CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620

TOPIC – 3: “STOICHIOMETRY”
MASS OF AN ATOM
Atoms are so small that the actual masses of atoms are not calculated or used in
chemistry. The mass of a single hydrogen atom is 1.7 × 10‒27 kg. Instead, the masses of
atoms are measured on a scale where the standard unit is taken as th mass of an atom of
carbon – 12 isotope. This standard is defined as atomic mass unit (a.m.u.).
The actual mass equal to this unit is given below:
1 a.m.u. = 1.67 × 10‒27 kg
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS
In general term, the relative atomic mass is the mass of an atom measured on the scale of
atomic mass unit. Most of the elements in nature exist as a mixture of isotopes. So, to
measure the relative atomic mass of an element, the masses of all the isotopes and the
percentage of each isotope in nature is considered.
Relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element is defined as the average mass of all the
isotopes of an element compared to th mass of a carbon – 12 isotope.

Ar =

∑
Ar =
∑

Relative atomic mass has no unit.

CALCULATING RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

Example – 1: Chlorine exists as a mixture of two isotopes in nature. The masses and the
percentages of the isotopes are given below:
Cl – 35 (75 %) and Cl – 37 (25 %)
Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine.

Solution:
Ar of chlorine =

= 35.5
However, in reality there is no chlorine atom in nature with fractional mass number.

1|Page
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
Example – 2: Bromine exists as a mixture of two isotopes in nature. The masses and the
percentages of the isotopes are given below:
Br – 79 (50 %) and Br – 81 (50 %)
Calculate the relative atomic mass of bromine.

Solution:
Ar of bromine =

= 80
However, in reality there is no bromine atom in nature with mass number of 80.

RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS

Few elements and many compounds exist as molecules. For such substances the mass of
one molecule is measured on the scale of atomic mass unit and is defined as relative
molecular mass.
The relative molecular mass (Mr) of a molecular substance is the average mass of one
molecule of the substance (an element or a compound) compared to th mass of a

carbon – 12 isotope.

Mr =

Relative molecular mass has no unit.

CALCULATING RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS

The following table shows the method of calculating relative molecular masses of some
molecular substances:
Substance Formula Number Of Atoms Of Sum of Ar Of The Mr of
Each Element In One Atoms Of Each Molecule
Molecule Element
Oxygen O2 2 [ O – atoms ] 2 × 16 = 32 32
Carbon 1 [ C – atom ] 1 × 12 = 12 12 + 32
CO2
dioxide 2 [ O – atoms ] 2 × 16 = 32 = 44
6 [ C – atoms ] 6 × 12 = 72
72 + 12 + 96
Glucose C6H12O6 12 [ H – atoms ] 12 × 1 = 12
= 180
6 [ O – atoms ] 6 × 16 = 96

2|Page
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
RELATIVE FORMULA MASS
All ionic compounds exist as formula unit. For such substances the mass of one formula
unit is measured on the scale of atomic mass unit and is defined as relative formula mass.
The relative formula mass (Mr) of an ionic substance is the average mass of one
formula unit of the substance compared to th mass of a carbon – 12 isotope.

Mr =

Relative formula mass has no unit.

FORMULA UNIT
The formula unit of an ionic compound is the total number of positive and negative ions
that make up one unit of the ionic compound such that the overall charge of the unit is
zero.
The table below shows the formula unit of some ionic compounds.
Compound Formula Ions Present In Total Total Overall
One Formula Unit Positive Negative Charge
Charge Charge
Sodium 1 [ Na+ ]
NaCl 1 × (+1) = +1 1 × (‒1) = ‒1 1–1=0
chloride 1 [ Cl‒ ]
Calcium 1 [ Ca2+ ]
CaCO3 1 × (+2) = +2 1 × (‒2) = ‒2 2–2=0
carbonate 1 [ CO32‒ ]
Aluminium 2 [ Al3+ ]
Al2O3 2 × (+3) = +6 3 × (‒2) = ‒6 6–6=0
oxide 3 [ O2‒ ]
Ammonium 1 [ NH4+ ]
NH4NO3 1 × (+1) = +1 1 × (‒1) = ‒1 1–1=0
nitrate 1 [ NO3‒ ]
Calcium 3 [ Ca2+ ]
Ca3(PO4)2 3 × (+2) = +6 2 × (‒3) = ‒6 6–6=0
phosphate 2 [ PO43‒ ]
Potassium 1 [ K+ ]
KOH 1 × (+1) = +1 1 × (‒1) = ‒1 1–1=0
hydroxide 1 [ OH‒ ]
Sulphuric 2 [ H+ ]
H2SO4 2 × (+1) = +2 1 × (‒2) = ‒2 2–2=0
acid 1 [ SO42‒ ]

