Lab Manual

Casting, Forming, and

Welding Lab

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

© Mechanical Engineering Dept.

Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur
2023
 Lab In-charge and Technical Staff

Lab In-charge

Dr. Pankaj Kumar Gupta

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical
Engineering MNIT Jaipur, India

Technical Staff

Mr. B. R. Nayak
Technical Assistant (SG-II)
Department of Mechanical
Engineering MNIT Jaipur, India

List of Visiting Faculty Members

Mr. Amit Pancharya, Associate Professor
Dr. Anup Malik, Assistant Professor
Dr. Anoj Meena, Assistant Professor
Dr. Tapas Bajpai, Assistant Professsor

This lab manual is prepared by:

Author Name: Dr. Pankaj Kumar Gupta

Edited & designed by:

 Content

1. Monte Carlo Simulation.........................................................................................................................1

2. Single Server Queuing System..............................................................................................................3
3. Genetic Algorithm.................................................................................................................................5
4. Introduction to WITNESS Horizon.......................................................................................................7
5. Operational Bottlenecks in WITNESS HORIZON.............................................................................10
6. Capacity planning in WITNESS HORIZON.......................................................................................23
7. Forecasting in WITNESS HORIZON.................................................................................................28
8. Introduction to Minitab........................................................................................................................36
9. Importing and Preparing Data in Minitab............................................................................................39
10. Histogram Plot in Minitab...................................................................................................................44
11. Scatter Plot in Minitab.........................................................................................................................48
12. Descriptive Statistics in Minitab..........................................................................................................51
13. Normal Distribution in Minitab...........................................................................................................54
14. One-Sample Z-test in Minitab.............................................................................................................57
15. One-Sample t-test in Minitab...............................................................................................................59
16. Regression Analysis: Fitted line plot in Minitab.................................................................................61
17. Exponential distribution in Minitab.....................................................................................................64
18. Poisson Distribution in Minitab...........................................................................................................66
19. Sound Classification using Arduino IDE and Nanoedge AI...............................................................68
20. Anomaly Detection using Arduino IDE and Nanoedge AI.................................................................79
21. Ultrasonic Sensing using Arduino IDE...............................................................................................93
 Specifications

1. Stir casting
Stir casting is a process in which a mechanical stirrer is introduced to form a vortex to mix
reinforcement in the matrix material. It is a suitable process for producing metal matrix composites
due to its cost-effectiveness, applicability to mass production, simplicity, almost net shaping, and
easier control of the composite structure.

S. No. Parameters Specifications

1. Operating voltage 400 to 440 V AC
2. Frequency 50 Hz
3. Power 9 KW
4. Capacity 800 gms. To 2 kg of Al or Mg.
5. Retort or crucible  Type: Fixed
 Material: SS 310 grade
 Protective sleeve: Mild steel
6. Max. temp. for heaters  Bottom pouring furnace: 1000 ° C
 Preheating Furnace (Reinforcement): 800 °C
 Die Preheater: 450 °C
7. Stirrer  Lift with Auto cut off at max. top & bottom.
 Speed: 300 to 1400 RPM variable
 Blade & rod material: SS 310 grade
8. Heat insulation Ceramic Fiber for both furnace and preheater.
9. Control panel Through HMI, Wireless interface.
10. Inert & gas mixing  Mainly used for Mg castings.
specifications  Ultra-High Pure Argon Gas Cylinder,
 SF6 gas cylinder works as a fire extinguisher.
 Stainless steel gas mixing chamber is provided to mix Ar
 and Sf gas if required.

2. Sand Siever
A key equipment used in casting procedures is the sand siever. It effectively divides sand into
particles of various sizes, guaranteeing the uniformity and caliber of the sand used in molds. The sand
siver aids in better mould filling, which leads to better casting results and fewer faults by eliminating
dirt and undesirable materials.

S. No. Parameters specifications

1 Input voltage. 230 volts, 50 Hz
2 Motor 18 Hp Single Phase Cycles-80
3 Timer 10-15 mines
4 Sieves 53, 75, 108, 150, 212, 300 425, 800 880 1700 mic.

