Unit-1

Role of Civil Engineering Site selection for residential buildings

Building Bye laws Principles of planning

Classification of buildings Requirements of different rooms

Various disciplines of civil engineering

 Role of Civil Engineering
Civil engineer is the one who conceive, plan, and design, estimate, get approval, constructs and maintains
the work of all structures including public and private utilities .

Civil engineer has very important role in the development of the following infrastructure:

(i) Measure and map the earth’s surface.

(ii) Plan new townships and extension of existing towns.

(iii)Build suitable structures for the rural and urban areas for various utilities.

(iv)Build tanks and dams to exploit water resources.

(v) Build river navigation and flood control projects

 Role of Civil Engineering
(i) Build canals and distributaries to take water to agricultural fields.
(ii) Purify and supply water to the needy areas like houses, schools, offices, etc.
(iii)Provide and maintain communication systems like roads, railways, harbors and airports.
(iv) Devise systems for control and efficient flow of traffic.
(v) Provide and maintain solid and waste water disposal system.
(vi) Monitor land, water and air pollution and take measures to control them. Fast growing industrialization has put
heavy responsibilities on civil engineers to preserve and protect environment.
(vii)They use scientific and engineering principles for solutions of different engineering problems.
(viii)Also they adopt implement management techniques for better management of man, material, machines and
money.
Various Disciplines/Specilizations of Civil
Engineering
1) Various Disciplines/Specilizations of Civil Engineering

❑Civil engineering is a wide field and includes many types of structures such as
residential buildings, public buildings, industrial buildings, roads, bridges,
tunnels, railways, dams, canal and canal structures, airports, harbours, ports,
water treatment plants, waste water treatment plants, water supply networks, and
drainage networks.

❑It also covers environmental protection, irrigation and water resources, soil
investigations and foundations, transport systems management, etc.
Various Disciplines/Specilizations of Civil
Engineering
Specialized disciplines in civil engineering

Civil engineering may be divided into the following fields:

• Structural engineering
• Geotechnical engineering
• Hydraulics, water resources and irrigation engineering
• Environmental engineering -Water supply and sanitary engineering
• Transportation engineering
• Construction Engineering and Management
Various Disciplines/Specilizations of Civil
Engineering
• Town planning and architecture
• Common Subjects: Surveying, Drawing, Estimation and specification
• Smart city development – Infrastructure development
Building bye-laws
▪ The rules and regulation framed by town planning authorities covering
the requirements of building, ensuring safety of the public through
open spaces, minimum size of rooms and height and area limitation,
are known as building bye-laws.

▪ Rules and regulations which largely regulate the building activity should
be formulated to get disciplined growth of building and the better
planned development of towns and cities.
Objectives of ▪ Prohibit and prevent haphazard and irregular
building growth and permit disciplined and systematic
bye-laws growth of buildings along roads.

▪ Clearly earmarks Residential areas,

Commercial areas, Industrial zones, Parks,
Lakes and Transport lanes.

▪ Regulate open spaces around the building,

window area, head room for different rooms,
there by creating conducive conditions for
natural lighting and ventilation.

▪ Standard dimensions for structural members

are specified which give strength and long life
for the building.
Objectives of ▪ Bye-laws regulate the planning, design and
building execution of building elements so that
bye-laws structural failures affecting inmates, neighbors
and passers by does not take place.

▪ An approved building easily gets access to

utilities such as piped water supply, electric
power and connection to public sewer.

▪ Growth of township is streamlined by

maintaining uniform height of buildings,
uniform frontage and building lines.
Principles ▪ Line of building frontage and minimum plot sizes.
underlying ▪ Open spaces around residential buildings.
building ▪ Minimum standard dimensions of building
bye-laws elements.
▪ Provision for lighting and ventilation.
▪ Provision for safety from fire and explosion.
▪ Provisions for means of access.
▪ Provisions for drainage and sanitation.
▪ Requirements for off-street parking spaces.
▪ Requirements for greenbelt and landscaping.
▪ Special requirements for low income housing.
▪ Sizes of structural elements.
Applicability of ▪ New construction.
building ▪ Additional & alternations to a building .
▪ Change of occupancy of building.
bye-laws
▪ Development of land/ plot area.
▪ Demolition

Limitations of The operation/ construction/ installation of government

building which is essential for the following services may be
bye-laws exempted from the point of view of the bye-laws
▪ Railways and National highways
▪ National water ways and Major ports
▪ Aerodromes
▪ Posts and telegraphs, telephones, wireless and other
forms of communications
▪ Regional electricity grid
▪ Defense and any other service
Classification of buildings
A building constructed of any material and for any Buildings are classified based on
purpose ▪ OCCUPANCY

▪ FIRE RESISTANCE
- shall be composed of the basic building elements
such as foundation. ▪ FINANCIAL GROUP

▪ BUILT-IN ENVIRONMENT AND NATURALITY.

- which anchors the building deep into the ground
and provides a level base for the super structure to
rest on.
BUILDING
- and for the super structure above plinth level
including the roof which shields the house from
Fire Financial Built-in
weather. Occupancy
Resistance Group Environment
Classification ▪ Residential Building
of buildings ▪ Educational Building (School, College, etc.)

Residential ▪ Institutional Building (Hospital, Jails, Prisons, etc.)

Educational ▪ Assembly Building (Social, Cultural and Religious etc.)

Institutional ▪ Business Building (Banks, Offices, etc.)

Occupancy

Assembly ▪ Merchantile Building (Commercial Malls, Stores etc.)

Business ▪ Industrial Building (Workshops, Factories, etc.)

Merchantile ▪ Storage Building (Storage facilities, Cold storages, etc.)

Industrial ▪ Hazardous (Storage of chemicals & Explosives, etc.)

Storage

Hazardous
Classification of residential buildings
▪Residential building is one in which people
Detached house
reside permanently or for a considerably long
time.

Residential
Semi-detached
house
▪They include one or more multi family dwellings, Row house
apartment houses, duplex houses, etc.,
Apartment or
block of flats
▪Residential buildings are divided into five
different types Duplex house
Classification of DETACHED HOUSE – is an independent house of 1 or 2 storeyed to
accommodate one family. No structural member is shared by neighbouring
residential building.

buildings
SEMI-DETACHED HOUSE – is nothing but 2 detached houses arranged
side by side with a wall separating them and one portion on one side of it
being the mirror image of the other.

Detached house
ROW HOUSES – are single storeyed houses in a straight line with common
Residential

long walls. Illumination and ventilation of rooms is to be compromised.

Semi-detached These types of houses are commonly used in India for staff quarters.
house
APARTMENTS – For countries like India where urban land is limited, it is
Row house necessary to spread vertically over a limited plot area. Apartments are a
cluster of detached or semi detached houses grouped and assembled at
different levels.
Apartment or
block of flats
DUPLEX HOUSES – are detached or semi detached houses in which
accommodation for a family is spread over 2 or rarely 3 floors. Constructed
Duplex house where the topography is steeply sloped and split level construction is
practical. Vertical segregation of rooms also increases internal privacy.
DETACHED HOUSE SEMI-DETACHED HOUSE
ROW HOUSING
APARTMENTS
DUPLEX HOUSE
Site selection for Residential buildings
▪ After air, water, food and clothing, the next bare necessity of a human
being is shelter.