MASS OF AN ION
An ion is a charged particle formed when an atom or a molecule gains positive charge by
losing one or more electrons or gains negative charge by gaining one or more electrons.
The mass of an electron is very negligible. So, the number of electrons lost or gained does
not considerably affect the mass of the ion formed. Hence the mass of the ion is the same
as the mass of the atom or the molecule from which it has formed.
3|Page
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
CALCULATING RELATIVE FORLULA MASS

The following table shows the method of calculating relative formula masses of some ionic
substances:
Substance Formula Number Of Atoms Of Sum of Ar Of The Mr of Formula
Each Element In One Atoms Of Each Unit
Formula Unit Element
Sodium 1 [ Na – atom ] 1 × 23 = 23 23 + 19
NaF
fluoride 1 [ F – atom ] 1 × 19 = 19 = 42
1 [ Ca – atom ] 1 × 40 = 40
Calcium 40 + 12 + 48
CaCO3 1 [ C – atom ] 1 × 12 = 12
carbonate = 100
3 [ O – atoms ] 3 × 16 = 48
Aluminium 2 [ Al – atoms ] 2 × 27 = 54 54 + 48
Al2O3
oxide 3 [ O – atoms ] 3 × 16 = 48 = 102
2 [ N – atoms ] 2 × 14 = 28
Ammonium 28 + 4 + 48
NH4NO3 4 [ H – atoms ] 4×1=4
nitrate = 80
3 [ O – atoms ] 3 × 16 = 48
3 [ Ca – atoms ] 3 × 40 = 120
Calcium 120 + 62 + 128
Ca3(PO4)2 2 [ P – atoms ] 2 × 31 = 62
phosphate = 310
8 [ O – atoms ] 8 × 16 = 128
1 [ K – atom ] 1 × 39 = 39
Potassium 39 + 1 + 16
KOH 1 [ H – atom ] 1×1=1
hydroxide = 56
1 [ O – atom ] 1 × 16 = 16
2 [ H – atoms ] 2×1=2
Sulphuric 2 + 32 + 64
H2SO4 1 [ S – atom ] 1 × 32 = 32
acid = 98
4 [ O – atoms ] 1 × 16 = 64

SOME COUNTING NUMBERS

The table below gives some examples of counting number:
Quantity Amount In Numbers Example
Pair 2 A pair of gloves
Dozen 12 A dozen of bananas
Score 20 A score of flood survivors
Decade 10 A decade of schooling
Gross 144 A gross of pencils
Ream 500 A ream of papers
Six-pack 6 A six-pack case of fruit drinks
Hat-trick 3 A hat-trick of goals
Century 100 A century of runs
4|Page
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
“MOLE” – A COUNTING NUMBER FOR PARTICLES
Calculations in any chemical reaction involve counting the number of particles that react
or is produced. However it is impossible to count the number of particles because they are
extremely small. Instead chemists use a unit called mole for counting particles.
1 mole of any substance is defined as the number of particles of the substance that is
equal to the number of atoms present in 12 grams of carbon – 12 isotope.
This number is equal to 6.02214076 × 1023 particles. For simplicity in calculation this
number is approximated to 6.02 × 1023.
1 mole 6.02 × 1023 particles.
This number is known as Avogadro’s constant named after the great Italian scientist
Amedeo Avogadro. The symbol for Avogadro’s constant is NA.
The type of particle depends on the type of substance. The table below gives the meaning
of one mole with reference to the type of substance.
Substance Type Of Substance Type Of Particles Number OF Particles
Present In 1 Mole
Copper Element Atom 6.02 × 1023 atoms
Helium Element Atom 6.02 × 1023 atoms
Bromine Element Molecule 6.02 × 1023 molecules
Methane Compound Molecule 6.02 × 1023 molecules
Zinc oxide Compound Formula Unit 6.02 × 1023 formula unit
Nitric Acid Compound Formula Unit 6.02 × 1023 formula unit

Equal number of moles of all substances contains the same number of particles.

Example, the number of atoms in 1 mole of copper is the same number of molecules in 1
mole of methane which is equal to the number of formula unit in 1 mole of nitric acid.

MOLAR MASS
The molar mass of a substance is defined as the mass of one mole of a substance
expressed in grams per mole (g/mol).

The molar mass of a substance depends on the type of particles present in the substance.
 If the substance exists as atoms, then molar mass is equal to the relative atomic
mass expressed in g/mol.
 If the substance exists as molecules, then molar mass is equal to the relative
molecular mass expressed in g/mol.
 If the substance exists as formula unit, then molar mass is equal to the relative
formula mass expressed in g/mol.
5|Page
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
The table below shows the molar masses of some substances based on the type of
particles present in the substance.
SUBSTANCE TYPE OF PARTICLES Ar / Mr MOLAR MASS
Iron
Atoms 56 56 g/mol
Fe
Neon
Atoms 20 20 g/mol
Ne
Oxygen
Molecules 2 × 16 = 32 32 g/mol
O2
Carbon dioxide
Molecules 12 + (2 × 16) = 44 44 g/mol
CO2
Calcium hydroxide
Formula unit 40 + (2 × 16) + (2 × 1) = 74 74 g/mol
Ca(OH)2
Carbonic acid
Formula unit (2 × 1) + 12 + (3 × 16) = 62 62 g/mol
H2CO3

AVOGADRO’S LAW & MOLAR VOLUME OF A GAS

Avogadro’s law states that ‒ “equal volumes of all gases, under the same condition of
temperature and pressure, contain the same number of particles”.

