Cerebellar cord to the brainstem,
Artery Posterio cerebellum, and
r Spinal spinal cord
Artery Basilar
Artery
Facial Artery Inferior Labial Lower lip, chin, Supplies
Artery Superior nose, cheeks oxygenated blood
Labial to the face
Artery Lateral
Nasal Artery
Maxillary Artery Deep Temporal Maxilla, teeth, Supplies
Artery Buccal gums, cheek, oxygenated blood
Artery Posterio palate, nasal cavity to the face and
r Superior Alveolar teeth
Artery Infraorbi
tal Artery
teeth
tal Artery
Superficial Transverse Facial Scalp, forehead, Supplies
Temporal Artery Artery Frontal temple oxygenated blood
Branch Parietal to the scalp and
Branch forehead
It's important to note that the branches, supplies, and actions of these blood vessels can vary from person to
person and can also be affected by certain medical conditions. This table is meant to provide a general overview
of the blood vessels in the head and neck.
Table that summarizes the major blood supply and nerve supply in the head and neck region:
Structure Blood Supply Nerve Supply

Brain Internal carotid artery, Cranial nerves,
vertebral arteries specifically: - Olfactory
nerve (CN I) - Optic nerve
(CN II) - Oculomotor nerve
(CN III) - Trochlear nerve
(CN IV) - Abducens nerve
(CN VI) - Facial nerve (CN
VII) - Vestibulocochlear
nerve (CN VIII) -
Glossopharyngeal nerve
(CN IX) - Vagus nerve (CN
X) - Accessory nerve (CN
XI) - Hypoglossal nerve
(CN XII)
Face External carotid artery Facial nerve (CN VII)
Scalp External carotid artery Trigeminal nerve (CN V)
Teeth Maxillary artery (branch of Trigeminal nerve (CN V)
external carotid)
Pharynx and Larynx Superior thyroid artery Vagus nerve (CN X)
(branch of external
carotid)
Tongue Lingual artery (branch of Trigeminal nerve (CN V)
external carotid)
Trigeminal nerve (CN V)
external carotid)
Ears Internal carotid artery, Cranial nerves,
vertebral arteries specifically: -
Vestibulocochlear nerve
(CN VIII) - Facial nerve
(CN VII)
Eye Ophthalmic artery (branch Cranial nerves,
of internal carotid) specifically: - Optic nerve
(CN II) - Oculomotor nerve
(CN III) - Trochlear nerve
(CN IV) - Abducens nerve
(CN VI)
NOSE AND PARANASAL SINUSES
Table summarizing the external nose anatomy:
Nasal Bones Pair of small bones that form the upper
part of the bridge of the nose
Cartilages - Septal cartilage: forms the anterior and
inferior part of the nasal septum, which
divides the nasal cavity into left and right
halves - Lateral cartilages: form the
sidewalls of the nose and contribute to
the shape of the nostrils and nasal tip -
Greater alar cartilages: located at the
base of the nose and form the medial
and lateral borders of the nostrils (ala
nasi)
Nares Also known as nostrils; paired openings
at the base of the nose through which air
enters the nasal cavity
Nasal Vestibule The most anterior part of the nasal cavity
that is lined with skin containing hair
follicles, sweat and sebaceous glands,
and vibrissae (long nasal hairs)
Ala Nasi The lateral wall of each nostril that is
formed by the greater alar cartilage
Columella The fleshy column that separates the
nostrils
Nasal Tip The distal end of the nose
Bridge of the Nose The bony and cartilaginous structure
that forms the upper part of the nose
Nasolabial Angle The angle formed by the junction of the
columella and the upper lip
Philtrum The vertical groove between the nasal
septum and the upper lip
Nasal Dorsum The upper surface of the nose
Soft Tissue Envelope The skin and soft tissues that cover the
bony and cartilaginous structures of the
nose
Blood and Nerve Supply The external nose is mainly supplied by
branches of the facial artery and the
sphenopalatine artery. The facial artery,
which is a branch of the external carotid
artery, supplies blood to the lower part
of the external nose, including the nasal
tip, the ala nasi, and the dorsum of the
nose. The sphenopalatine artery, which
is a branch of the maxillary artery,
supplies blood to the upper part of the
external nose, including the nasal bridge.
In addition to these arteries, the external

nose also receives blood from the
ophthalmic artery, which is a branch of
the internal carotid artery. The
ophthalmic artery supplies blood to the
skin and soft tissues around the eyes,
and some of its branches also contribute
to the blood supply of the lateral aspect
of the nasal bridge.
The veins of the external nose follow a

similar course to the arteries, and drain
into the facial vein and the ophthalmic
vein. The lymphatic drainage of the
external nose is to the submandibular
and deep cervical lymph nodes.
Table summarizing the anatomy and function of the nasal septum:
Nasal Septum A thin wall of bone and cartilage that
divides the nasal cavity into left and right
halves
Septal Cartilage A flexible plate of hyaline cartilage that
forms the anterior and inferior part of the
nasal septum; it is covered by mucous
membrane on both sides
Vomer Bone A thin, flat bone that forms the posterior
and inferior part of the nasal septum; it
articulates with the perpendicular plate
of the ethmoid bone anteriorly, and with
the maxilla and palatine bones
posteriorly
Ethmoid Bone A spongy bone that forms the superior
part of the nasal septum; it contains
numerous small air cells called ethmoidal
cells
Blood Supply - Anterior ethmoidal artery: supplies the
anterior part of the nasal septum,
including the septal cartilage and the
skin overlying it - Posterior ethmoidal
artery: supplies the posterior part of the
nasal septum, including the vomer bone
and the adjacent part of the nasal cavity
Nerve Supply - Anterior ethmoidal nerve: a branch of
the ophthalmic nerve (CN V1); supplies
sensory innervation to the anterior part
of the nasal septum and the nasal
vestibule - Posterior ethmoidal nerve: a
branch of the maxillary nerve (CN V2);
supplies sensory innervation to the
posterior part of the nasal septum and
the adjacent part of the nasal cavity
Function The nasal septum provides support and
structure to the nasal cavity, and helps
to regulate the flow of air through the
nasal passages. It also plays a role in
warming and humidifying the air as it
passes through the nasal cavity, and in
filtering out particulate matter and other
contaminants from the air. The sensory
innervation of the nasal septum is
important for detecting odors and for
triggering reflexes such as sneezing and
nasal congestion in response to irritants
or allergens. In addition, the nasal
septum is a common site of injury and
deviation, which can lead to nasal
obstruction and other complications.
Table summarizing the name and function of structures with and without turbinates, their clinical importance,
and the implications of the lateral wall of the nose:
Structure Turbinates Function Clinical Implications of