▪A residential building is one in which people reside permanently (or) for a

considerable time. It is the venue for various activities like eating,
relaxing, sleeping besides washing, cleaning, bathing, and the other
regular day-to-day activities.

▪Building construction is quite expensive. Hence, before going to

construct a home/ choosing a home, one should be extremely careful
right from the selection of site for construction.
 Factors for site Factors that influence site selection for residential
selection buildings are
▪ Topography – General level of site.
Topography
▪ Nature of subsoil – Soil below the ground level that supports the
Nature of subsoil
Factors for Site Selection

building.
Position of GWT ▪ Position of GWT – Availability and position of Groundwater table below
ground level.
Facilities
▪ Facilities – Amenities and facilities in the vicinity of the site.
Neighbourhood
▪ Neighbourhood – General behaviour and status of the neighbourhood.
Disturbances
▪ Disturbances – Certain features/ things that should not be near the site.
Vegetation ▪ Vegetation – Extent of vegetation growth in and around the site.

Shape of site ▪ Shape of site – General layout and preferred shape of the site.

Availability of men & ▪ Availability of men and materials – Skilled and unskilled labour
materials
availability and ease of availability of materials in the vicinity of the site.
Proximity to seashore
▪ Proximity to seashore – Location of site near seashore.
 Factors for site TOPOGRAPHY
selection ▪ Plain sites - Offer easy excavations and construction. Drainage
may become a problem if proper slope isn’t planned.
Topography

Nature of subsoil ▪ Sloping sites - Good as drainage will be better but any slopes
Factors for Site Selection

greater than 5% should not be preferred. If there is no other

Position of GWT option, then 10% - 15% is acceptable if we can go for split level
construction.
Facilities

Neighbourhood ▪ Undulating site - construction can be carried out after

levelling.
Disturbances
▪ Elevated site – gives majestic appearance and presents good
Vegetation
view of the landscape. It receives fresh air and sun without any
Shape of site
interruption.

Availability of men &

materials ▪ Low lying site – To be avoided as far as possible. It will not
have good circulation and ventilation. During rainy season, it is
Proximity to seashore prone to stagnation/ flooding rendering the place unhygienic.
 Factors for site NATURE OF SUBSOIL
selection ▪ Rocky soil – Advantage of good and strong bearing capacity.
Excavations for foundation shall be costly but the excavated rock
Topography
can be used in construction. Disadvantage is rocky surroundings
Nature of subsoil
absorb heat during the day and reradiate at night which affects the
Factors for Site Selection

comfort of residents.
Position of GWT

▪ Gravely soil – Offer good bearing capacity next to rocky soils.

Facilities
Excavations too are relatively easy. Most preferred soils for
Neighbourhood building constructions.

Disturbances
▪ Hard moorum and sandy soils - Preferred after gravely soils.
Vegetation These soils don’t expand or settle and offer good bearing capacity.

Shape of site
▪ Clayey soils – Clayey soils undergo settlement when loaded. They
Availability of men & also expand and contract with the addition and removal of water.
materials As a result, the building also settles and cracks start appearing
Proximity to seashore within a very short time. Hence, clayey soils are not at all preferred
for buildings.
 Factors for site NATURE OF SUBSOIL (contd.)
selection ▪ Hard pan type soils – These soils have clay for the top 1
Topography metre over moorum or rock. Vegetation develops very
well in the top 1 metre whereas the rock will offer good
Nature of subsoil
Factors for Site Selection

bearing capacity for foundations.

Position of GWT

Facilities ▪ Fibrous soils rich in peat and organic matter –

Undesirable for construction as excavation is difficult and
Neighbourhood
chances of settlement are very high.
Disturbances

Vegetation ▪ Made-up or reclaimed soils – Undesirable for

Shape of site
construction as they offer low and non-uniform bearing
capacity. Also, wells or borewells dug in such soils are
Availability of men &
materials generally impure and filled with pollutants.
Proximity to seashore
 Factors for site POSITION OF GROUND WATER TABLE
selection ▪ Wells when dug in sites must be able to provide potable water
Topography at reasonable depths for the daily needs of residents. On the
other hand, shallow GWT reduces bearing capacity of the soil
Nature of subsoil
Factors for Site Selection

and also poses a problem for excavations. Preferable level of

Position of GWT GWT is greater than 3m depth.

Facilities

Neighbourhood
FACILTIES
Disturbances
The following facilities, amenities, and utilities are to be looked
Vegetation into before selecting the site for a residential building
▪ Civic and Municipal facilities such as Street cleaning, Protected water supply, Electric
Shape of site
power, Garbage pick-up, Drainage lines/ UGD Facilities.
Availability of men & ▪ Fire and police protection
materials ▪ Amenities such as Schools, Recreation options, Hospitals.
Proximity to seashore ▪ Decent connectivity to main and sub-main roads and access to road and rail transport
routes.
 Factors for site NEIGHBOURHOOD
selection ▪ Peace of mind and living environment is often controlled
Topography by the neighbourhood around our home.

Nature of subsoil
▪ While planning for a residential building, it is one of the
Factors for Site Selection

important factors to be considered along with the general

Position of GWT economic status.
Facilities ▪ A good neighbourhood is essential for pleasant living.
Neighbourhood
DISTURBANCES
Disturbances
Certain things that should not be near our site are
Vegetation
▪ Markets, Cinema theatres, Busy traffic junctions.
Shape of site
▪ Industries especially hazardous; Sewage Plants; Garbage
Availability of men & dumping yards; Places of incineration of refuse dumps; Slaughter
materials
houses; Cemeteries.
Proximity to seashore
▪ Quarries that produces a lot of dust, noise and blasts.
 Factors for site VEGETATION
selection ▪ A site having trees, shrubs and bushes over it is preferable to a
Topography barren area. Also, trees provide us with fresh air, shade and much
needed privacy.
Nature of subsoil
Factors for Site Selection

▪ On the other hand, large and rapidly growing trees like Banyan etc.,
Position of GWT are to be avoided as their roots damage foundations.
Facilities

Neighbourhood SHAPE OF SITE

▪ Rectangular shaped sites of length generally 1.5 to 2 times width
Disturbances
and being parallel to roads are preferred.
Vegetation
▪ Slightly irregular shape sites may be preferred but too many
Shape of site deviations may increase length of the boundary. Irregular and
Availability of men & narrow sites don’t properly get natural light and breeze.
materials
▪ Triangular shaped sites are to be avoided.
Proximity to seashore
▪ A corner plot offers two roads but it requires aesthetic finishing of
2 building faces and more expenditure is incurred.
 Factors for site AVAILABILITY OF MEN & MATERIALS
selection ▪ Materials of construction such as stones, bricks, timber, steel,
Topography lime, cement, sand and good quality water should be available
in the vicinity of site.
Nature of subsoil
Factors for Site Selection

▪ Also, skilled labour such as Masons, Bar benders, Carpenters

Position of GWT etc., and unskilled labour should be available
Facilities

Neighbourhood PROXIMITY TO SEASHORE

▪ Proximity to Seashore offers pleasant climate such as Great
Disturbances
view of sunrise or sunset and moonlight, cool breeze in summer
Vegetation and slight warmth during winter can be experienced.
Shape of site

Availability of men & ▪ However, disadvantages such as Corrosion of metallic

materials
surfaces, dusty and salty mist (spray), and greater humidity are
Proximity to seashore
worrisome.
Orientation of buildings
▪Orient means East. (The direction along which the sun rises. Occident
means West).