Molar volume of a gas is defined as the volume occupied by 1 mole of a gas under a
particular condition.

1 mole of any gas occupies a volume 24 dm3 or 24000 cm3 under room temperature
and pressure (r.t.p.).

Molar volume of any gas = 24 dm3/mol = 24000 cm3/mol

The condition of r.t.p. is described as a temperature of 20˚ C and a pressure of 1 atm.

 Equal volumes of all gases at r.t.p. contain the same number of particles.
 Equal moles of all gases contain the same number of particles.
 Equal volumes of all gases contains the same number of moles.

CONVERSION: MOLE – NUMBER OF PARTICLES – AVOGADRO CONSTANT

 Number of moles =

CONVERSION: MOLE – GIVEN MASS – MOLAR MASS

 Number of moles =
6|Page
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
CONVERSION: MOLE – GIVEN VOLUME OF GAS – MOLAR VOLUME OF GAS

 Number of moles =

THE CONCENTRATION OF A SOLUTION

The concentration of a solution is defined as the amount of solute dissolved in a unit

volume of a solution.

The standard unit for the volume of solution is taken as cubic decimeter (dm3).

1 dm3 = 1 L = 1000 cm3 = 1000 mL

Concentration =

UNITS OF CONCENTRATION
There are two ways in which the concentration of a solution can be expressed.
 Concentration of a solution in g/dm3
 Concentration of a solution in mol/dm3

When the concentration of a solution is expressed in mol/dm3 it is defined as the Molarity

of a solution. The symbol for the unit of molarity of a solution is M.

So, 1 M solution contains 1mole of solute dissolved in 1 dm3 of solution.

Likewise, 10 M solution contains 10 moles of solute dissolved in 1 dm3 of solution.

1 M = 1 mol/dm3

 Concentration in g/dm3 =

 Concentration in mol/dm3 =

INCREASING & DECREASING THE CONCENTRATION OF A SOLUTION

Concentration of a solution is decreased by increasing the volume of the solvent. Adding
more solvent increases the volume of the solution keeping the amount solute unchanged.
This decreases the concentration of the solution.

Concentration of a solution is increased by increasing the amount of the solute. Adding

more solute increases the number of moles of the solute keeping the volume of the
solution unchanged. This increases the concentration of the solution.
7|Page
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620

CONVERSION: MOLE – CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION– VOLUME OF SOLUTION

Number of moles = Concentration (in mol/dm3) × Volume (in dm3)

THE DILUTION EQUATION

Sometimes we are given a solution which has higher concentration than is required.
Under such conditions we need to decrease the concentration of the given solution by
adding more solvent.
It is to be noted and understood that the increase in volume of the solvent decreases
the concentration of the solution but keeps the total amount of solute (in moles)
present in the solution constant.

For example, a solution contains 3 moles of solute in 2 dm3 of the solution. The
concentration of the solution is given by,

Concentration = 3 mol. ÷ 2 dm3 = 1.5 mol/dm3

If now more solvent is added so that the new volume of the solution is 3 dm3, the new
concentration of the solution is given by,

Concentration = 3 moles ÷ 3 dm3 = 1 mol/dm3

So the amount of solute remains the same, the volume of the solution increases which
decreases the concentration of the solution.
Generally the equation relating the volume of the solution with the concentration of the
solution is given by,
M1 × V1 = M2 × V2
Where,
 M1 = initial concentration of the solution in mol/dm3
 V1 = initial volume of the solution in dm3
 M2 = final concentration of the solution in mol/dm3
 V2 = final volume of the solution in dm3
The above equation is used when we have a standard solution usually of higher
concentration which is known and we have to make a new solution of the same substance
of lower concentration by adding more volume of the solvent. This equation can also be
used to determine theoretically the volume of the solution required in order to decrease
the concentration of the solution.

8|Page
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF A COMPOUND

Elements react to form compound. In order to find out how much of each element is there
in the compound, we need to find out the percentage by mass of an element in the
compound. This is termed as percentage composition of a compound.

The percentage composition of a compound is defined as the percentage by mass of an

element present in the compound.

“It is the ratio of the mass of the element to the mass of the compound expressed as a
percentage”.