Importance Lateral Wall
Nasal Cavity None Conducts air - Provides
from nostrils to structural
nasopharynx support to
nose
Conchae Present Increase - Nasal Inferior
(Turbinates) surface area obstruction conchae can
and enhance due to be resected to
air turbulence hypertrophy or improve airflow
for deviated
humidification septum can
and filtration cause
breathing
difficulty and
sleep apnea
Olfactory None Detects and Loss of smell Localization of
Epithelium processes due to injury, olfactory
odors infection, or receptors
neurodegenera
tive disease
Sphenoethmoi None Allows for Sinusitis or Important area
dal Recess drainage of obstruction for endoscopic
sphenoidal can lead to sinus surgery
sinuses chronic
infection and
headaches
infection and
headaches
Ethmoidal Air Present Increase Can develop Important area
Cells surface area mucosal for endoscopic
and enhance inflammation sinus surgery
air turbulence or polyps that
for obstruct airway
humidification
and filtration
Table summarizing the structure and opening of the various sinuses in the lateral wall of the nose without
turbinates:
Sinus Location Opening

Maxillary Maxilla (cheekbone) Middle meatus via
maxillary ostium
Anterior Ethmoidal Ethmoid bone (near bridge Middle meatus via anterior
of nose) ethmoidal foramen
Posterior Ethmoidal Ethmoid bone (near back Superior meatus via
of nose) posterior ethmoidal
foramen
Sphenoidal Sphenoid bone (behind Sphenoethmoidal recess
nose) at top of nasal cavity
Nasal bones Small bones that form the bridge of the
nose
Inferior meatus A curved passageway at the bottom of
the nasal cavity
Middle meatus A larger passageway in the middle of the
nasal cavity
Superior meatus A smaller passageway at the top of the
nasal cavity
Sphenoethmoidal recess An area at the top of the nasal cavity
where the sphenoidal sinus opens
Olfactory region An area at the top of the nasal cavity
where olfactory receptors are located
Table summarizing the osteomeatal unit:
Term Definition
Osteomeatal Unit A functional and anatomical unit
consisting of the maxillary sinus ostium,
infundibulum, and hiatus
Maxillary Sinus Ostium The opening of the maxillary sinus into
the middle meatus of the nasal cavity
Infundibulum The narrow passage between the frontal
recess and the bulla ethmoidalis
Ethmoidal Bulla A bulge on the lateral wall of the middle
meatus, which contains the middle
ethmoidal cells
Hiatus Semilunaris A crescent-shaped groove on the lateral
wall of the middle meatus, located below
the ethmoidal bulla
The osteomeatal unit plays an important role in the drainage of the frontal, maxillary, and anterior ethmoidal
sinuses. The maxillary sinus ostium opens into the middle meatus via the infundibulum, which is located between
the ethmoidal bulla and the frontal recess. The ethmoidal bulla and hiatus semilunaris help to direct the flow of
mucus from the sinuses into the nasal cavity. When any of these structures become obstructed due to
inflammation or other factors, it can lead to sinusitis (sinus infection) and other complications.
Table summarizing the olfactory nerve:
Aspect Description
Course Arises from olfactory receptor cells in
the olfactory epithelium and passes
through the cribriform plate of the
ethmoid bone to enter the olfactory bulb
Functional Units Olfactory receptor cells, olfactory bulb
neurons, and olfactory cortex neurons
Location The olfactory epithelium is located in the
upper part of the nasal cavity, and the
olfactory bulb is located at the base of
the frontal lobe of the brain
Supply and Distribution The olfactory receptor cells are supplied
by the olfactory artery, and the olfactory
bulb neurons and olfactory cortex
neurons are supplied by branches of the
anterior and middle cerebral arteries.
The olfactory nerve fibers project to
various areas of the olfactory cortex,
including the piriform cortex, amygdala,
and entorhinal cortex.
The olfactory nerve is responsible for detecting and processing odors, and plays an important role in our sense of
smell. The olfactory receptor cells in the olfactory epithelium are activated by airborne molecules, which then send
signals to the olfactory bulb and eventually to the olfactory cortex. Damage or dysfunction of the olfactory nerve
can lead to anosmia (loss of sense of smell) or hyposmia (reduced sense of smell).
Table summarizing the paranasal sinuses:
Aspect Description
Types Four types of paranasal sinuses: frontal,
ethmoidal, sphenoidal, and maxillary
Locations The frontal sinuses are located in the
forehead above the eyes, the ethmoidal
sinuses are located between the eyes,
the sphenoidal sinuses are located
behind the ethmoidal sinuses, and the
maxillary sinuses are located in the
cheekbones
Functions The paranasal sinuses serve to lighten
the skull, provide resonance for the
voice, and secrete mucus to help
humidify and warm the air we breathe
Pathology Pathology of the paranasal sinuses
includes sinusitis (inflammation or
infection of the sinuses), polyps
(abnormal growths in the sinuses), and
tumors.
Disease and Causes Sinusitis can be caused by bacterial or
viral infections, allergies, or structural
abnormalities in the sinuses. Polyps can
be caused by chronic inflammation, and
tumors can be either benign or
malignant.
Management Treatment for sinusitis includes
antibiotics, decongestants, and pain
relievers. Polyps may require surgery to
remove, and treatment for tumors
depends on the type and stage of the
tumor.
The paranasal sinuses are a group of air-filled spaces in the skull that play a role in breathing, voice production,
and immune defense. They can become inflamed or infected, leading to sinusitis, which is a common condition
that can cause nasal congestion, pain, and pressure in the face. Treatment for sinusitis typically involves
antibiotics, decongestants, and pain relievers, and severe cases may require surgery. Polyps and tumors can also
affect the paranasal sinuses, and may require more aggressive treatment such as surgery or chemotherapy.
Table summarizing the structure of the orbit and its contents:
Aspect Description
Bones The orbit is made up of seven bones: the
frontal, maxilla, zygomatic, sphenoid,
ethmoid, palatine, and lacrimal bones.
Contents The contents of the orbit include the
eyeball, extraocular muscles, optic
nerve, ophthalmic artery, lacrimal gland,
and various nerves and blood vessels.
Muscles The extraocular muscles include the
superior rectus, inferior rectus, medial
rectus, lateral rectus, superior oblique,
and inferior oblique muscles.
Blood Supply The ophthalmic artery is the main source
of blood supply to the orbit and its
contents. It branches into several smaller
arteries that supply the various
structures within the orbit.
Nerve Supply The optic nerve provides sensory
innervation to the eyeball and the
extraocular muscles are supplied by the
oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens
nerves.
Pathology and Causes Pathologies of the orbit include orbital
fractures, orbital cellulitis, Graves'
disease, and orbital tumors. Causes of
these pathologies vary and may include
trauma, infection, autoimmune disorders,
and neoplasms.
Management Management of orbital pathologies
depends on the underlying cause and
may include surgical intervention,
antibiotics, corticosteroids, radiation
therapy, or a combination of these.
The orbit is a complex structure that houses the eyeball and various other structures such as extraocular muscles,
nerves, and blood vessels. Pathologies of the orbit can range from traumatic injuries to infections and neoplasms.
Management of these conditions is typically tailored to the underlying cause and may involve a combination of
surgical intervention, antibiotics, corticosteroids, radiation therapy, or other treatments.
Overview of the blood supply and nerve supply for some of the major organs in the human body:
Organ Blood Supply Nerve Supply Functions Structures