3. Sand Washer
Sand washers are crucial pieces of equipment for casting processes. It efficiently cleans and
eliminates contaminants like clay, dust, and organic matter from the sand used in moulds. The sand
washer ensures clean sand, which boosts surface polish, lowers casting flaws, and ultimately results in
better end products.
S. No. Parameters Specifications
1 Input voltage 230 Volt, 50Hz
2 Motor 1/20 Hp single phase, cycles-60
3 On-off/Speed Regulator Single Phase. 06 Amps
4 Timer 0-15 minutes
 5 Glass Jar 1000 ml
6 Sieve 53 Micron

4. Sand Rammer
An essential component in the casting process is the sand
rammer. Sand moulds are compacted using it to provide
optimum density and stability. This portable tool strikes
the sand's surface hard, eliminating air pockets and
forming a solid structure. Its effectiveness ensures
accurate and premium castings for a range of industrial
uses.
5. Permeability Meter
For determining the permeability of moulds and cores, permeability meters are an essential tool in the
Foundry shops. It estimates how easily liquids or gases may pass through a substance. Professionals
in the foundry can evaluate the caliber and efficiency of moulds and cores in permitting correct gas
escape during the casting process by assessing their permeability. A test cell, pressure source, and
manometer or pressure gauge are the standard components of the meter. To determine the rate at
which gas or liquid travels through the sample material, a regulated pressure is supplied within the
test cell. By maximizing casting procedures, this knowledge ensures high-quality final products .

6. Universal Strength Machine (Hydraulic)

The casting industry relies on the universal strength tester machine to evaluate the durability and size
of moulds and cores. It provides vital data for the process optimisation by measuring the material's
compressive, tensile, and shear strengths. In order to evaluate the sample's structural integrity, the
machine applies controlled forces to it while replicating real-world situations. It helps to establish the
ideal binder level, cure period, and compactability of the moulding substance. Castings that are robust
and free of flaws are produced when foundry specialists consider the strength qualities when
designing the mould and core. The universal strength tester device is essential for upholding high
standards of quality and optimising casting procedures.
Low-pressure gauge :
Compression 1600gms/cm2
Tensile 0 to 6 kg/cm2
Transverse 0 to 60 kg/cm2
High-pressure gauge:
Compression 0 to 13 kg/cm2
Tensile 0 to 50 kg/cm2
Transverse-0 to 500 kg/cm2

7. Rapid Moisture Tester

The fast moisture tester device is used to quickly and precisely measure the moisture content of
moulding and core materials. It assists in figuring out the ideal moisture content needed for efficient
casting procedures. Typically, a sample of the material is placed in the machine's drying chamber.
The moisture in the sample is then evaporated using controlled heat, and the weight loss is determined
using a sensitive balance. The quick determination of the
moisture content is made by comparing the original and final
weights. By adjusting the moisture levels based on this
knowledge, foundry specialists may minimise faults brought
on by too much or not enough moisture while assuring
consistent and dependable casting outcomes.
8. Ultrasonic drilling machine

A strong tool for precision drilling operations across many sectors is an ultrasonic drilling
machine. It makes use of ultrasonic waves' high-frequency vibrations to puncture hard objects,
including metals, ceramics, and semiconductors. The device comprises of a drill bit that amplifies
mechanical vibrations produced by an ultrasonic transducer, which transforms electrical energy into
mechanical vibrations. The material's molecular structure is successfully broken down by ultrasonic
vibrations, allowing the drill bit to pierce with less force and more accuracy. Numerous benefits of
this drilling technique include increased drilling accuracy, decreased heat generation, quicker drilling
rates, and low tool wear. It is especially helpful for industries like microelectronics, aircraft, and the
production of medical devices that call for tiny and precise holes. The adaptability and effectiveness
of the ultrasonic drilling machine make it a useful asset in industries where precision drilling is
essential, enabling the production of delicate and high-quality items.