The percentage composition of an element is determined in the following way:

% composition of an element = × 100 %

OR

% of an element = × 100 %

9|Page
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
CALCULATING PERCENTAGE COMPOSITON OF A COMPOUND FROM GIVEN MASSES
Suppose a compound W is made up of three elements A, B and C. The masses of the
elements that make up the compound are given below:
Mass of element A = x
Mass of element B = y
Mass of element C = z

Total mass of the compound W = x + y + z

% of element A = × 100 % = × 100 %

% of element B = × 100 % = × 100 %

% of element C = × 100 % = × 100 %

CALCULATING PERCENTAGE COMPOSITON OF A COMPOUND FROM FORMULA

Suppose a compound W has the formula AxByCz. Then the percentage composition of the
compound is determined in the following way.

% of element A = × 100 % =

% of element B = × 100 % =

% of element C = × 100 % =

EMPIRICAL FORMULA
To find out the formula of a chemical substance, a chemist must find out the exact number
of atoms of each element present in one molecule or formula unit of the compound. To do
this the chemist first needs to determine the empirical formula of the compound.

Empirical formula of a compound is defined as the simplest formula of a compound.

The empirical formula of a compound tells us two things:

 The type of elements present in the compound.
 The simplest ratio of the different types of atoms present in the compound.

10 | P a g e
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
DETERMINING EMPIRICAL FORMULA OF A COMPOUND
The procedure for determining the empirical formula of a compound involves
experimental analysis. This includes the following steps:
 Finding out the mass of the elements taking part in a reaction.
 Working out the relative numbers of moles (mole ratio) of the elements reacting.
 Finding out the empirical formula of the compound using the mole ratio obtained.
The following example describes an investigation to determine the empirical formula of
magnesium oxide.
Procedure:
1. An empty crucible together with the lid is weighed using an electronic balance.
2. A coil of magnesium ribbon is put in the crucible and then weighed again with the lid
closed.
3. The crucible is then gently heated. (When the magnesium catches fire, a white glow will
be seen through the crucible).
4. The crucible is heated strongly once the magnesium catches fire.
5. A pair of tongs is used to lift the lid slightly from time to time to allow air in. The lid is
quickly replaced to make sure that the magnesium oxide formed does not sputter.
6. When the burning is complete, the crucible is allowed to cool.
7. The crucible is weighted again together with the lid and the magnesium oxide formed.

11 | P a g e
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
Sample Results
Mass of crucible + lid = 26.52 g
Mass of crucible + lid + magnesium ribbon = 27.72 g
Mass of crucible + lid + magnesium oxide = 28.52 g

Calculations
Mass of magnesium reacted = 27.72 g – 26.52 g = 1.20 g
Mass of magnesium oxide produced = 28.52 g – 26.52 g = 2.00 g
Mass of oxygen reacted = 2.00 g – 1.20 g = 0.80 g

The following table shows the procedure for calculating the empirical formula of
magnesium oxide.
Element Magnesium Oxygen
Reacting mass
1.20 0.80
(in g)
Relative atomic mass
24 16
(in g/mol)
Number of moles = 0.05 = 0.05

Mole ratio =1 =1
The empirical formula of magnesium oxide is MgO.

MOLECULAR FORMULA
For some compounds the simplest ratio of the different types of atoms present is also
equal to the actual number of the different atoms present. For example the formula of
aluminium oxide is Al2O3. This formula shows the actual number of aluminium atoms and
oxygen atoms in the compound which is also the simplest ratio of the atoms present.
So, for some compounds, the empirical formula is also the actual formula.

For some other compounds, the actual formula is different from the empirical formula. For
example, the compound phosphorus (V) oxide contains 4 phosphorus atoms and 10
oxygen atoms in one molecule. The actual formula is therefore P4O10. Here the simplest
ratio of the phosphorus atom to oxygen atom is 2 : 5. So the empirical formula of
phosphorus (V) oxide is P2O5.

The molecular formula of a compound is the formula that shows the actual number of
atoms of different elements present in the compound.

For some compounds, the empirical formula and the molecular formula are the same but
for some others the empirical and the molecular formula are different.
12 | P a g e
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
RELATION BETWEEN EMPIRICAL FORMULA AND MOLECULAR FORMULA
For compounds whose empirical and molecular formula are different, the molecular
formula is always an integer multiple of the empirical formula.

The table below shows the empirical formula and molecular formula of some compounds.
Compound Molecular Actual Ratio of Simplest Ratio of Empirical
Formula Atoms Atoms Formula
Hydrogen
H2O2 H:O=2:2 H:O=1:1 HO
peroxide
Phosphorus
P4O10 P : O = 4 : 10 P:O=2:5 P2O5
(V) oxide
Ethane C2H6 C:H=2:6 C:H=1:3 CH3
Ethene C2H4 C:H=2:4 C:H=1:2 CH2
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH C:H:O=2:4:2 C:H:O=1:2:1 CH2O
Glucose C6H12O6 C : H : O = 6 : 12 : 6 C:H:O=1:2:1 CH2O

To find the molecular formula of a compound we need to know two things:

 The empirical formula.

 The relative molecular mass or the molar mass.