Supplied
Brain Internal carotid Cranial nerves, Controls and Neurons, glial
arteries, spinal nerves coordinates cells, blood
vertebral bodily vessels
arteries functions
Heart Coronary Autonomic Pumps blood Myocardium
arteries nerves to the rest of
the body
Autonomic Pumps blood Myocardium
arteries nerves to the rest of
the body
Lungs Pulmonary Vagus nerve, Facilitates gas Alveoli,
arteries and sympathetic exchange bronchi,
veins nerves between air bronchioles
and blood
Liver Hepatic artery, Hepatic nerves Filters blood Hepatocytes,
portal vein and produces bile ducts
bile
Kidneys Renal arteries Renal nerves Filters blood Nephrons,
and veins and removes collecting
waste products ducts
Small Intestine Superior Autonomic Digests food Villi, microvilli,
mesenteric nerves and absorbs intestinal
artery and vein nutrients glands
Large Intestine Superior and Autonomic Absorbs water Colon, rectum
inferior nerves and
mesenteric electrolytes
arteries and from
veins indigestible
food matter
Table outlining the blood supply, nerve supply, functions, and structures supplied by the arteries, veins, and
nerves of the human nose:
Structure Arterial Venous Nerve Functions Structures

Supply Drainage Supply Supplied
Nasal Cavity Sphenopalat Anterior and Olfactory Air filtration, Nasal
ine artery, posterior nerves (CN humidificati mucosa,
anterior and ethmoidal I), trigeminal on, and turbinates,
posterior veins, nerves (CN warming, olfactory
ethmoidal sphenopalat V) olfaction epithelium
arteries ine vein
Nasal Sphenopalat Anterior and Olfactory Supports Cartilage,
Septum ine artery, posterior nerves (CN and
anterior and ethmoidal I), trigeminal separates
Sphenopalat Anterior and Olfactory Supports Cartilage,
Septum ine artery, posterior nerves (CN and bone, and
anterior and ethmoidal I), trigeminal separates mucosa of
posterior veins, nerves (CN nasal the septum
ethmoidal sphenopalat V) cavities
arteries, ine vein,
superior superior
labial artery labial vein
Sinuses Maxillary Maxillary Trigeminal Resonance, Maxillary,
artery, vein, nerves (CN production ethmoid,
anterior and anterior and V) of mucus frontal, and
posterior posterior sphenoid
ethmoidal ethmoidal sinuses
arteries veins
Note: The nerve supply to the nasal cavity and septum includes both olfactory nerves (CN I), responsible for the
sense of smell, and trigeminal nerves (CN V), responsible for sensation and pain. The nerve supply to the sinuses
is primarily via the trigeminal nerves.
Table summarizing the applied anatomy of different structures in the head and neck region:
Structure Applied Anatomy

Scalp Composed of skin, subcutaneous tissue,
galea aponeurotica, loose areolar tissue,
and pericranium. Richly vascularized and
innervated.
Temporalis muscle Primary muscle responsible for closing
the jaw. Innervated by the trigeminal
nerve.
Parotid gland Largest salivary gland located anterior
and inferior to the ear. Innervated by the
glossopharyngeal nerve.
Maxilla and Mandible Upper and lower jaws, respectively,
which house the teeth and provide
attachment sites for the muscles of
mastication. Innervated by the trigeminal
nerve.
Hyoid bone U-shaped bone located in the neck that
supports the tongue and serves as an
attachment site for muscles of the neck
and throat. Not directly articulated with
any other bone.
Thyroid gland Endocrine gland located in the anterior
neck, consisting of two lobes connected
by an isthmus. Produces hormones that
regulate metabolism. Innervated by the
recurrent laryngeal nerve.
Larynx Structure in the neck responsible for
voice production and protecting the
airway during swallowing. Composed of
several cartilages and muscles, and
innervated by the recurrent laryngeal
nerve.
Trachea Tubular structure that connects the
larynx to the lungs. Composed of
cartilage rings and smooth muscle, and
innervated by the vagus nerve.
Pharynx Muscular tube located in the neck that
connects the nasal and oral cavities to
the esophagus and larynx. Composed of
three parts: nasopharynx, oropharynx,
and laryngopharynx. Innervated by the
glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves.
Cervical lymph nodes Collection of lymph nodes located in the
neck that filter lymphatic fluid from the
head and neck region. Can be palpated
and evaluated for enlargement or
tenderness.
Carotid artery Major artery located in the neck that
supplies blood to the brain. Composed
of the common carotid artery and the
internal and external carotid arteries.
Jugular vein Major vein located in the neck that drains
blood from the brain and head region.
Composed of the internal and external
jugular veins.
Cranial nerves Twelve pairs of nerves that emerge from
the brainstem and innervate various
structures in the head and neck region.
Includes the trigeminal, facial,
glossopharyngeal, vagus, and accessory
nerves, among others.
These structures are important in understanding the anatomy and function of the head and neck region, as well as
in diagnosing and treating various diseases and conditions that affect these structures.
Length of different structures in the head and neck region:
Structure Approximate Length