S. Name of
Specification
No. Equipment

Horn Size : 1 mm-1.5 mm, 2 mm

Drill wire size : 0. 5 mm or finer
Ultrasonic Power Supply: 230V, 50 Hz, 1 phase.
1. Drilling Frequency: 22 KHz +/- 10 % manually adjustable.
Machine Amplitude: 0 to 100% continuously variable.
Transducer : Piezoelectric transducer
Ultrasonic Generator : 250 Watt

9. Ultrasonic Flaw Detector

Ultrasonic Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) is a widely used technique for inspecting and evaluating
the integrity of materials and structures without causing damage. It utilizes high-frequency sound
waves, typically in the range of 1 to 20 megahertz, to detect and analyze internal flaws, defects, or
abnormalities in various materials, including metals, composites, and plastics.
During an ultrasonic NDT inspection, an ultrasonic transducer sends high-frequency waves
into the material being examined. These waves travel through the material and bounce back when
they encounter interfaces or defects. The reflected waves are then detected by the transducer and
converted into electrical signals, which are interpreted to generate detailed images or data about the
internal structure of the material. Ultrasonic NDT offers several advantages, including its ability to
penetrate thick materials, high accuracy in flaw detection and sizing, real-time data acquisition, and
the capability to inspect complex shapes and geometries. It is widely employed in industries such as
manufacturing, aerospace, oil and gas, automotive, and infrastructure, ensuring the quality, safety, and
reliability of components, equipment, and structures.

Parameters Specifications
General Overall dimensions (W x H x 260 mm x 165 mm x 70 mm or smaller
D)
Weight 2 Kg Max (without battery)
Display type Full VGA (640 x 480 pixels) trans flective
color LCD, / color TFT ((320 x 240 pixels)
Operating Temperature –5 °C to 50 °C or wider
Test Modes Pulse Echo, Dual, or Through Transmission
Pulser PRF 10 Hz to 2000 Hz
Pulse width Adjustable from 25 ns to 5,00 ns or higher
range
Receiver Gain 0-100 dB, or wider amplifier accuracy ± 1dB
Damping 50, 100, 200, 400 Ω or higher
Frequency bandwidth 1 MHz to 19 MHz or higher at -3 dB
System linearity Horizontal: ± 0.4% FSW or higher
Vertical : : ± 0.1% FSH or higher
Amplitude measurement 0 to 100% full screen height or wider with
1% resolution or smaller
Input impedance 400 Ω ± 5%
Power Battery type Single lithium-ion rechargeable
Source Battery life 11 h to 12 h (lithium-ion or Ni-MH)
Battery Storage Temperature 0 °C to 50 °C
Connections Data storage Removable USB Drive (standard)
Power requirements Adaptor 100 VAC to 240 VAC, 50 HZ to 60
Hz
Calibration Automatic Calibration Longitudinal (straight), or
Shear (angle).
Probe Types Single Contact, Dual, Delay, and Angle
Units English (in), Metric (mm), or Time (μs).
Velocity 1000 m/s to 15000 m/s or wider
 Lab
Instructions

Safety Instructions

Do(s)
● Student should be punctual and disciplined.
● Maintain proper lab uniform with closed footwear.
● Keep your mobile phones on "Vibration/ Silent" mode in the lab.
● Adhere to the experimental schedule as instructed by the laboratory staff and should come
with thorough preparation for the experiment.
● Follow the instructions given by the instructor and read carefully the lab manual before per-
forming experiments.
● Inspect machinery before each use-ensuring that safeguarding systems are in place and work-
ing properly.
● Use appropriate personal protective equipment while performing experiment.
● Any injuries should be reported immediately for proper care.
● Turn-off the power supply to the experimental setup on completion of the experiment and
clean all tools after use and store them properly.
● Return the issued tools, apparatus etc. before leaving the laboratory.
● Practical record of all the experiments should be neatly maintained.

Don’t(s)
● Wear loose clothing, jewelry, neck ties, rolled sleeves or other garments and accessories that
can become entangled with moving parts on the machine.
● Touch/tamper anything without the permission of instructor/lab assistant.
● Conversation, discussion, loud talking, sleeping and littering are strictly prohibited.
● Start conducting the experiment prior verifying the experimental setup.
● Distract an operator while operating a machine.
● Use a machine for anything it is not designed to do.
● Use alternate devices with running machines without instructor's permission.
● Leave experiments running unattended.
● Leave your personal belongings unattended.
● Take items outside laboratory without permission.