▪Orientation is the process of fixing the other directions with reference to

the direction of rising sun.

▪The chief aim of orientation of building is to provide physically and

psychologically comfortable living inside the building by creating
conditions which improve ventilation and illumination in particular.
Orientation of buildings (contd.)
▪Orientation of a building is the alignment of different rooms of the
building along different directions to get maximum benefit of natural
agencies such as

▪ Solar insolation (of light and heat) illuminating all the habitable rooms and
kitchen during the day.

▪ Wind circulating through all the rooms supplying cool breeze and removing
stale air of habitable rooms and odorous gases of kitchen and toilet.

▪ Views of nature such as landscape, sunrise, sunset, moonlit sky (for urban
areas) and sight and sound of blossoming flowers and birds, fresh air etc.,
Orientation of buildings (contd.)
▪Because of the neighbourhood of the site, layout of roads of street and
other factors, a building is forced to be oriented to face a particular
direction.

▪India being a tropical country, the best orientation is generally the

prevailing wind direction.

▪Natural agencies like sun and wind are to be utilized to the best
advantage by proper orientation of buildings. This reduces the cost of
mechanical devices used for comfort i.e., illumination and ventilation.
Principles of planning - Introduction
▪Plan of a building is the assembling or grouping and arranging of its component
parts in a systematic manner and proper order so as to form a meaningful,
wholesome, and homogeneous body with a comprehensive look out to meet its
functional purpose.

▪Planning of buildings presupposes certain principles. Most of the buildings are

constructed on the broadlines of these principles. These are enunciated on
broad lines only and may be applied to the problem on its own merits. These
principles are not as rigid as laws of nature.

▪Certain deviation from these principles are necessary at certain instances and
inadequacies in them are to be met with by the individual.
 Principles of The principles which govern the theory of planning are
planning
▪ ASPECT – Direction from which a room receives light and air.
ASPECT
▪ PROSPECT – Improvisation of outside view/ elevation.
PROSPECT
PRINCIPLES

▪ PRIVACY – Seclusion or Isolation from surroundings.

PRIVACY
▪ GROUPING – Planning of room in proximity of each other.

GROUPING ▪ ROOMINESS – Feeling a room gives after furnishing.

ROOMINESS ▪ CIRCULATION – Access into or out of a room.

▪ LIGHTING AND VENTILATION – Adequate illumination and

CIRCULATION
air movement.
LIGHTING AND
VENTILATION
 ▪The arrangements of doors and windows in external
Principles of walls of a building allow the occupants to receive and
enjoy sunshine and breeze.
planning
▪The manner of arrangement of the doors and windows
of the external walls of the building to draw maximum
ASPECT advantage from sunlight and wind breeze is termed as
ASPECT.
A ROOM WHICH RECEIVES LIGHT AND AIR FROM
A PARTICULAR DIRECTION IS SAID TO HAVE ASPECT
OF THAT DIRECTION.

SL.NO. ROOM RECOMMENDED ASPECT

1 BEDROOM NW – W – SW
2 KITCHEN E and rarely NE
3 DINING N – NE – SE
4 DRAWING SE – S – SW – W
5 STORE ROOM NW – N – NE
6 READING ROOM N – NW
 Prospect is the outer appearance presented by a
Principles of building through its elevation. It is an enrichment of the
outside view i.e., elevation.
planning
It can be improved by the provision of modified windows,
provision of verandahs/ porticos on open spaces, minor
PROSPECT modifications of plans, decorative sunshades, etc.,

Privacy is the seclusion or isolation provided

Principles of within the building or within the component of a building
or within individual components within a residence.
planning Privacy can also be considered for individuals as in
seclusion from other components of a building/
PRIVACY components in a residence.
Privacy can be a
i. Privacy of sight as needed in bathrooms.
ii. Privacy of sound as needed in confidential discussions/ study room.
iii. Privacy of sight and sound as required in a bed room.
 Privacy is classified as

Principles of ▪INTERNAL PRIVACY

planning ▪EXTERNAL PRIVACY

Internal Privacy is the privacy within the building can be achieved by
▪ Proper grouping of rooms as Bed-Dressing-Toilet and Kitchen-Dining.
PRIVACY ▪
▪
Careful planning of entrance and circulation space.
Better position of doors and windows.
▪ Providing a buffer area between other rooms and bed rooms.
▪ Vertical segregation of rooms i.e., by providing Drawing, Dining,
Kitchen, Guest bathrooms in Ground Floor and Master Bedrooms with
attached bathrooms in the First Floor.
External Privacy is the privacy of the whole building with reference
to the surrounding buildings and roads
▪ Having a compound wall to a height of 1.35 to 1.5 m above road.
▪ Construction of portico at the entrance.
▪ Planning trees along compound walls acting as sound and sight
barriers
▪ Providing ground glass windows and venetians.
▪ Providing partition screen walls, curtain walls and dwarf wall on
verandahs
▪ Planting creepers along the boundary fencing or growing shrubs.
PROSPECT
▪ Locate the doors at one corner rather than at the middle
▪ Doors with single shutter offer more privacy only when they are kept
closed.
▪ Doors with two shutters offer better privacy as one shutter can be
closed keeping the other open.
▪ A bed room should not be used as a passage.