Head circumference Varies with age and gender; newborns
average around 34 cm, while adults
average around 56 cm
Neck circumference Varies with age and gender; average for
adult men is around 40 cm, while
average for adult women is around 35
cm
Trachea Approximately 11-13 cm in length
Thyroid cartilage Approximately 4 cm in height
Cricoid cartilage Approximately 1.5-2 cm in height
Hyoid bone Approximately 2.5-3 cm in length
Mandible Approximately 10-12 cm in length
Maxilla Approximately 6-7 cm in length
Nasal bones Approximately 2-3 cm in length
Frontal bone Approximately 6-7 cm in length
Occipital bone Approximately 9-10 cm in length
Temporal bone Approximately 5-6 cm in length
Parietal bone Approximately 7-8 cm in length
Table outlining the information about parasympathetic ganglia:
Type of Sensory Root Sympathetic Parasympathe Distribution

Parasympathe Root tic Root
tic Ganglion
Ciliary Cranial nerve II N/A Cranial nerve III Eye muscles,
Ganglion (Optic) (Oculomotor) iris, lacrimal
gland
Pterygopalatin Maxillary nerve N/A Facial nerve Nasal and
e Ganglion (CN V2) (CN VII), palatine
Greater glands,
Petrosal nerve pharynx
Submandibular Lingual nerve N/A Facial nerve Submandibular
Ganglion (CN V3) (CN VII), and sublingual
Chorda glands
Tympani
Otic Ganglion Auriculotempor N/A Glossopharyng Parotid gland
al nerve (CN eal nerve (CN
V3) IX), Lesser
Petrosal nerve
Intramural Visceral Thoracolumbar Cranial outflow Organs in the
Ganglia (in sensory fibers outflow (parasympathe head, neck,
walls of (sympathetic) tic) thorax,
organs) abdomen, and
pelvis
Note: There are other parasympathetic ganglia in the body, but these are the main ones involved in regulating the
function of various organs and tissues.
Table outlining the boundaries and contents of the anterior triangle of the neck:
Boundaries Contents
Superior: Inferior border of mandible Muscles: Digastric (anterior belly),
Mylohyoid, Stylohyoid, Geniohyoid,
Hyoglossus, Thyrohyoid, Sternohyoid,
Sternothyroid.
Anterior: Midline of neck Vessels: Anterior jugular vein, Submental
artery, Suprasternal artery, Inferior
thyroid artery.
Posterior: Sternocleidomastoid muscle Nerves: Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII),
Ansa cervicalis, Phrenic nerve (C3-C5).
Floor: Hyoid bone, Thyroid and Cricoid Glands: Thyroid gland (sometimes),
cartilages Parathyroid gland (inferior).
Note: The anterior triangle of the neck is a triangular area of the neck bounded by the sternocleidomastoid
muscle, the midline of the neck, and the inferior border of the mandible. It is an important area for the
identification and management of various structures, such as blood vessels, nerves, and muscles, that pass
through or are located within this region.
Subdivision of anterior triangle with the boundaries and contents:
Subdivision Boundaries Contents

Submental Triangle Anterior belly of digastric Submental lymph nodes,
muscle (superiorly), Hyoid Submental artery, and
bone (inferiorly), and veins.
Midline of the neck
(medially)
Carotid Triangle Superior belly of omohyoid Common carotid artery,
muscle (superiorly), Internal jugular vein,
Posterior belly of digastric Vagus nerve (CN X),
muscle (posteriorly), and Hypoglossal nerve (CN
Anterior border of XII), Ansa cervicalis,
sternocleidomastoid Carotid body and sinus,
muscle (anteriorly) Sympathetic trunk, and
Lymph nodes.
Muscular Triangle Superior belly of omohyoid Strap muscles
muscle (superiorly), (Sternohyoid, Omohyoid,
Anterior border of
sternocleidomastoid
Strap muscles
(Sternohyoid, Omohyoid,
Anterior border of Sternothyroid), Thyroid
sternocleidomastoid gland (sometimes),
muscle (lateral border), Parathyroid gland
and Midline of the neck (inferior), and Larynx.
(medially)
Note: The anterior triangle of the neck can be further subdivided into three smaller triangles: the submental
triangle, carotid triangle, and muscular triangle. Each of these subdivisions has its own boundaries and contents
that are clinically significant for the identification and management of structures in the neck.
Digastric triangle boundaries and content:
Boundaries Contents
Superior: Inferior border of mandible Muscles: Digastric (anterior belly).
Posterior: Posterior belly of digastric Nerves: Facial nerve (CN VII),
muscle Retromandibular vein.
Anterior: Anterior belly of digastric Submandibular gland, Submandibular
muscle lymph nodes, Mylohyoid nerve,
Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII), Submental
artery and vein.
Note: The digastric triangle is a small triangular area of the neck bounded by the inferior border of the mandible,
the posterior belly of the digastric muscle, and the anterior belly of the digastric muscle. It contains a number of
important structures, including muscles, nerves, and blood vessels, which are clinically relevant for the diagnosis
and treatment of various neck conditions.
Internal Carotid Artery:

The internal carotid artery (ICA) is a major artery in the neck that supplies blood to the brain, eyes, and other
structures in the head and neck region. It does not have any branches in the neck, but it gives rise to several
important branches in the skull. The main branches of the internal carotid artery in the skull are:
. Ophthalmic artery: This branch supplies blood to the orbit (eye socket), including the retina, optic nerve,
and other structures in the eye.
. Posterior communicating artery: This branch connects the internal carotid artery to the posterior cerebral
artery, which supplies the posterior part of the brain.
. Anterior choroidal artery: This branch supplies blood to the choroid plexus, which produces cerebrospinal
fluid in the brain, as well as other structures in the brain.
. Middle cerebral artery: This is the largest branch of the internal carotid artery and supplies blood to the
lateral surface of the brain, including the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes.
. Anterior cerebral artery: This branch supplies blood to the medial surface of the brain, including the frontal
and parietal lobes.
These branches of the internal carotid artery are important for the blood supply of the brain and its associated
structures. Damage or blockage of these arteries can result in serious neurological conditions, such as stroke or
visual impairment.
External carotid artery :