The formula that relates empirical formula mass and molecular formula mass is:

n × empirical formula mass = molecular formula mass

n=

Or

molecular formula = (empirical formula)n

Example – 1: Determining molecular formula from empirical formula and relative

molecular mass.

The empirical formula of hexane is C3H7. Given that the relative molecular mass of hexane
is 86, determine the molecular formula of ethane.

Solution:

Empirical formula mass = (3 × 12) + (7 × 1) = 43

n = molecular formula mass ÷ empirical formula mass = 86 ÷ 43 = 2
Molecular formula = (empirical formula)n = (C3H7)2 = C6H14.
13 | P a g e
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
Example – 2: Determining the empirical formula from the percentage composition of a
compound and the relative molecular mass.

Caffeine is a compound found in tea and coffee. The percentage composition and the
relative molecular mass of caffeine are given below:

Carbon = 49.5% Hydrogen = 5.1% Oxygen = 16.5% Nitrogen = 28.9% Mr = 194

Solution:
Element Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen
Percentage 49.5 5.1 16.5 28.9
Relative atomic
mass 12 1 16 14
(in g/mol)
Number of
= 4.125 = 5.1 = 1.03 = 2.06
moles
Mole ratio =4 =5 =1 =2
C4H5ON2

Empirical formula mass = (4 × 12) + (5 × 1)+ (1 × 16) + (2 × 14) = 97

n = molecular formula mass ÷ empirical formula mass = 194 ÷ 97 = 2
Molecular formula = (empirical formula)n = (C4H5ON2)2 = C8H10O2N4.

Example – 3: Determining the formula of a hydrated salt.

A sample of hydrated copper (II) sulphate with the formula CuSO4•xH2O weighs 124.8 g.
The sample has been determined to contain 31.8 g of copper (II) ions and 48.0 g of
sulphate ions. Determine the actual formula of the hydrated salt.

Solution:

Formula of anhydrous copper (II) sulphate = CuSO4

Molar mass of anhydrous copper (II) sulphate = (1 × 64) + (1 × 32) + (16 × 4) = 160 g/mol
Mass of anhydrous copper (II) sulphate in the sample = 31.8 g + 48.0 g = 79.8 g
Number of moles of anhydrous copper (II) sulphate = 79.8 ÷ 160 = 0.5 mol
Molar mass of water = (2 × 1) + (1 × 16) = 18 g/mol
Mass of water in the given sample = 124.8 g – 79.8 g = 45 g
So, x × 0.5 × 18 = 45
Or, x = 45 ÷ (0.5 × 18) = 5
Therefore, the formula of the hydrated copper (II) sulphate is CuSO4•5H2O
14 | P a g e
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
CALCULATIONS FROM CHEMICAL REACTIONS – ‘STOICHIOMETRY’
A chemical reaction is represented by a chemical equation. A chemical equation must be
balanced because atoms cannot be created and cannot be destroyed. A balanced chemical
equation gives us the following information:
 The type of reactants involved in a chemical reaction.
 The ratio of the number of moles of reactants and products.

“Stoichiometry is the quantitative relationship between the reactants and the

products involved in a chemical reaction”.

Let us consider the reaction between carbon and oxygen forming carbon dioxide.

The balanced chemical equation for the reaction is:

C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)

We can describe the reaction quantitatively as follows:

(i) 1 atom of carbon reacts with 1 molecule of oxygen to produce 1 molecule of carbon
dioxide.

(ii) 1 mole of carbon reacts with 1 mole of oxygen to produce 1 mole of carbon dioxide.

(iii) 12 g of carbon reacts with 32 g of oxygen to produce 44 g of carbon dioxide.

(iv) 12 g of carbon reacts with 24 dm3 of oxygen to produce 24 dm3 of carbon dioxide.

The mole ratio between the substances can be written as:

 Number of moles of carbon : Number of moles of oxygen = 1 : 1

 Number of moles of carbon : Number of moles of carbon dioxide = 1 : 1
 Number of moles of oxygen : Number of moles of carbon dioxide = 1 : 1

Using the mole ratio from a balanced chemical equation we can calculate the quantity
(mass and/or volume) of any reactant consumed or any product formed in a reaction.

CALCULATING MASSES OF REACTANTS & PRODUCTS

Example – 1: Calculate the mass of the solid formed when 16.8 g of sodium hydrogen
carbonate decomposes to form sodium carbonate, carbon dioxide and water vapour.

The balanced chemical equation for the reaction is:

2 NaHCO3 (s) → Na2CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + O2 (g)

15 | P a g e
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
Solution:

The solid product in this reaction is sodium carbonate [Na2CO3]. Here, 2 moles of sodium
hydrogen carbonate decomposes to form 1 mole of sodium carbonate.