PRIVACY
PRIVACY
 Grouping is the planning of 2 or more related rooms in
proximity of each other. It minimises the length of circulation
Principles of and at the same time improves the comfort, privacy and
planning convenience of the inmates.
Grouping Points to be considered while planning residential buildings
▪ Verandah adjacent to the Drawing room has its own advantage.
GROUPING When the visitors are more in number they can be
accommodated on the verandah.
▪ Dining room close to the Kitchen permits an easy serving of
dishes.
▪ Bedroom, Toilet and Dressing Room may be grouped together for
privacy.
▪ Bathroom and Water Closet should be nearer to each other. This
saves the length of the water supply pipeline.
▪ Kitchen should be nearer to the backyard and the doors and
windows are to be so located so that we can have a free
unobstructed sight of children playing in open spaces or drawing
room.
▪ The water closet should be away from dining room to get privacy
of sound and psychologically being away from place of excretion.
 It is the general feeling created after a room is well-
furnished with all the permanent furniture.
Principles of Room should be such that it can be put to maximum use but have
planning minimum possible dimensions, cheap to construct and easy to clean.
Some rooms may create the impression of being crammed with
furniture, where as some others create a tunnel like feeling as we enter.
ROOMINESS ▪ A square room has no advantage and a rectangular room of the
same floor area gives a better outlook. A simple illustration for this is
given.
▪ A breadth-to-length ratio of 1 : 1.2 to 1 : 1.5 is desirable.
▪ When the length exceeds 2 times its breadth, it creates a tunnel-like
effect i.e., a feeling as when one in inside a long tunnel or a railway
compartment.
▪ Similarly height also plays an important role. A large room with less
head room will give very bad impression, and a small room with large
ceiling height will produce an cavernous effect.
▪ Space under the landing of stairs can be used for storage.
▪ By providing collapsible partitions or screens, the appearance of a
long room with disproportionate length and breadth can be
improved.
▪ Light colours create the effect of more space, where as dark colours
make rooms look smaller.
ROOMINESS
ROOMINESS
 Circulation is the access into or out of a room. It is the
internal movement inside a building and the area earmarked
Principles of for it. It is the space used for comfortable communication
planning from one room to another or from one floor to another.
Circulation inside a house should be SIMPLE, SYSTEMATIC AND
SHORT.
CIRCULATION Circulation Area should be STRAIGHT, SHORT, BRIGHT, LIGHTED
BOTH DAY AND NIGHT AND WELL VENTILATED.
Circulation should neither affect the privacy of a room nor interfere
with the utility space.
Circulation in a building is of 2 types
1. HORIZONTAL CIRCULATION – When the circulation is in the
same floor
2. VERTICAL CIRCULATION – When the circulation is between
different floors
 HORIZONTAL CIRCULATION with in a building is facilitated by
verandahs, corridors, halls and lobbies
Principles of Passages should BE FREE FROM OBSTRUCTIONS & NEVER BE
planning NARROW, DARK, ZIGZAG OR WINDING.
Window or door shutters should never flung open into the passages.
No stationary object is to be placed in area of circulation.
CIRCULATION Area of horizontal circulation may constitute about 20% to 25% of
the total plan area of a residential building. It may be more for public
buildings.
VERTICAL CIRCULATION is the movement from one floor to
another in a multi-storeyed building by Stairs, ramps, elevators and
escalators. Stairs are quite common. Lifts are a must when Number
of storeys are more than 3, Old people, children and sick frequently
move in and out. Lifts are to be provided near stairs.
Stairs are to be provided with smooth hand-rail for easy ascent and
descent and are to be well ventilated both day and night.
Ramps are used for movement of heavy objects in a multi storied
building and Escalators have virtues of both stairs and lifts but are a
little slow.
Area earmarked for vertical circulation is about 8% to 10% of total
area.
 LIGHTING – It can be natural light as that obtained
Principles of from the sun during the day or artificial one as that from a
planning filament bulb or fluorescent light.
Adequate illumination is essential in day to day activities to execute
LIGHTING AND the tasks safely, comfortably and efficiently.

VENTILATION Good visibility is a must for comfortable watching and reading,

decoration, to reduce fatigue, present true colour, accident
prevention and for efficient security.

VENTILATION – It is the replacement of stale, warm

and odorous air within the room by fresh, cool and odour-
free air. An air change is said to have taken place when the
air of the room is completely replaced by fresh air.
Extent of ventilation depends on CLIMATE, PURPOSE OF THE
ROOM, NUMBER OF OCCUPANTS and NATURE OF OCCUPANCY.
There are generally 2 types of ventilation in practice such as
NATURAL VENTILATION and MECHANICAL VENTILATION.
 NATURAL VENTILATION – It is the control of movement of
Principles of air within a room by providing openings such as Windows,
Ventilators, etc.,
planning
A single window in a wall rarely serves the purpose of ventilation
unless the door of the room is also kept open i.e., a minimum of 2
LIGHTING AND windows to different walls is a must for effective ventilation or
Windows on adjacent walls is the next preference.
VENTILATION Window area should be a minimum of 10% of floor area for any
habitable room while 15% to 20% is preferred for Bed and Drawing
rooms.
A small window such as ventilator is provided just below the roof
slab to expel any hot air accumulated within the room.

MECHANICAL VENTILATION – Provision of regulatory air

mechanism to create air currents and circulation
This can be achieved by using Exhaust System and Supply System.
In exhaust system, warm accumulated air is sucked out of the room
using propeller type fans where as in supply system, pure air is
injected into rooms through ducts.
Minimum standards for various parts of a building
The minimum standards for various
parts of a building are presented in
the next slides

Components of a
Typical Building
 A building has the following components
Components
Sub structure
of a building ▪

i. Footings.
ii. Foundations.

▪ Super structure
i. Above Plinth Columns, Masonry units such as
walls.
ii. Roof & Ceiling.
iii. Doors, windows and other openings like ventilators.
iv. Vertical transportation structures, such as stairs,
lifts, etc.
 FOUNDATION
Minimum ▪ Depth of Foundation not less than 1.2m for normal soils
standards ▪ PCC bed thickness for foundation not less than 100mm with
grade (1:5:10) for single floor and (1:4:8) for double floor.
▪ Size of footing not less than (1000 X 1000)mm for single floor
and (1200 X 1200)mm for double floor (i.e., G+1).
▪ Depth of footing not less than 200mm.
▪ Grade of Concrete not less than M15 Nominal mix (1:2:4) (as per
IS-456)

PLINTH/ BASEMENT
▪ Plinth height should be more than 450mm above the Original
Ground Level.
▪ Plinth beam size not less than (230X230)mm
▪ Grade of Concrete not less than M15 Nominal mix (1:2:4)
 COLUMNS
Minimum ▪ Size of column not less than (230X230)mm for single floor.
standards ▪ Size of column not less than (300X230)mm for double floor.
▪ Grade of Concrete not less than M15 Nominal mix (1:2:4) (as
per IS-456).

MASONRY WALL
▪ Wall thickness not less than 230mm for main walls.
▪ Wall thickness not less than 115mm for partition walls.
Minimum STAIRCASE
standards ▪ Staircase is an important structural member used commonly for
vertical transportation in any type of building. Limitation of
staircase for any type of building is (G+3) pattern.

▪ Beyond the above limit, we should employ Electrical Lifts for

easy transportation.

▪ Staircase is a combination of Flight, Landing, Tread(Foot), Riser,

and Hand rail and can be constructed with Wood, Steel,
Aluminium, Glass material also with Concrete.

▪ Generally Tread (Foot) should be in between 2.50 to 3.00 feet

length and Riser should be 125 to 175mm height.
 PITCH

PITCH

STAIRCASE
TREAD– Top portion or surface of step on which foot of the user lands when going up or down.

RISE– Vertical space between the top of lower step tread and
bottom of upper step tread.

GOING - Horizontal distance between two successive riser faces.

RISER – Vertical portion of a step providing support to the tread.

NOSING - Projected portion of a tread beyond the face of the riser.