The external carotid artery (ECA) is another major artery in the neck that supplies blood to the face, neck, and
scalp. It branches off from the common carotid artery, which is located in the neck at the level of the larynx.
The external carotid artery gives rise to several important branches that supply blood to various structures in the
head and neck region. These branches include:
. Superior thyroid artery: This branch supplies blood to the thyroid gland and nearby structures in the neck.
. Lingual artery: This branch supplies blood to the tongue, sublingual gland, and nearby structures in the
mouth.
. Facial artery: This branch supplies blood to the face, including the lips, nose, and cheeks.
. Occipital artery: This branch supplies blood to the scalp, muscles of the neck, and nearby structures.
. Posterior auricular artery: This branch supplies blood to the scalp behind the ear and the auricle (outer ear).
. Maxillary artery: This is a large branch that supplies blood to the deep structures of the face, including the
teeth, palate, and nasal cavity.
. Superficial temporal artery: This branch supplies blood to the scalp and forehead.
The external carotid artery and its branches are important for the blood supply of the face, neck, and scalp.
Damage or blockage of these arteries can result in serious medical conditions, such as facial trauma, aneurysms,
or tumors. The external carotid artery can also be accessed for certain medical procedures, such as embolization
of tumors or aneurysms.
Table summarizing the superficial and deep structures of the neck:
Superficial Structures Deep Structures

Skin and subcutaneous tissue Vertebral column
Platysma muscle Pharynx
External jugular vein Larynx
Anterior jugular veins Trachea
Sternocleidomastoid muscle Esophagus
Clavicle Thyroid gland
Trapezius muscle Parathyroid glands
Cervical lymph nodes Carotid sheath
Supraclavicular lymph nodes Vagus nerve
Cutaneous nerves (e.g. cervical plexus, Sympathetic trunk
supraclavicular nerves)
Superficial cervical fascia Brachial plexus
Pretracheal fascia Recurrent laryngeal nerve
Prevertebral fascia Cervical sympathetic ganglia
Note: The superficial structures of the neck include the skin, subcutaneous tissue, and various muscles, veins,
and lymph nodes located close to the surface. The deep structures of the neck include the vertebral column,
pharynx, larynx, trachea, esophagus, thyroid and parathyroid glands, carotid sheath, major nerves (such as the
vagus nerve and brachial plexus), and cervical sympathetic ganglia. Understanding the anatomy of both
superficial and deep structures is important for diagnosis and treatment of various neck conditions.
Jugular Vein:
There are several jugular veins in the human body, but the two main ones are the internal jugular vein and the
external jugular vein. Here's a brief summary of each vein and their tributaries:
1.Internal Jugular Vein:
The internal jugular vein is a major vein that runs down the side of the neck and drains blood from the brain, face,
and neck. It forms at the base of the skull from the joining of the sigmoid sinus and the inferior petrosal sinus, and
then descends down the neck to join with the subclavian vein to form the brachiocephalic vein. The tributaries of
the internal jugular vein include:
● Inferior petrosal sinus
● Sigmoid sinus
● Facial vein
● Lingual vein
● Pharyngeal veins
● Superior and middle thyroid veins
● Occipital vein
2.External Jugular Vein:

The external jugular vein is a smaller vein that runs superficially on the side of the neck, and drains blood from the
scalp and face. It begins at the level of the angle of the mandible, and descends down the neck before emptying
into the subclavian vein. The tributaries of the external jugular vein include:
● Posterior auricular vein
● Superficial temporal vein
● Maxillary vein
● Retromandibular vein
● Occipital vein
● Anterior jugular vein
Both the internal and external jugular veins are important for the venous drainage of the head and neck, and their
tributaries can be used as landmarks for various medical procedures. In addition, the internal jugular vein is
commonly used for central venous catheterization, which involves inserting a catheter into the vein for
administering medications or fluids.
Table describing the deep cervical fascia of the neck:
Layer of Deep Cervical Fascia Description

Investing layer Outermost layer that encloses the entire
neck and attaches to the superior nuchal
line, the spinous processes of the
cervical vertebrae, and the sternum and
clavicle.
Pretracheal layer Lies anterior to the trachea and
esophagus, and is continuous with the
investing layer at the superior thoracic
aperture. It encloses the thyroid gland,
trachea, esophagus, and recurrent
laryngeal nerves.
Prevertebral layer Lies deep to the investing layer and
surrounds the vertebral column,
enclosing the muscles and structures of
the posterior neck. It extends from the
base of the skull to the coccyx and is
continuous with the axillary fascia.
Alar fascia A thin layer that extends laterally from
the prevertebral layer to the transverse
processes of the cervical vertebrae. It
forms a sheath for the neurovascular
structures and muscles of the neck.
Carotid sheath A tubular structure that encloses the
common carotid artery, internal jugular
vein, and vagus nerve. It is formed by the
fusion of the pretracheal and
prevertebral layers and extends from the
base of the skull to the root of the neck.
Retropharyngeal space A potential space between the
prevertebral and pretracheal layers that
contains lymph nodes and connective
tissue. It extends from the base of the
skull to the mediastinum and
communicates with the posterior
mediastinum.
Table describing the superficial cervical fascia of the neck:
Layer of Superficial Cervical Fascia Description