III
 Introduction of lab
Students can learn three key manufacturing processes—casting, forming, and welding—in the Cast-
ing, Forming, and Welding Lab. The automotive, aerospace, building, and manufacturing industries,
among many others, all place a high value on these operations. Students who participate in this lab
will be able to gain the information and practical skills necessary for pursuing professions in engi -
neering, manufacturing, or related sectors. In the casting process, a liquid substance, such as molten
metal or plastic, is poured into a mould, allowing it to solidify and take the desired shape. It makes it
feasible to produce complicated structures and elaborate designs that are difficult or impossible to
produce using other manufacturing techniques. Students will learn how to prepare the mould, mix and
pour casting materials, and create solid objects using the casting technique during this lab. Addition-
ally, they will investigate other casting processes, like investment casting and sand casting, to better
understand their benefits and drawbacks. The manipulation of materials through applying force,
whether mechanically or through heat, is referred to as a "forming process." Students gain hands-on
experience in various forming processes in this lab, including sheet metal forming, bending, and forg-
ing. Students will gain practical experience using specialized tools and equipment to shape and de-
form materials to create components with specific geometries and structural characteristics. On the
other hand, welding is a joining technique that fuses two or more materials under pressure or heat. It
is a frequently used method for forging solid and long-lasting connections between metal parts. Stu-
dents will investigate several welding techniques, including arc welding and gas welding, in the Cast-
ing, Forming, and Welding Lab. They will develop their welding skills, and while developing their
welding skills, they will learn the welding safety precautions, electrode choices, and welding parame -
ters required to produce successful and dependable welds. Safety will be given the utmost attention
throughout the lab. The use of personal protection equipment (PPE), careful handling of tools and ma-
terials, and rigorous adherence to safety regulations are all things that students will be expected to fol -
low. Students can make their labs safe and productive by adhering to these safety precautions. Partici -
pants will have gained practical knowledge of the casting, forming, and welding processes by the end
of the lab. They will gain a thorough understanding of the benefits and drawbacks of each technique,
enabling them to apply what they learn to actual industrial situations. The Casting, Forming, and
Welding Lab seek to inspire students to investigate the fascinating fields of engineering and manufac-
turing and improve their technical skills. So let's start our adventure through the intriguing casting,
forming, and welding world.

Objectives:
1. To expose standard manufacturing processes such as casting, metal forming, and welding pro-
cessing.
2. To provide hands-on experience and demonstration of the various manufacturing processes.
3. To introduce complete knowledge to the students about the capability and limits of these pro-
cesses in industrial applications.
4. To develop an understanding of the relevance of these processes in the current manufacturing
industry.
5. To provide a safe and controlled environment for students to practice and experiment with
these processes.
6. To encourage creativity and problem-solving skills by practically applying these processes.
7. To provide opportunities for students to work collaboratively on projects and assignments.

IV
 8. To develop technical skills and proficiency in using equipment and tools related to these pro-
cesses.
9. To provide a foundation for further study or career opportunities in manufacturing or related
fields.
10. To promote an appreciation for the role of manufacturing processes in society and the econ-
omy.

Objectives for Postgraduate Students:

1. Production Engineering Postgraduates should be able to develop a culture of manufacturing
science and technology with the ability to solve problems creatively.
2. Production engineering Postgraduates should be able to enhance and deepen their knowledge
of complex systems management, modelling, and product design in manufacturing sectors.
3. Production engineering Postgraduates must demonstrate their aptitude, self-assurance, knowl-
edge, and engineering experience to tackle industry difficulties and find workable solutions.

Objectives for Ph.D. students:

1. The lab is ideal for experimental casting, forming, and welding studies.
2. Students pursuing a doctorate can develop and conduct experiments to study the behavior of
materials, create new processes, improve existing ones, or discover novel materials for diverse
purposes.
3. The lab supports optimizing different processes to improve the efficiency of the operations.
4. Ph.D. students can use the lab to create new materials or change current ones to improve their
characteristics for specific uses.
5. The lab gives Ph.D. students a place to innovate and develop new items or parts. To confirm
their design ideas and present proof-of-concept, they can create prototypes utilizing casting,
forming, or welding procedures.
6. Ph.D. students can get practical skills that will be helpful in their future employment by work-
ing in a lab specializing in casting, forming, and welding.