The mole ratio of sodium hydrogen carbonate to sodium carbonate is,

NaHCO3 : Na2CO3 = 2 : 1

Molar mass of sodium hydrogen carbonate = (1 × 23) + (1 × 1) + (1 × 12) + (3 × 16)

= 84 g/mol

Number of moles of sodium hydrogen carbonate = =

Mole ratio = =

Or, =

Number of moles of sodium carbonate × 2 =

Number of moles of sodium carbonate = = 0.1

Molar mass of sodium carbonate = (2 × 23) + (1 × 12) + (3 × 16) = 106 g/mol

Mass of sodium carbonate = mole × molar mass = 0.1 mol × 106 g/mol = 10.6 g

Example – 2:

Iron is obtained from iron ore which contains iron (III) oxide. The ore is reacted with
carbon monoxide gas which reduces iron (III) oxide to produce iron along with carbon
dioxide gas. The equation for the reaction is given below:

Fe2O3 (s) + 3 CO (g) → 2 Fe (s) + 3 CO2 (g)

What mass of iron will form when 63 dm3 of carbon monoxide is reacted with excess ore?

Solution:

The amount of iron ore is in excess. So, the volume of carbon monoxide which is limited
determines the amount of iron that will be produced. Here, 3 moles of carbon monoxide
reacts to produce 2 moles of iron.

16 | P a g e
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
Number of moles of carbon monoxide reacting = = = 2.625 mol

Mole ratio = =

Or, =

Number of moles of iron × 3 = 2.625 × 2

Number of moles of iron = = 1.75

Mass of iron = Moles × Molar mass = 1.75 moles × 56 g/mol = 98 g

Example – 3:

0.805 g of zinc sulphate [ZnSO4] is produced along with hydrogen gas (H2) when a piece of
zinc ribbon is reacted with excess sulphuric acid [H2SO4]. The equation for the reaction is:

Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

Calculate the mass of zinc used in the reaction.

Solution:

The sulphuric acid used is in excess. So, the mass of zinc sulphate produced is dependent
on the mass of zinc used. Here, 1 mole of zinc sulphate is produced from 1 mole of zinc.

Molar mass of zinc sulphate = (1 × 65) + (1 × 32) + (4 × 16) = 161 g/mol

Number of moles of zinc sulphate produced = = = 0.005 mol

Mole ratio, =

Or, =

Number of moles of zinc × 1 = 0.005 × 1

Number of moles of zinc = = 0.005 mol

Mass of zinc produced = Mole × Molar mass = 0.005 mole × 65 g/mol = 0.325 g

17 | P a g e
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
Example – 4:

Butane [C4H10] is a highly flammable gas that burns in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide
[CO2] and water vapour [H2O]. The equation for the reaction is given below:

2 C4H10 (g) + 13 O2 (g) → 8 CO2 (g) + 10 H2O (g)

Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide produced when 3 dm3 of butane burns completely
with excess oxygen.

Solution:

The amount of oxygen is in excess. So, the volume of carbon dioxide produced is
dependent on the volume of butane reacting. Here, 2 moles of butane reacts to produce 8
moles of carbon dioxide.

Number of moles of butane reacting = = = 0.125 mol

Mole ratio = =

Or, =

Number of moles of carbon dioxide × 2 = 0.125 × 8

Number of moles of carbon dioxide = = 0.5 mol

Volume of carbon dioxide = Moles × Molar volume = 0.5 mol × 24 dm3/mol = 12 dm3

LIMITING REACTANT

In many chemical reactions one or more reactants are used in excess while some other
reactants are used in a measured (limited) amount which gets completely used up. The
reactant that is used in limited amount determines the amount of product(s) formed.

Limiting reactant is the reactant that is completely used up in the chemical reaction
and which determines the amount of product(s) formed in the reaction.

EFFECT OF LIMITING REACTANTS ON THE PRODUCTS

Let us consider that a shopkeeper has five pieces of hotdog sausages and five pieces of
hotdog buns. He needs to make hotdogs using one sausage for every hotdog bun. How
many hotdogs can he make?
18 | P a g e
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620

We can clearly see that the number of hotdogs that can be made depends on the number
of hotdog bun. Here the number of sausages is in excess.

Similarly, in a chemical reaction the amount of a product that will form depends on the
amount of limiting reactant that is used in the reaction and not on the excess reactant.

Let us consider the reaction between hydrogen and chlorine forming hydrogen chloride.
The equation for the reaction is given below:

H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) → 2 HCl (g)

From the above equation we can see that 1 mole of hydrogen reacts with 1 mole of
chlorine to form 2 moles of hydrogen chloride.

Let us see what happens when we take different amounts of the reactants in three
different experiments and see how the products vary in each case.

In experiment A, 1 mole of hydrogen is reacted with 1 mole of chlorine. This result in the
formation of 2 moles of hydrogen chlorine with no reactants left over.

In experiment B, 2 moles of hydrogen is reacted with 1 mole of chlorine. This result in the
formation of 2 moles of hydrogen with 1 mole of hydrogen left unreacted.

In experiment C, 1 moles of hydrogen is reacted with 2 moles of chlorine. This result in the
formation of 2 moles of hydrogen with 1 mole of hydrogen left unreacted.