Outer layer Composed of loose areolar tissue and
contains the platysma muscle, which
originates from the fascia of the upper
chest and inserts into the mandible and
skin of the face.
Inner layer Composed of denser connective tissue
and contains the cutaneous nerves,
blood vessels, and lymphatics. It blends
with the investing layer of the deep
cervical fascia at the base of the neck.
Subcutaneous fat A layer of adipose tissue that separates
the inner and outer layers of the
superficial cervical fascia. It provides
insulation and cushioning for the
structures of the neck.
Platysma A broad, thin muscle that covers the
anterior and lateral aspects of the neck.
It is innervated by the facial nerve and
functions to pull down the lower lip and
corner of the mouth, as well as to tense
the skin of the neck.
Oral Cavity:
Table describing the buccal mucosa:
Location The buccal mucosa is the moist lining of
the cheeks and the back of the lips,
extending from the lips to the anterior
tonsillar pillar.
Appearance The buccal mucosa is pink, moist, and
smooth, with a thin layer of epithelium
and a submucosal layer of loose
connective tissue.
Keratinization The epithelium of the buccal mucosa is
non-keratinized, meaning it does not
have a tough, protective layer of dead
cells like the skin.
Special features The buccal mucosa contains several
structures, including minor salivary
glands, which secrete mucus and
lubricate the mouth; the buccal fat pad,
which provides cushioning for the
chewing muscles; and the plica
semilunaris, a fold of tissue in the inner
corner of the eye that helps drain tears.
Blood supply The buccal mucosa is supplied by
branches of the maxillary artery,
including the buccal artery and the
posterior superior alveolar artery.
Innervation Sensory innervation of the buccal
mucosa is provided by branches of the
trigeminal nerve, including the buccal
nerve and the infraorbital nerve. The
facial nerve also provides motor
innervation to the buccinator muscle,
which helps move food around in the
mouth.
Function The buccal mucosa helps keep the
mouth moist, protects the inner cheek
from damage, and provides a surface for
the movement of food during chewing
and speaking. It also plays a role in the
absorption of certain medications, such
as nitroglycerin tablets for angina.
Table describing the hard palate:
Location The hard palate is the bony, anterior part
of the roof of the mouth, separating the
oral and nasal cavities.
Composition The hard palate is composed of two
bones, the palatine processes of the
maxilla and the horizontal plates of the
palatine bones, which are fused
together.
Shape The hard palate is arched and slightly
concave, with a transverse ridge called
the palatine raphe running down the
middle. The anterior part is wider and
flatter, while the posterior part is
narrower and more curved.
Surface features The hard palate has a rough surface due
to numerous ridges and grooves that
help grip food during chewing. It also
has numerous foramina (small openings)
for the passage of blood vessels and
nerves.
Sensory innervation The hard palate is innervated by
branches of the trigeminal nerve,
including the maxillary division, which
provides sensory innervation to the
upper teeth, gums, and palate.
Blood supply The hard palate is supplied by branches
of the maxillary artery, including the
greater palatine artery and the
descending palatine artery.
Function The hard palate plays an important role
in speech and chewing. It provides a
rigid surface for the tongue to push food
against during chewing and helps direct
food towards the pharynx during
swallowing. It also helps to separate the
oral and nasal cavities, allowing us to
breathe and speak at the same time.
Table describing the soft palate:
Location The soft palate is the posterior part of
the roof of the mouth, located behind
the hard palate. It is suspended from the
posterior edge of the hard palate and
hangs down towards the back of the
throat.
Composition The soft palate is composed of muscular
tissue, covered by mucous membrane. It
contains no bone.
Shape The soft palate is muscular and fleshy,
with a U-shaped appearance when
viewed from behind. It has a concave
surface facing downwards, towards the
tongue.
Surface features The soft palate has several surface
features, including the uvula (a small,
fleshy projection at the back of the
palate), the palatine tonsils (two masses
of lymphoid tissue located on either side
of the palate), and several folds of tissue
called arches (the palatoglossal arch and
the palatopharyngeal arch) that help to
separate the oral and pharyngeal
cavities.
Sensory innervation The soft palate is innervated by
branches of the glossopharyngeal nerve,
including the lesser palatine nerve and
the pharyngeal plexus, which provide
sensory innervation to the mucous
membrane of the palate and tonsils.
Motor innervation The soft palate is innervated by the
vagus nerve, specifically the pharyngeal
branch of the vagus nerve, which
provides motor innervation to the
muscles of the palate, allowing it to
move upwards and backwards during
swallowing and speaking.
Blood supply The soft palate is supplied by branches
of the maxillary artery, including the
descending palatine artery and the
ascending palatine artery.
Function The soft palate plays an important role in
swallowing, speech, and breathing. It
helps to prevent food and liquid from
entering the nasal cavity during
swallowing, and it also plays a role in
producing speech sounds. During
breathing, the soft palate lifts up to close
off the nasal cavity, forcing air to pass
through the mouth.
Floor of the mouth:

Location The floor of the mouth is the area
beneath the tongue, extending from the
tip of the tongue to the mandible (lower
jaw). It forms the bottom of the oral
cavity.
Composition The floor of the mouth is composed of
muscular tissue and covered by mucous
membrane. It contains no bone.
Shape The floor of the mouth is flat and broad,
with a slightly concave shape. It is wider
in the front than in the back, and slopes
downward towards the back of the
mouth.
Surface features The floor of the mouth has several
surface features, including the
sublingual gland (a salivary gland
located beneath the tongue), the
submandibular ducts (which carry saliva
from the submandibular gland to the
mouth), and the lingual frenulum (a thin
band of tissue that connects the
underside of the tongue to the floor of
the mouth).
Sensory innervation The floor of the mouth is innervated by
branches of the lingual nerve, which
provides sensory innervation to the
mucous membrane of the mouth and
tongue.
Blood supply The floor of the mouth is supplied by
branches of the lingual artery, including
the sublingual artery and the deep
lingual artery.
Function The floor of the mouth plays an
important role in speaking, swallowing,
and chewing. It helps to support the
tongue and allows it to move freely
within the mouth. The sublingual gland
and submandibular ducts also play a role
in producing and secreting saliva, which
helps to lubricate and digest food.
Tongue:
Location The tongue is a muscular organ located
in the oral cavity, extending from the
base of the mouth to the back of the
throat. It is attached to the hyoid bone
and the mandible (lower jaw) by various
muscles and ligaments.
Composition The tongue is composed of skeletal
muscle tissue covered by mucous
membrane. It contains no bone.
Shape The tongue is roughly triangular in
shape, with the apex pointing forwards
and the base towards the back of the
mouth. It is divided into two halves by a
midline groove called the lingual
frenulum.
Surface features The tongue has several surface features,
including the papillae (small bumps on
the tongue's surface that contain taste
buds), the lingual tonsils (lymphoid
tissue located at the base of the tongue),
and the sulcus terminalis (a groove that
separates the anterior and posterior
parts of the tongue).
Muscles The tongue is composed of several
intrinsic and extrinsic muscles, including
the genioglossus (which helps to
protrude and retract the tongue), the
hyoglossus (which helps to depress and
retract the tongue), and the styloglossus
(which helps to retract and elevate the
tongue). The intrinsic muscles of the
tongue help to shape and move the
tongue within the mouth, while the
extrinsic muscles allow for greater
movement and positioning of the tongue.
Sensory innervation The tongue is innervated by branches of
the glossopharyngeal nerve (which
provides sensation to the posterior third
of the tongue) and the lingual nerve
(which provides sensation to the anterior
two-thirds of the tongue). The taste
buds on the tongue's surface are
innervated by the chorda tympani nerve
and the glossopharyngeal nerve.
Blood supply The tongue is supplied by branches of
the lingual artery, including the dorsal
lingual artery and the deep lingual artery.
Function The tongue plays an important role in
speaking, chewing, and swallowing. It
helps to move food around the mouth
and to form words and sounds during
speech. The taste buds on the tongue's
surface also play a role in detecting
different tastes, such as sweet, sour,
salty, and bitter.
Taste buds in the tongue:
Location Taste buds are located on the surface of
the tongue, as well as on the roof of the
mouth, the back of the throat, and the
lining of the esophagus. They are most
concentrated on the papillae (small
bumps) on the tongue's surface.
Composition Taste buds are composed of clusters of
cells called taste receptor cells, which
are surrounded by supporting cells and
basal cells. The taste receptor cells are
responsible for detecting different
tastes.
Types of taste buds There are several types of taste buds,
including fungiform papillae (located at
the front of the tongue and responsible
for detecting sweet, sour, and salty
tastes), foliate papillae (located on the
sides of the tongue and responsible for
detecting sour tastes), and circumvallate
papillae (located at the back of the
tongue and responsible for detecting
bitter tastes).
Taste receptors Taste receptors are proteins located on
the surface of the taste receptor cells
that are responsible for detecting
different tastes. There are five main
types of taste receptors, including
sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami
(savory).
Sensory innervation Taste buds are innervated by the chorda
tympani nerve (which carries taste
information from the anterior two-thirds
of the tongue) and the glossopharyngeal
nerve (which carries taste information
from the posterior third of the tongue).
These nerves send signals to the brain,
which interprets the tastes being
detected.
Function Taste buds play an important role in
detecting different tastes and helping us
to distinguish between different foods
and flavors. They also play a role in
triggering salivation and digestive
processes in response to different tastes
Sternocleidomastoid muscle:
Location The sternocleidomastoid muscle (SCM)
is located in the anterior (front) and
lateral (side) regions of the neck. It is a
paired muscle, meaning there is one on
each side of the neck.
Origin The SCM has two origins: the sternal
head originates from the top of the
sternum (breastbone) and the clavicular
head originates from the medial (middle)
third of the clavicle (collarbone).
Insertion The SCM inserts onto the mastoid
process of the temporal bone (located
behind the ear) and the superior nuchal
line of the occipital bone (located at the
base of the skull).
Composition The SCM is composed of both striated
(voluntary) muscle fibers and smooth
muscle fibers.
Innervation The SCM is innervated by the accessory
nerve (cranial nerve XI), which sends
motor fibers to the muscle to control its
movement.
Function The SCM has several functions,
including: 1) flexing the neck forward, 2)
rotating the head to the opposite side
(when only one SCM is contracted), 3)
laterally flexing the neck to the same
side (when only one SCM is contracted),
and 4) elevating the sternum (during
forced inhalation). It also plays a role in
stabilizing the head and neck during
certain movements, such as during
running or jumping.
Clinical significance The SCM can be affected by several
conditions, including torticollis (a
condition in which the head is tilted to
one side due to involuntary contraction
of the SCM), whiplash (a type of neck
injury that can damage the SCM), and
muscle strain or tear (which can result in
pain, weakness, and limited range of
motion).
Spaces of the head and neck region:
Space Description
Submental space The submental space is located in the
midline of the neck, just below the chin.
It is bounded by the mylohyoid muscle
(which forms the floor of the mouth) and
the anterior belly of the digastric muscle.
It contains lymph nodes and may
become infected in cases of dental or
oral infections.
Submandibular space The submandibular space is located
below the mandible (jawbone) and above
the hyoid bone (located in the midline of
the neck). It is bounded by the mandible,
the mylohyoid muscle, and the
hyoglossus muscle. It contains the
submandibular gland, lymph nodes, and
other structures. Infections in this space
can cause swelling and pain, and may be
associated with fever and difficulty
swallowing.
Parotid space The parotid space is located in front of
and below the ear. It is bounded by the
skin, the temporomandibular joint
(located where the jawbone meets the
skull), and the stylomandibular ligament.
It contains the parotid gland (which
produces saliva), as well as several
nerves and blood vessels. Infections in
this space can cause swelling and pain,
and may be associated with fever and
difficulty opening the mouth.
Retropharyngeal space The retropharyngeal space is located
behind the pharynx (the tube that
connects the mouth to the esophagus).
It extends from the base of the skull to
the level of the diaphragm (a muscle that
separates the chest cavity from the
abdomen). It contains lymph nodes and
connective tissue, and can become
infected in cases of tonsillitis or
pharyngitis.
Danger space The danger space is located behind the
retropharyngeal space, and extends
from the base of the skull to the
diaphragm. It is a potential space that
can become filled with fluid or air in
cases of trauma or infection. Infections
in this space can be life-threatening, as
they may spread to the chest or
abdomen.
Carotid space The carotid space is located on either
side of the neck, and contains the
carotid artery (which supplies blood to
the brain), the internal jugular vein
(which carries blood back to the heart),
and several nerves. Infections in this
space can be serious, as they may
spread to the brain.
Vertebral space The vertebral space is located along the
spine, and contains the vertebral column
(the bones of the spine) and the spinal
cord (which carries signals between the
brain and the rest of the body).
Infections or injuries in this space can be
serious, as they may affect the spinal
cord and cause paralysis or other
neurological deficits.
Space Contents
Submental space Submental lymph nodes, submental
artery and vein, submental fat
Submandibular space Submandibular gland, submandibular
lymph nodes, facial artery and vein,
lingual nerve, hypoglossal nerve
Parotid space Parotid gland, facial nerve,
retromandibular vein, external carotid
artery
Retropharyngeal space Retropharyngeal lymph nodes,
connective tissue, prevertebral muscles,
cervical sympathetic trunk
Danger space No specific contents, but it is a potential
space that can become filled with fluid
or air in cases of trauma or infection
Carotid space Common carotid artery, internal carotid
artery, external carotid artery, internal
jugular vein, vagus nerve, hypoglossal
nerve, sympathetic trunk
Vertebral space Vertebral column (bones of the spine),
spinal cord, spinal nerve roots,
meninges, blood vessels
Trigeminal nerve and the branches of each division:
Division/Branch Description
Ophthalmic nerve (V1)
- Frontal nerve Supplies sensory innervation to the
forehead and scalp. Has two branches:
the supraorbital nerve, which exits the
skull through the supraorbital foramen
and supplies sensation to the forehead
and the upper eyelid, and the
supratrochlear nerve, which supplies
sensation to the skin between the
eyebrows and the upper eyelid.
- Lacrimal nerve Supplies sensory innervation to the
lacrimal gland, the conjunctiva, and the
skin of the lateral part of the upper
eyelid.
- Nasociliary nerve Supplies sensory innervation to the
nose, the ethmoid and sphenoid sinuses,
the cornea, the conjunctiva, and the skin
of the medial part of the upper eyelid.
Has three branches: the anterior
ethmoidal nerve, which supplies the
anterior ethmoidal sinus and the mucosa
of the nasal cavity; the posterior
ethmoidal nerve, which supplies the
posterior ethmoidal sinus and the
sphenoid sinus; and the ciliary nerves,
which supply the cornea and the iris.
Maxillary nerve (V2)
- Infraorbital nerve Supplies sensory innervation to the skin
of the lower eyelid, the upper lip, the
nasal vestibule, and the anterior part of
the cheek.
- Zygomatic nerve Has two branches: the zygomaticofacial
nerve, which supplies the skin over the
zygomatic arch, and the
zygomaticotemporal nerve, which
supplies the skin over the temporal
region.
- Posterior superior alveolar nerve Supplies sensory innervation to the
maxillary sinus and the upper molars and
premolars.
- Greater palatine nerve Supplies sensory innervation to the hard
palate and the posterior part of the nasal
cavity.
- Lesser palatine nerve Supplies sensory innervation to the soft
palate and the tonsils.
Mandibular nerve (V3)
- Buccal nerve Supplies sensory innervation to the
cheek and the skin over the temporal
region.
- Auriculotemporal nerve Supplies sensory innervation to the skin
over the temporal region and the
external ear.
- Lingual nerve Supplies sensory innervation to the
anterior two-thirds of the tongue, the
floor of the mouth, and the lingual
gingiva.
- Inferior alveolar nerve Supplies sensory innervation to the
lower molars and premolars, the skin of
the lower lip and chin, and the lingual
gingiva.
- Mylohyoid nerve Supplies motor innervation to the
mylohyoid muscle and the anterior belly
of the digastric muscle.
- Mental nerve Supplies sensory innervation to the skin
of the lower lip and chin, the mandibular
teeth, and the buccal gingiva of the
mandibular molars and premolars.
Head and neck region Epithelium lining:
Structure Epithelial lining Description