V
 Clay Content Test
1
1.1. Aim

1. To perform testing of green sand properties. i.e. (a) Clay content

1.2. Parts

1. On-off/Speed Regulator Switch

2. Timer
3. Motorized stirrer 4 Glass Jar
4. Siphon tube
5. Wash bottle
6. 53 Micron sieve
1. 3. Specification
1. Input voltage 230 Volt, 50Hz
2. Motor 1/20 Hp single phase, cycles-50
3. On-off/Speed Regulator Single Phase. 06 Amps
4. Timer 0-15 minutes
5. Glass Jar 1000 ml
6. Sieve 53 Micron

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 Figure: Sand Washer Figure: Sand Washer Accessories
Preparation Of Alkaline Solution
Weigh 30 gms of Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH). Dissolve in 500cc of distilled water and make the
volume 1000cc by adding distilled water. Stir well before taking to test.
1.4. Setup:

Unpack the equipment as well as accessories of the machine and let it on the plane platform. Plug
three prongs connecting cord into a three-prong outlet of proper voltage rating. Switch on the
instrument main indicator will glow, indicating the power supply is ok.

1.5. Procedure:
1. Take a dried raw sand sample of 100 Gms into the glass jar
2. Add a 10cc alkaline solution of Sodium hydroxide, which is prepared before the test
3. Fill up the glass jar with distilled water up to the upper mark
4. Turn the jar holder base to one side and hold the jar under the fan shaft and stopper, then
lift the glass jar so that fan and stopper will dip into the water
5. Turn the jar holder to its original position and keep the Glass Jar on the jar holder
6. Set the timer by rotating clockwise direction for 15 minutes
7. Switch on the on/off cum speed regulator switch, and adjust the speed so that water should
not fall outside
8. Stir the solution for 15 minutes. After completion of time, the motor will be stopped auto-
matically
9. Collect all sand particles deposited on the stirrer fan by using the wash battle
10. Allow the Sand to settle for 2 minutes, then fill the siphon with fresh tap water and insert
it into the glass jar to siphon out the muddy water up the Bottom mark
11. Continue the Procedure and bill clear solution free of clay obtained
12. Transfer the washed sand with water into the given sieve and dry completely with the help
of a Rapid drier
13. Allow it to cool and weigh the Same Find out the percentage of the clay as per the for-
mula.
1.6. Precaution
Do not rotate the timer knob in the anti-clockwise direction. When not in use, disconnect the
equipment from the mains.

7
 2
Moisture Content Test
2.1. Aim:

To determine the moisture content in moulding sand

2.2. Parts:
1. Digital Balance
1. 2 Absorbent compound
2. 3 Spoon
3. 4 Moisture meter
4. 5 Wooden case
5. 6 Rubber Washer

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 Figure: Rapid moisture tester

2.3. pre-setting:
Open the case. Check the entire equipment thoroughly, to its seat provided on the left side. While
tightening the wing nuts, see the level. And the body of the tester from inside by brush.
2.4. Procedure:
1. Keep the case on the plane platform.
2. Weigh the sample accurately 6gms by Digital Balance.
3. Unclamp the cap of the tester. Transfer the sample to the cap.
4. Take one spoonful of the absorbent compound and transfer it into the body of the tester. Hold
the body horizontally and place the cap in position.
5. Pull the clamp in and tighten the cap with a screw.
6. Shake the instrument vigorously.
7. Immediately, the pointer of the gauge moves.
8. Observe the reading when the pointer stops further movements.
9. This will give the % of moisture in the sample directly.
10. CaC.2 H₂O C₂H:+ Ca(OH)
2.5. Precaution:
Clean the instrument after use. Do not keep the absorbent compound exposed to Atmosphere.

9
 Grain Fineness Number Test
3
3.1 Aim

It is used to determine the finesse number, i.e., the grain size of foundry sand
3.2 Parts:

1. Timer
2. On-Off Switch
3. Sieves 10 Nos,
4. Lid and pan 5. Vibrator assembly
5. Sieve Separator key

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 6. Sieve clamp Patti
7. Clapping springs
3.3 Specification:

Input voltage. 230 volts, 50 Hz

Motor . 18 Hp Single Phase Cycles-80
Timer. 10-15 mines
Sieves. 53, 75, 108, 150, 212, 300 425
800 880 1700 mic.
3.4 Setup:

Unpack the equipment and an accessory of the machine and let it on the plane & study platform. Plug
three prongs connecting cord into a three-prong outlet of proper voltage rating. Switch on the
instrument mains indicator will glow, indicating the power supply is ok. Refer to the sketch diagram
supplied with this manual for the component’s location, as mentioned in this procedure.