So, it is obvious that the product of the reaction totally depends on the limiting reactant in
each case.
19 | P a g e
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
The results of the experiments are illustrated in the table below.
Number of moles of Number of moles of products or
reactants used unreacted reactants
Experiment Hydrogen Chlorine Hydrogen Hydrogen Chlorine
H2 Cl2 Chloride H2 Cl2
HCl
1 1 2 0 0

2 1 2 1 0

1 2 2 0 1

So the amount of a product formed is always determined by the amount of limiting

reactant.

IMPORTANCE OF IDENTIFYING THE LIMITING REACTANT

The progress of a chemical reaction depends on the amount of limiting reactant because
the reaction gets stopped when the limiting reactant is consumed totally. Thus, to know
how much time would a reaction take to complete, one needs to know about the limiting
reactant. Along with that, the amount of product formed also varies in a fixed
stoichiometric proportion with the amount of limiting reactant. So, the reaction yield can
be optimized or controlled accordingly, once the limiting reactant is known. Thus, it is
quite important to identify the limiting reactant in a chemical reaction. This saves the cost
of many manufacturing processes by allowing economical use of expensive reactants.
20 | P a g e
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
Example – 1

The reaction between zinc and sulphur produces zinc sulphide [ZnS] and large amount of
heat, which can be used to propel small rockets. The equation for the reaction is:

Zn (s) + S (s) → ZnS (s)

When 13.0 g of powdered zinc was heated with 8.0 g of sulphur, a vigorous reaction
occurred and zinc sulphur was formed.

(i) Identify the limiting reactant in this reaction.

(ii) Calculate the mass of the excess reactant left unreacted.

(iii) Calculate the mass of zinc sulphide formed.

Solution:

(i) Number of moles of zinc reacted = = = 0.2 mol

Number of moles of sulphur reacted = = = 0.25 mol

Mole ratio, zinc : sulphur = 1 : 1

Here the number of moles of zinc reacting is 0.2. So the number of moles of sulphur that
should react is 0.2. Here sulphur is in excess. So, the limiting reactant is zinc.

(ii) Number of moles of excess reactant = 0.25 – 0.2 = 0.05 mol

Mass of excess reactant unreacted = mole × molar mass = 0.05 mol × 32 g/mol = 1.6 g

(iii) Mole ratio = =

Or, =

Number of moles of zinc sulphide × 1 = 0.2 × 1

Number of moles of zinc sulphide = = 0.2 mol

Molar mass of zinc sulphide = (1 × 65) + (1 × 32) = 97 g/mol

Mass of zinc sulphide = Mole × Molar mass = 0.2 mol × 97 g/mol = 19.4 g
21 | P a g e
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
Example -2

Ethene [C2H4] burns in oxygen according to the equation below:

C2H4 (g) + 3 O2 (g) → 2 CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)

In an experiment 100 cm3 of ethene was burnt in 500 cm3 of oxygen.

(i) Determine the reactant supplied in excess.

(ii) Calculate the volume of the reactant in excess at the end of the reaction.

(iii) Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide produced.

Solution:

(i) From the equation it can be seen that 1 unit of volume of ethene will react with 3 units
of oxygen. So 100 cm3 of ethene will react with 3 × 100 cm3 = 300 cm3 of oxygen. So, here
the volume of oxygen is in excess.

(ii) The volume of excess reactant = 500 cm3 – 300 cm3 = 200 cm3

(iii) From the equation we see that 1 unit of volume of ethene produces 2 units of carbon
dioxide. So 100 cm3 of ethene will produce 2 × 100 cm3 = 200 cm3 of carbon dioxide.

VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS
Many daily products that we use contain dissolved chemicals. These chemicals can be very
harmful when present in high concentrations. Chemists can check the concentration of
these substances by carrying out volumetric analysis.

TITRATION
Titration is a type of volumetric analysis where the concentration of one solution can
be determined by reacting it with another solution of known concentration.

Titration involves reacting a measured volume of a solution whose concentration is

unknown with another solution of known concentration (known as titrant). The volume
of the titrant is determined through measurements.

PERFORMING TITRATION

Step 1 – A measured volume of the solution of unknown concentration is introduced into a

conical flask using a pipette.

Step 2 – One or two drops of a suitable indicator is added into the flask. This indicator
helps to indicate the end point of titration.
22 | P a g e
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
Step 3 – The solution of known concentration (titrant) is placed in a burette.

Step 4 – The titrant is then added slowly and carefully (usually drop wise) into the conical
flask. While adding the titrant from the burette, the conical flask is constantly swirled to
ensure proper mixing of the reactants. The titrant is added until the indicator changes
colour permanently marking the end – point of the reaction.

Step 5 – The volume of the titrant is recorded from the burette scale.

Titrations that involve the use of acid and a base are called acid – base titrations.

An example of acid – base titration is the reaction between a solution of hydrochloric acid
and a solution of sodium hydroxide using phenolphthalein indicator. The diagram below
illustrates the method.