Sl.No. Type of Bldg. WIDTH TREAD RISE

1 Residential 750 - 1000 mm Not less than 250mm Not less than 125mm

2 Educational 1000 – 1500 mm Not less than 250mm Not less than 150mm

3 Hospital 1000 – 1800 mm Not less than 250mm Not less than 150mm

4 Commercial 1800 – 2500 mm Not less than 300mm Not less than 175mm
Minimum ROOF
standards ▪ Roof beam size not less than (300X230)mm
▪ Roof slab should be 100-125mm thick.
▪ Grade of Concrete not less than M15 Nominal mix (1:2:4).

CHAJJA/ SUNSHADE
▪ Cantilever slab projection 450 or 600 mm.
▪ Thickness of slab 75mm at fixed and 50mm at free end.

LOFT/ KITCHEN PLATFORM

o Width of slab projection 450 or 600 mm.
o Thickness of slab average of 50mm.
Planning of Residential buildings
▪ A residential building is one which is used wholly or partly for a considerable time or
permanently for human habitation.

▪ Prior to planning of a residential building, it is essential for the planner to consider

the following.
▪ Size, shape, and location of the plot.
▪ Specific requirements of the occupants.
▪ Fund resources available.
▪ Locally available materials for construction.
▪ Meteorological conditions of the area.

▪ A typical residence is divided into three major areas. They are

▪ Living area.
▪ Sleeping area.
▪ Service area.
Planning of Residential buildings
▪ Living Area – The living area of the house is that where the family meets friends,
relaxes and entertains. It should be comfortable, sufficiently lighted and spacious to
accommodate furniture and also allow proper circulation. Living area includes
drawing room, dining room, office room, guest room, and recreation or games room
if any.

▪ Sleeping Area – This part of the house is designed for sleeping and relaxing. The
basic function of sleeping area is to provide facilities for maximum comfort and
relaxation. One-third of our life time is generally spent in sleep. Sleeping area
consists of bedroom, bath, dressing room.

▪ Service area – It is that part of the residence where the service functions are
performed and includes kitchen, store room, bath room, water closet, and garage.
Minimum standards for different
rooms in a residential building
 Recommended Size/ Dimensions for different rooms in a residential building.

Recommended Size/ Dimensions of the room

Sl.No. Type of Room Purpose Minimum Area
SMALL COMFORTABLE SPACIOUS
ROOM ROOM ROOM
Drawing / Meet Visitors &
1. Relaxation
15-20 m2 3.5m x 5.5m 5m x 6m 7m x 9m
Living
2. Dining Room Eating Min. width of 3m 4m x 3m 4m x 5m 5m x 6m

5m2 (K)
3. Kitchen Cooking 7.5m2 (K+D) 1.5m x 3m 3m x 5m 4m x 6m
Min. width of 2.1m
10 m2
4. Bedroom Sleeping & Relaxation
Min. width of 3m
3m x 3m 3m x 4m 4m x 5m

Bath and 1.8 m2 (B)

5. Bathing & Routine
2.8 m2 (B+W.C.)
1.5m x 2m 2m x 3m 3m x 4m
Water-closet
Meet strangers & Min. width 1.5m and not greater than 4m
6. Verandah Sit-outs Verandah roof min. ht. 2.1m
Min. floor area for store only - 8 m2
7. Store room Storage/ Pantry
Min. floor area for kitchen-cum-store – 15-20 m2

8. Pooja Room Worship/ Meditation > 4 m2 Ideal size - 2.1m x 2.1 m

Min Width of a stair is 900 mm.

9. Stairs Vertical circulation Rise not more than 190mm.
Tread not less than 250 mm.
 Drawing/ Living Room
Drawing /
Living Room ▪ The very first room of a home as we enter.
▪ Purpose - It is a congregation room of the members of the family
and visitors as well. Only room used for many activities unlike any
other rooms.
▪ Main functions are
▪ Entertain guests and act as a lounge.
▪ Act as a sitting or relaxing room.
▪ Often used to watching T.V.
▪ Organise small social gatherings.
▪ Temporary bedroom for guests.

▪ Requirements - Drawing or living room should be

comfortable and spacious. It should receive adequate natural
light, breeze, and be well lighted and ventilated. The number
of doors in a drawing room should be as few as possible and
the entrance door should be wider than any other door.
▪Min. window area should never be less than 10% of the floor
Recommended area but 20% is preferred.
room size
 Dining Room
Dining Room ▪Purpose – Place where some or all family members (guests as
well) take their meals such as breakfast, lunch, and dinner.
▪As the total activity of dining in a day may take not more than 2
hours, it can also be used as a study area, reading area, gathering
place for chatting.
▪A combined living cum dining room is the latest trend as it
increases the usable space of the room. This combined space can
be used very well for small social/ cultural gatherings.
▪Requirements – It should be well lighted, ventilated, and should be
connected to the kitchen.
▪Room size should be fixed keeping in mind (at least) a 4-seater
dining table in mind. Floor should be smooth, non-slippery, and
easily cleaned.
▪Beside the dining table and chairs, space should be provided for a
wash basin, towel rail, and cupboards to store/ place glassware and
crockery.
Recommended
room size
 Kitchen
Kitchen ▪Purpose – It is the place where food is prepared and stored for
consumption.
▪A well planned kitchen is always efficient and attractive. Health and
happiness of the family directly depend upon the quality and
cleanliness of the kitchen.
▪Requirements – Cooking takes more than 6 hours in day. Therefore,
all the conducive conditions for a comfortable experience must be
created. The atmosphere of the kitchen should be pleasant and
cheerful. E or N-E corner is the best location for the kitchen.
▪Natural and artificial illumination is must for the kitchen as it
provides safety, clarity, cheerfulness, and prevents fatigue. For this,
a window towards North to provide light without heat and another
towards East to receive the morning sun is needed.
▪Kitchen should be located - on the leeward (downwind) side of the
home adjacent to the dining room as well; - in such a way that the
cooking person must be able to have a look on the entrance.
Recommended ▪Grouping kitchen with dining and store rooms improves
room size convenience and also functionality.
 Bedroom
Bedroom ▪Purpose – Close to 30% to 50% of an average life is spent in
bedroom either sleeping or relaxing.
▪Requirements – Bedroom should get plenty of natural breeze and
hence, should be located in the direction of the prevailing wind
particularly in summer in tropical regions. Windows are so located
to get maximum breeze any time.
▪Rectangular shaped room is preferred over a square one. Window
area should be at least 10% of the floor area. A minimum of 2
windows to the two outside walls are to be provided. Only 1 door is
to be provided and this does not take into account the door provided
for attached bathroom or bathroom and water-closet.
▪Built-in cupboards are essential in a bedroom for the storage of
clothes, linen, and valuables.
▪Privacy is the most important factor to be considered for bedrooms,
Hence, a bedroom is often grouped with bathroom/ bathroom cum
water closet, and dressing room for increased privacy and
convenience.
Recommended
room size
Bath and Bath and water-closet
water-closet ▪Purpose – Bathroom is the place where inmates take bath and the
wastewater is collected and conveyed off in a hygienic manner.
Water-closet is the place of collection of the human discharges
such as urine and excreta and conveyed off hygienically.
▪Requirements – Flooring should be impervious, non-greasy, non-
absorbent, and non-slippery.
▪It is very important that every bathroom or bath cum w.c. should be
so situated that at least one of its wall should be open to external
air.
▪It should not be under or over any room other than toilet, washing
place, and bathroom. Wall tiles are to be provided at least up to a
height of 1 m.
▪A minimum floor area of 1.8 sq.m is to be provided if it is only a
bathroom and 2.8 sq.m with a minimum width of 1.2 m if it is a
combined bath cum w.c.. Additional space is to be provided for
wash-basins, geyser, and shower.
▪W.C. should have a minimum width of 0.9 m and a minimum length
of 1.2 m. A minimum clearance width of 750 mm is needed along
Recommended the waist of the user on the commode.
room size
Bath and Bath and water-closet
water-closet ▪A ventilator of 500 mm x 300 mm or an exhaust fan is to be
provided at a height of 1.8 m above the floor level to expel odours.
▪The floor level of the bath is to be depressed by 50 mm compared
to the floor level of the other rooms. The floor is given slope in more
than one direction, so that the used water will never get stagnated.
▪The doors should not open directly into kitchen or cooking space. It
is desirable to have good ventilation to expel odours.
▪For improved privacy and convenience, at least 1 bath cum w.c. is
grouped with 1 bedroom preferably master bedroom along with
dressing room.