3.5 Procedure:

1. Keep the instrument on the plane and sturdy platform. Connect single-phase A.C. supply
2. Remove the clamping Patti by pulling the knobs of the side clapping springs bar
3. Take out the set of sieves. It is recommended to Weight each empty sieve before the test. Use
a soft brush for cleaning sieves and pans.
4. Take 100 grams of washed and dried sand sample in the top sieve (1700 mic)
5. Put the lid. Keep the entire sieve set on the shaking mechanism (vibrator assembly). Course
sieves should be at the top and fine at the bottom, i.e., in descending order (1700, 850, 600,
425, 300, 212, 150, 106, 75, 53 mic).
6. Set the timer for desired sieving time (The average time of the cycles is recommended as 15
minutes). Put ON the switch.
7. After completing of time, the motor will be stopped automatically
8. Disconnect the supply. Remove the side-clapping springs bar.
9. Weight the sand grains remaining in the individual (Every sieve) sieves. Weight each sieve af-
ter the test, along with sand
10. The difference between the two Weights will give an accurate Weight of sand grains. Put ob-
tained results in the following table to get the finesse number.
3.6 Calculations:
Sieve aperture in Weight in gms. % Retained =b Multiplying Fac- Product
mic On sieve tor

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)= cxd

1700
850
600
425

1
1
 300
212
150
106
75
53
Sieve pan
Total Total

E Total of e
Fineness No. = =
C Total of c
3.7. Precautions:
1. Keep the instrument clean.
2. Remove sand grains from each sieve using a soft brush only.
3. Do not rotate the timer knob in an anti-clockwise direction.

4
Permeability
Test
4.1 Aim:

To determine the permeability number of green sand, core sand and raw sand.
4.2 Parts:
1. Water tank
2. Air tank
3. Manometer
4. Standard chart
5. Rubber boss OPD valve
6. Orifices

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 Figure: Permeability Meter

4.3 Procedure:

1. Place the instrument on the leveled platform. Take the O-P-D valve knob at the 'D posi-
tion.
2. Close the opening of the air tube inside the water tank by thumb and pour water up to the
W mark.
3. Insert the air tank into the water tank carefully.
4. A screw is provided at the left side of the manometer to fill the water in the manometer.
5. Unscrewing the knob operates this screw and water is filled in the manometer.
6. The water level should coincide with the zero of the manometer scale.
7. The screw is closed by tightening.
8. Final zero level is adjusted by opening the zero adjust screw provided in front of
the manometer.
9. Selection of orifice It is recommended to use a small orifice for permeability below
50Nos, and a large orifice for permeability above 50Nos.
10. Tighten the office with your fingers only.
11. Take the specimen tube with the rammed specimen and place it inverted over the rubber
boss.
12. Put the valve in the P position.

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3
 13. Read the height of the water column in the manometer tube.
14. Find out the corresponding permeability number from the chart provided with the instru-
ment.
15. Put the valve in 0 positions.
16. Whenever the air tank is flush with the water tank, keep the valve in the 'D' position and
slowly in the air tank to the top position.
17. Lift the air tank drum slowly up keeping the valve in the D position

4.4 Precautions:
1) Keep the instrument dustproof.
2) Keep the instrument clean
3) Lift the air drum only in the 'D' Position to avoid any water entering the air pas-
sage
4) For removal of the water tank completely from the manometer
5) Use zero adjustment knob valves

Tensile Test
5
5.1 Aim

To check the Tensile strength of the tensile specimen with the help of a universal strength machine

5.2 Parts:
1. A movable and stationary jaw with rollers
2. Guide bracket
3. Two rods and knurled screw

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 4. Adjustable ball pad

Figure: Tensile Strength attachment

5.3 Procedure:
1. The knurled screw is removed from the stationary jaw.
2. Insert the attachment in the illustration and clamp the stationary jaw with a knurled screw.
3. Adjust the rollers' position so the roller's flat sides touch together.
4. Then, both jaws are pushed together.
5. The Tensile specimen is placed in the jaws carefully.
6. Follow the same loading procedure adopted for compression strength till the sample breaks.
7. Read compression strength (C.S.) and multiply by the factor provided by the Tensile
strength (T.S.) on the inner scale of the gauge. (CS. X 3.9275 = Tensile strength.)