23 | P a g e
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
Example – 1

A household ammonia solution was analysed to determine its concentration. 25 cm3 of the
ammonia solution [NH3 (aq)] required 21.90 cm3 of sulphuric acid solution [H2SO4 (aq)].
The molarity of the acid solution is 0.11 M. The equation for the reaction is:

2 NH3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → (NH4)2SO4 (aq)

Calculate the concentration of the ammonia solution in (i) mol/dm3 and in (ii) g/dm3.

Solution:

Number of moles of H2SO4 = Concentration × Volume (in dm3)

= 0.11 mol/dm3 × (21.90 ÷ 1000) dm3

= 2.409 × 10‒3 mol

Mole ratio = =

Or, Moles of NH3 × 1 = Moles of H2SO4 × 2

Moles of NH3 = = = 4.818 × 10‒3 mol

Molar mass of NH3 = (1 × 14) + (1 × 3) = 17 g/mol

Mass of NH3 = Moles × Molar mass = 4.818 × 10‒3 mol × 17 g/mol = 0.081906 g

Volume of NH3 solution in dm3 = (25 ÷ 1000) dm3 = 0.025 dm3

(i) Concentration in mol/dm3 = Number of moles of solute ÷ Volume of solution (in dm3)

= 4.818 × 10‒3 mol ÷ 0.025 dm3

= 0.19 mol/dm3

= 0.19 M

(ii) Concentration in g/dm3 = Mass of solute ÷ Volume of solution (in dm3)

= 0.081906 g ÷ 0.025 dm3

= 3.28 g/dm3

24 | P a g e
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
Example – 2

What volume (in cm3) of 0.100 M solution of copper (II) sulphate is required to react
completely with 0.0250 moles of sodium hydroxide to form a solution of sodium sulphate
and a precipitate of copper (II) hydroxide according to the following equation?

CuSO4 (aq) + 2 NaOH (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + Cu(OH)2 (s)

Solution:

Mole ratio = =

Or, Moles of CuSO4 × 2 = Moles of NaOH × 1

Moles of CuSO4 = = 0.0125 mol

Volume = Moles ÷ Concentration

= 0.0125 mol ÷ 0.1 mol/dm3

= 0.125 dm3

= (0.125 × 1000) cm3

= 125 cm3

PERCENTAGE YIELD
In calculations of chemical reactions it is assumed that all the reactants get converted to
product. The amount of product formed in a reaction is known as yield.

Theoretical yield of a reaction is the calculated amount of product that would have
formed if 100 % of the reactants got converted to products.

In practice, for most of the reactions the complete conversion of reactants to products
does not occur.

Actual yield of a reaction is the amount of product that is actually produced in the
reaction.

The actual yield of a chemical reaction is almost always less than the theoretical yield. It
can never be greater than the theoretical yield.

Percentage yield = × 100 %

25 | P a g e
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
Example -1

When 1.92 g of magnesium was heated in excess oxygen, 3.0 g of magnesium oxide [MgO]
was obtained. The balanced chemical equation for the reaction is given below:

2 Mg (s) + O2 (g) → 2 MgO (s)

Calculate the percentage yield of magnesium oxide.

Solution:

Molar mass of magnesium oxide = (1 × 24) + (1 × 16) = 40 g/mol

Number of moles of magnesium reacted = = = 0.08 mol

Mole ratio = = =

Or, Number of moles of MgO × 1 = Number of moles of Mg × 1

Number of moles of MgO = = 0.08 mol

Theoretical yield of MgO = 0.08 mol

Actual yield of MgO = = = 0.075 mol

Percentage yield = × 100 % = × 100 % = 93.75 %

PERCENTAGE PURITY
In many chemical reactions the percentage yield is less than 100 % because the reactants
are not pure. The more impure the reactants, the lower the actual yield of the product.

The percentage purity of a substance is given by the following formula:

Percentage purity = × 100 %

Example – 1:

When 3.2 g of impure copper was heated in air, 3.8 g of pure copper (II) oxide [CuO] was
formed according to the equation: 2 Cu (s) + O2 (g) → 2 CuO (s). What was the percentage
purity of the copper used?
26 | P a g e
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620
Solution:

The balanced chemical equation shows that 2 moles of copper reacts to form 2 moles of
copper (II) oxide.

Molar mass of copper (II) oxide = (1 × 64) + (1 × 16) = 80 g/mol

Number of moles of pure copper (II) oxide = = 0.0475 mol

Mole ratio = = =

Or, =

Number of moles of copper × 1 = 0.0475 mol × 1

Number of moles of copper = = 0.0475 mol

Mass of pure copper = Moles × Molar mass = 0.0475 mol × 65 g/mol = 3.04 g

Percentage purity of the copper = × 100 %

= × 100 %

= 95 %

27 | P a g e
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSE CHEMISTRY 0620

28 | P a g e