Oral mucosa Stratified squamous Covers the oral cavity,
epithelium including the lips, cheeks,
gums, tongue, and hard
and soft palates. The
mucosa is divided into
three regions: the lining
mucosa (which is non-
keratinized), the
masticatory mucosa
(which is keratinized and
covers the gingiva and
hard palate), and the
specialized mucosa
(which includes the taste
buds on the tongue).
Pharynx Pseudostratified ciliated Lines the nasopharynx,
columnar epithelium oropharynx, and
laryngopharynx, and helps
protect the respiratory
tract from foreign particles
by trapping and removing
them through the action of
cilia.
Paranasal sinuses Respiratory epithelium Lines the paranasal
sinuses, including the
maxillary, ethmoid,
sphenoid, and frontal
sinuses. The respiratory
epithelium is a type of
pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium that
helps humidify and filter
air as it passes through
the sinuses.
Nasal cavity Respiratory epithelium Lines the nasal cavity and
helps warm, humidify, and
filter air as it passes
through the nose. The
respiratory epithelium
contains cilia and goblet
cells, which produce
mucus to trap and remove
foreign particles.
Larynx Stratified squamous Covers the vocal cords
epithelium and the interior of the
larynx, which is divided
into the glottis (the space
between the vocal cords)
and the subglottis (the
area below the vocal
cords). The stratified
squamous epithelium in
the larynx helps protect
the vocal cords from
damage due to friction
and helps facilitate
speech.
Trachea Pseudostratified ciliated Lines the trachea and
columnar epithelium helps protect the
respiratory tract from
foreign particles by
trapping and removing
them through the action of
cilia.
Esophagus Stratified squamous Lines the esophagus,
epithelium which carries food from
the pharynx to the
stomach. The stratified
squamous epithelium in
the esophagus helps
protect it from damage
due to friction and helps
facilitate the passage of
food.

Table Describing The Vestibulocochlear Nerve

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Table Describing The Vestibulocochlear Nerve

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EAR

Table describing the vestibulocochlear nerve:

Functional Component Distribution

Table summarizing the anatomy of the ear:

Structure Description Function

Table summarizing the anatomy of the middle ear:

Structure Description Function

Structure Blood supply Nerve supply

Table summarizing the development of each part of the ear:

Table outlining the contents of the middle ear:

Table outlining the boundaries and contents of the middle ear:

Nerve supply of external ear in a table

External Ear Structure Nerve Supply Function

Nerve supply of internal ear in a table

Internal Ear Structure Nerve Supply Function

Nerve supply of middle ear in a table

Middle Ear Structure Nerve Supply Function

Muscle related to the ear in a table

Ear Muscle Location Nerve Supply Function

All the diseases and management of ear in a table

Ear Disease Symptoms Causes Management

External Ear Symptoms Causes Management Complications

Middle Ear Symptoms Causes Management Complications

Inner Ear Symptoms Causes Management Complications

Type of Tumor Causes Symptoms Diagnosis Management

Type of Hearing Loss

Autoimmune disease of inner ear, investigation and management in a table

Autoimmune Disease of Investigations Management

Investigation/Test Indications Results Comments

Audio metric test types, indications, uses , results in a table

Audiometric Test Indications Uses Results

Clinical Test Indication Interpretation

Tuning Fork Test Process Indication Interpretation

Peripheral receptors and physiology of auditory and vestibular systems in a table

Aspect Peripheral Auditory System Vestibular System

Special Sense Receptor Type Transduction Neural Brain Region

Describe about facial nerve and it’s disorder in a table

Aspect of Facial Nerve Description Common Disorders

The causes of otalgia:

Applied anatomy topics of human ear in a table

Applied Anatomy Topics of Human Ear

Applied Anatomy Topics Importance Surgical Precision

Applied anatomy and surgical procedures done of human ear in a table

Applied Anatomy and Importance Surgical Precision

Type of Incision Site of Incision Surgical Procedure

Radiological anatomy , cause and interpretation of ear in a table

Blood Vessel Branches Supplies Actions

Blood Vessel Branches Supplies Actions

Structure Blood Supply Nerve Supply

NOSE AND PARANASAL SINUSES

Table summarizing the external nose anatomy:

In addition to these arteries, the external

The veins of the external nose follow a

Table summarizing the anatomy and function of the nasal septum:

Structure Turbinates Function Clinical Implications of

Sinus Location Opening

Table summarizing the osteomeatal unit:

Table summarizing the olfactory nerve:

Table summarizing the paranasal sinuses:

Table summarizing the structure of the orbit and its contents:

Organ Blood Supply Nerve Supply Functions Structures

Structure Arterial Venous Nerve Functions Structures

Structure Applied Anatomy