Recommended
room size
 Verandah
Verandah ▪Purpose – Any verandah protects the interior rooms from the sun.
Verandah is the best place to receive strangers. It serves as a sit-
out with family members or friends or guests as well.
▪In many households, verandah also serves the purpose of parking
garage holding cycles or automobiles or shoe racks, rainwear,
unmbrellas, etc., thus keeping the interior rooms clean.
▪Requirements – Its minimum width is 1.5 m. Very rarely verandahs
exceed width greater than 4 m.
▪Verandahs when provided on South and West protect the interior
rooms from hot sun. Roof of the verandah is to be provided at a
minimum height of 2.1 m above the floor level.

Recommended
room size
 Store room
Store room ▪Purpose – It is to store
i. Items of regular use as food grains, fire-wood or coal, spare gas cylinders,
brooms.
ii. Utensils and articles of rare uses such as vacuum cleaner, painting brushes,
tools.
iii. Broken furniture, condemned/ spoilt utensils, etc.,

▪Requirements – It is to be situated nearer to the kitchen. It should

be dark, cool, damp proof and rodent proof. Racks and closed
cupboards should be constructed for frequently used items.
▪When no separate store is provided, a loft can be constructed above
bath, w.c. or garage or the space below the flight of stairs may be
used as a store.

Recommended
room size
 Pooja room
Pooja room ▪Purpose – Many people perform pooja/ worship in homes. It is
essentially a calm space to meditate as well as worship a diety.
▪Requirements – It is to be located in N-E corner of the home and
should be secluded/ isolated rather than provide privacy.
▪It should not be disturbed by activities inside or outside the house.
A hint of darkness is necessary to improve concentration.
▪When a separate room cannot be provided (as is for most cases),
pooja room is combined with Kitchen or Dining room.

Recommended
room size
 Stairs/ Staircase
Stairs ▪Purpose – Stairs/ staircase provides vertical circulation and lead to
elevated levels through a series of steps.
▪Requirements – Stairs must be fire proof.
▪The minimum width of stairs for a residential building is 900 mm.
Rise cannot be more than 190mm and Tread cannot less than 250
mm. Pitch of stair may vary from 20o to 40o.
▪A flight can have a maximum of 15 steps and width of the landing
should never be less than width of the stair.
▪Rise of a stair should never be altered within a flight as even a small
change of 10 mm causes stress on legs and may lead to accidents
in elderly people.
▪Vertical clearance above the walking line should be a minimum of
2.1 m.

Recommended
room size
 Introduction to
Building
Materials

Basics of Civil & Mechanical Engineering [UNIT-1]

1st Year 1st Semester
BRICKS
Manufacturing of Bricks

A typical manufacturing process of bricks involves four general phases

such as

1. Preparation of Brick Earth/ Brick Clay

2. Moulding of Bricks

3. Drying of Bricks

4. Burning of Bricks
Preparation of Brick Earth

▪ Several stages involved such as SORTING, CRUSHING, SIEVING,

PROPORTIONING, TEMPERING

S.NO PROCESS FUNCTION

Picking up of Stones, Roots, Limestones,

1 SORTING
Pebbles, etc.,
2 CRUSHING Avoid formation of lumps by crushing

3 SIEVING Done to remove all particles that are above 0.5

mm

4 PROPORTIONING Required if the clay content or grain size

distribution is unsatisfactory

5 TEMPERING After proportioning, clay is mixed with water to

produce a homogenous and plastic mass
Tempering-Pug Mill

▪ Used for clay tempering – the

process of grinding clay with water
and making it plastic is known as
PUGGING

▪ Pug mill consists of a conical iron

tub with cover at its top - fixed on
timber base made by fixing two
wooden planks at right angles to
each other – covered at bottom
except for hole to take out pugged
earth.

▪ Diameter of 800 mm at bottom and

1000 mm at top – total height of 2
m and 600 mm below ground level
Tempering-Pug Mill

▪ Provision made in top cover to

place clay inside – vertical shaft
with horizontal arms fixed with
wedge-shaped steel knives

▪ Clay with water is placed in pug

mill from the top – when the
vertical shaft is rotated, the clay is
thoroughly mixed up by the actions
of horizontal arms & knives and a
Homogenous Mass is formed.

▪ After sufficient pugging, the hole at

the bottom is opened out and
pugged earth is taken out from the
ramp.
Moulding of Bricks

The tempered clay is then sent for the next operation i.e. MOULDING.
There are 2 ways of moulding such as

▪ HAND MOULDING – Bricks are moulded by hand i.e. manually –

adopted if labour is cheap & readily available – further 2 types such as
a. Ground-Moulded
b. Table-Moulded

▪ MACHINE MOULDING – Moulding by machines – very economical –

Less manpower –Time savings – further 2 types such as
a. Plastic Clay Machines gives Wire-Cut Bricks
b. Dry Clay Machines gives Pressed Bricks
Wood Mould Kneading

Ground Moulding
being done
 Steel Mould
Table Moulding

Ground Moulding being

done (with frog)
Automated Brick Moulding Machine
 Drying of Bricks

▪ Damp & Mould bricks, if burnt directly are likely to crack and distort.

▪ Hence, moulded bricks are dried before they are taken for Burning

▪ Bricks are dried until they are Hard with about 2% moisture.

Burning of Bricks

▪ After moulding, bricks are burnt for densification using Clamps or Kilns
Brick Clamps

▪ Clamps are temporary structures adopted

to manufacture bricks on a small scale to
serve local demand or a specific purpose.

▪ Kilns are permanent structures adopted

to manufacture bricks on a large scale.
Bull’s Trench Kiln

Section Arrangement
/Function
1 Loading
2 Empty
3 Unloading
4 Cooling
5 Burning
6 Heating
Hoffman’s Kiln

Section Arrangement
/ Function
1 Loading
2 to 5 Drying & Pre-
Heating
6&7 Burning
8 to 11 Cooling
12 Unloading
Vertical
Shaft
Brick
Kiln
Vertical Shaft
Brick Kiln
Classification of Bricks
▪ Bricks can be broadly classified into 2 categories such as
(1) UNBURNT or SUN-DRIED BRICKS
(2) BURNT BRICKS

UNBURNT or SUN-DRIED BRICKS

- Dried with the help of heat received from sun after moulding
- Only used in the construction of Temporary & Cheap structures.

▪ Bricks used in Construction works are BURNT BRICKS and are classified
into 4 categories such as
(1) FIRST CLASS BRICKS (2) SECOND CLASS BRICKS
(3) THIRD CLASS BRICKS (4) FOURTH CLASS BRICKS
Classification of Bricks
FIRST CLASS BRICKS – Table moulded - Standard shape – Kiln burnt –
Surface and edges of bricks are Sharp & Square

- Comply with all good qualities

- Superior and used for work of Permanent Nature

SECOND CLASS BRICKS – Ground moulded – Kiln burnt – Rough &

Slightly Irregular Surface and Shape

- May have Hairline Cracks

- Commonly used where brickwork is covered with plastering

Classification of Bricks
THIRD CLASS BRICKS – Ground moulded - Clamp burnt – Not hard –
Rough surface, Irregular & Distorted edges

- Doesn’t comply with good qualities & produce dull sound when struck

- Used for work of Temporary Nature & at places where rainfall isn’t heavy

FOURTH CLASS BRICKS – Ground moulded – Over burnt – Irregular shape

and Dark colour

- Used as Aggregates or Loose Material for filling in Foundations, Floors,

Roads, etc.,
Qualities of Good Bricks
▪ Should be table-moulded or machine moulded - well-burnt in kilns -
copper coloured - free from cracks with sharp & square edges.

▪ Uniform in shape – standard size – uniform in colour.

▪ Should give a clear ringing sound when struck with each other.

▪ When broken or fractured, should present a bright homogenous &

uniform compact structure free from voids.

▪ Should not absorb more than 20% by weight when soaked in cold water
for 24 hours
Qualities of Good Bricks
▪ Should be sufficiently hard – When scratched with a finger nail, no
impression should be made.

▪ Should not break into pieces when dropped flat on hard ground from a
height of above one metre.

▪ Should not show deposits of white salts when soaked in water for 24
hours and dried in shade.

▪ Should have crushing strength above 5.5 N/m2 & Weight of 3-3.5 kg.

▪ Standard size of brick 190mm (L) x 90 mm (B) x 90 mm (D)

Cement,
Mortar &
Concrete
What is CEMENT ??

▪ A building material made by grinding calcined Limestone and Clay to a

fine powder, which can be mixed with water and poured to set as a solid
mass. [generally used in making Mortar or Concrete]

▪ Significant advances started in 18th century when cement was artificially

developed.

▪ Burning at a very high temperature a mixture of “calcareous and

argillaceous materials” gives CLINKER – Gypsum in small quantities
when added to clinker gives CEMENT
Composition of Ordinary Cement
▪ 2 Main ingredients namely ARGILLACEOUS & CALCAREOUS
▪ In Argillaceous-Clay & Calcareous-Calcium Carbonates dominate
Range
Ingredient Percentage
recommended

Lime [CaO] – 63 60 to 65

Silica [SiO2] – 20 17 to 25

Alumina [Al2O3] – 6.3 3 to 8

Calcium Sulphate [CaSO4] – 4 3 to 4

Iron Oxide [Fe2O3] – 3.6 0.5 to 6

Magnesia [MgO] – 2.4 0.5 to 4

Sulphur Trioxide [SO3] – 1.5 1 to 2

Alkalies 1 0.5 to 1.3

Functions of Cement Ingredients

SL.NO INGREDIENT FUNCTION

1 LIME [CaO] Binding of all the ingredients and contributing to fusion

Imparts strength to cement by forming “dicalcium &
2 SILICA [SiO2]
tricalcium silicates”
3 ALUMINA [Al2O3] Imparts quick setting property to the cement
CALCIUM SULPHATE This is added in the form of Gypsum and increases initial
4
[CaSO4] setting time of cement
5 IRON OXIDE [Fe2O3] Imparts colour, hardness & strength to the cement

6 MAGNESIA [MgO] Small amounts - imparts Hardness & Colour

7 SULPHUR [S] Very small amounts – useful in making cement sound

8 ALKALIES
CALCAREOUS MATERIAL - LIMESTONE ARGILLACEOUS MATERIAL - CLAY

CRUSHING CRUSHING
Fine Grinding in Ball mills & Tube
Fine Grinding in Ball mills & Tube mills
mills
Storage Storage
Mixing in Correct
Channe Proportions Channe
l Preheating @ 8000c by exhaustl
gases
Storage Tank for raw mix
Fuel fed from lower
end (Coal, Oil or Fed to rotary kiln
Natural Gas
Clinkers are
formed
Addition of 2 to 3 Clinkers are ground in Ball
% of Gypsum mill
Cement CEMENT
Silos MANUFACTURING
PACKING PLANT [DRY PROCESS]
CALCAREOUS MATERIAL - LIMESTONE ARGILLACEOUS MATERIAL - CLAY

CRUSHER WASH MILL

Storage basins Storage basins
(Silos) (Silos)

Wet Grinding Mill (Ball Mill)

Channe to make Slurry Channe
l l
Storage of corrected
slurry
Fuel fed from lower Corrected Slurry Fed to rotary
end (Coal, Oil or
Natural Gas kiln
Clinkers are
formed
Addition of 2 to 3 Clinkers are ground in Ball
% of Gypsum mill
Cement CEMENT
Silos MANUFACTURING
PACKING PLANT [WET PROCESS]
What is CEMENT MORTAR ??
▪ “Mortar” is used to indicate a paste prepared by adding required quantity
of water to a mixture of binding material like cement or lime and fine
aggregate like sand.

▪ Above 2 components – also referred to as MATRIX and ADULTERANT.

▪ Matrix binds the particles of the Adulterant

▪ The Durability, Quality & Strength of Mortar depends directly on the

Quality & Quantity of the matrix.

▪ The combined effect of the 2 components of mortar is that the mass is

able to bind bricks in case of masonry and bind the stone aggregates
together in case of cement concrete.
Uses of Cement Mortar
▪ To bind the building units such as Bricks, Stones, etc., into a solid mass
or in masonry.

▪ To carry out “pointing” & “plaster” work on exposed surfaces of masonry.

▪ To form an even and soft bedding layer for building units.

▪ To improve the general appearance of structure.

▪ To serve as a matrix or cavity to hold coarse aggregates.

▪ To hide the open joints of brickwork & stonework; also to distribute the
incumbent weight from upper layer to lower layer of bricks or stones.
Qualities of a Good Mortar Mix
▪ Capable of developing good adhesion with building units such as Stones,
Bricks, etc.,

▪ Resist penetration of Rain Water.

▪ Cheap, Durable & Easily workable.

▪ Should not affect durability of materials it comes in contact with.

▪ Should set quickly & joints formed by it should not develop cracks and
maintain appearance for a sufficiently longer period.
What is CEMENT CONCRETE ??
▪ The cement concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, pebbles or crushed
rock and water, which, when placed in the skeleton of forms and allowed
to cure, becomes hard like a Stone.

▪ It is a major building material in all branches of modern construction.

 STRAIN

MUSCLE STRESS
STRESS STRAIN CURVE FOR MILD SEEL
TENSILE LOAD BRITTLE FAIL DUCTILE FAIL HIGH DUCTILE FAIL
CONCRETE AGGREGATES
 What is an
AGGREGATE?
 The
inert filler materials,
such as sand or stone,
used in making concrete
 binding medium
(mortar)
➢ Portland Cement Concrete
relatively inert
filler materials
(aggregates)

➢ In concrete mixtures the proportions of cement

paste & aggregates is controlled by the following
factors:
1) Suitable workability & placeability of fresh mass.
2) Adequate strength & durability of hardened product.
3) Minimum cost of the final product
➢ The aggregate occupies ~70-75% of the
volume of concrete, so its quality is of
great importance.

➢ Aggregates may affect the following

properties of concrete:
› Strength
› Durability
› Structural Performance
› Economy
Aggregates have 3 main functions in
concrete:
1) To provide a mass of particles which are
suitable to resist the action of applied loads &
show better durability then cement paste
alone.
2) To provide a relatively cheap filler for the
cementing material.
3) To reduce volume changes resulting from
setting & hardening process & from moisture
changes during drying.
The properties of concrete are affected by
the properties of aggregate:
1. The mineral character of aggregate affects
the strength, durability, elasticity of concrete.
2. The surface characteristics of aggregate
affects the workability of fresh mass & the
bond between the aggregate & cement
paste in hardened concrete. If it is rough,
workability decreases & bond increases.
3. The grading of aggregate affects the
workability, density & economy.
4. The amount of aggregate in unit volume of
concrete
Higher aggregate amount/unit volume of
concrete
› Results in less volume changes during setting
& hardening or moisture changes. (increase
in volume stability)
› Increase in strength & durability
› Decrease in cost

➢ It is a common practice to use as much

aggregate as possible in concrete
 CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES

➢ According to Source:
1. Natural aggregate: Native deposits with no
change in their natural state other than
washing, crushing & grading. (sand, gravel,
crush stone)
2. Artificial aggregates: They are obtained either
as a by-product or by a special
manufacturing process such as heating. (blast
furnace slag, expanded perlite)
➢ According to Petrological
Characteristics:
1. Igneous rocks: are formed by solidification of
molten lava. (granite)
2. Sedimentary rocks: are obtained by
deposition of weathered & transported pre-
existing rocks or solutions. (limestone)
3. Metamorphic rocks: are formed under high
heat & pressure alteration of either igneous
& sedimentary rocks (marble).
➢ According to Unit Weight:
1. Heavy weight agg.: Hematite, Magnetite
Specific Gravity, Gs > 2.8
2. Normal weight agg.:Gravel, sand, crushed
stone 2.8 < Gs < 2.4
3. Light weight agg.:Expanded perlite, burned
clay Gs < 2.4
➢ According to Size:
1. Fine aggregate: d ≤ 5 mm
2. Coarse aggregate: d > 5 mm
 Fine Aggregate
 Sand and/or
crushed stone

 < 5 mm

 F.A. content
usually 35% to
45% by mass or
volume of total
aggregate
 Coarse Aggregate

 Gravel and
crushed stone
  5 mm
 typically
between 9.5
and 37.5 mm
➢ The grading of aggregate must be so that
the workability, density & volume stability of
concrete may not be adversely affected
by it.

 Fine Particles → higher cost

 Coarse Particles → less workability

➢ A reasonable combination of fine & coarse

aggregate must be used. This can be
expressed by maximum density or minimum
voids concept.
➢ Size of agg. is not important. If an agg. with
the same size is used amount of void volume
will not change. So, to overcome this different
sizes of particles should be used.

➢ However, you should not forget that as agg.

get finer, the surface area increases.

➢ More surface area → more paste & water

requirement
 SOUNDNESS OF AGGREGATES

➢ Soundness is the ability of agg to resist

volume changes to environmental effects.
› Freezing & Thawing
› Alternate Wetting & Drying
› Temperature Changes
 MAX AGG SIZE
➢ It’s the smallest sieve size through which the
entire amount of the agg particles can
pass.

➢ The larger the size of agg, the smaller the

surface area to be wetted per unit weight.
Thus, extending the grading of agg to a
larger max size lowers the water
requirement of the mix. So, for the same
workability & cement content higher
strength will be obtained.
➢ Optimum max agg size for structural
concrete is 25mm.

➢ Studies have shown that concrete’s made

with max agg size greater than 40mm
have lower strength. Because of the
smaller surface area for the bond between
agg to paste. Volume changes in the
paste causes larger stresses at the
interface.
 Physical Properties of
Aggregates:
1.Unit Weight and Voids
2. Specific Gravity
3. Particle Shape and Surface Texture
4. Shrinkage of Aggregates
5. Absorption and Surface Moisture
6. Resistance to Freezing and
Thawing
 Unit Weight
(unit mass or bulk density)

The weight of the aggregate required to fill a container of a

specified unit volume.
• Volume is occupied by both the aggregates and the voids
between the aggregate particles.
• Depends on size distribution an shape of
particles and how densely the aggregate is
packed
• Loose bulk density
• Rodded or compact bulk density

Normal-weight concrete… bulk density of aggregate is

approximately 75-110 lb per cubic foot.
 Voids
• Void content affects mortar requirements in mix design; water
and mortar requirement tend to increase as aggregate void
content increases.
• Void content between aggregate particles increases with
increasing aggregate angularity.

• Void contents range from 30-45% for coarse aggregates to

about 40-50% for fine aggregates.

• Total volume of voids can be reduced by

using a collection of aggregate sizes.
 Particle Shape and Surface
Texture
• Rough textured, angular, elongated particles require more water to
produce workable concrete than do smooth, rounded, compact
aggregates.
• Aggregates should be relatively free of flat and elongated particles
(limit to 15% by weight of total aggregate).

Important for coarse and

crushed fine aggregate
these require an increase
in mixing water and may
affect the strength of the
concrete, if cement water
ratio is not maintained.
 Shrinkage of Aggregates:

Large Shrinkage = fine grained sandstones, slate,

basalt, trap rock, clay-containing

Low Shrinkage = quartz, limestone,

granite, feldspar