5.4 Precaution:
Keep the instrument clean.

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5
 6
Transverse Strength Test
6.1 Aim

It is used to check the Transverse Strength.

6.2. Parts:
1. Two support arms with locating pins and knife edges.
6.3. Procedure:

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6
 1. Insert the support arm with two knife edges to the pusher arm and the support arm with a sin-
gle knife edge to the pendulum with the locating pins provided in such a way so that a single
knife edge will be at the center of the two knife edges of the support arm.
2. Insert the transverse specimen between the edges by lifting the pendulum slightly and loading
it,
3. follow the same loading procedure described in the compression strength test until
the specimen breaks. Read this strength on a dry compression scale and multiply by
10 to get transverse strength in gms/cm2.

6.4. Precaution:

Keep the instrument clean

Shear Strength Test

7
7.1 Aim

To determine the shear strength of the specimen with the help of a Universal strength machine.
7.2 Parts:
Pair of shear pads.
7.3 Procedure:

1
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 1. Insert the shear pads in place of the compression pads.
2. The test is the same as indicated for the compression strength; in this test, stepped shear pads
Shear the specimen longitudinally.
3. The strength read directly from the compression scale of the gauge is multiplied by 0.7858.
You will get sheer strength. (C. S. X 0.7855 Shear strength)

Green Sand Mould Design

8
8.1 Aim

Making green sand mould design with complete gating process.

8.2 Apparatus Required:
Green sand, pouring basin flask, cope and drag, pattern etc.
8.3 Theory:

1. The mould is made in a flask that has two parts. The top part is called the Cope and the lower
part is called Drag. If the flask is made in three parts the centre is called a Cheek. The parts of
the flask are held in a definite relation to one another by pins.

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2. The first step in making a mould is to place the pattern on a moulding board that fits the flask
being used. Next the drag is placed on the board with the pins down.
3. Moulding sand is then filled into cover the pattern. The sand should be pressed and rammed
by a hand rammer and mechanical ramming is used for large moulds and in high production
moulding. If the mould is not sufficiently rammed, it will fall apart when handled or when the
molten iron strikes it, and if it is rammed too hard, steam and gas cannot escape when the
molten metal enters.
4. After ramming has been completed, the excess sand is level off with a straight bar called a
strike off bar. To ensure the escape of gases, small vent holes are made through the sand.
5. The lower half of the mould is then turned over, so that the cope may be placed in position and
the mould finished. Before turning, a little sand is sprinkled over the mould and a bottom
board placed on top. The drag is then rolled over and the moulding board removed, exposing
the pattern.
6. The surface of the sand is smoothened over with a trowel and covered with a fine coating of
dry parting sand. Parting sand is a fine grained, dry silica sand without strength. It prevents
bonding of sand in the cope and in the drag.
7. Next the cope is placed on the drag. The operations of filling, ramming and venting the cope
proceed in the same manner as in the drag.
8. The sprue pin is first withdrawn and a funnel shaped opening is scooped out at the top, so that
there will be a fairly large opening into which metal is poured.

Figure 3.1: Green Sand Moulding

1
9
 9. The cope half of the flask is then carefully lifted off and set to one side. Before the pattern is
withdrawn, the sand around the edge of the pattern is usually moistened with a swab, so that
the edges of the mould hold firmly together when the pattern is removed. To loosen the pattern
a draw spike is driven into it and rapped lightly in all directions. The pattern can then be with -
drawn by lifting the draw spike.
10. Before the mould is closed, a small passage known as a gate must be cut between the cavity
made by the pattern and the sprue opening. This passage is narrowest at the mould, so that af-
ter the metal has been poured the metal in the gate may be broken off close to the casting. To
allow for metal shrinkage, a hollow passage is sometimes cut into the cope, which provides a
supply of hot metal as the casting cools, this opening is called a riser.
11. The mould surface may be sprayed, swabbed or dusted with a prepared coating material. Coat-
ings often contain silica flour and graphite, but their composition varies considerably pending
on the material being cast. A mould coating improves the surface finish of the casting and re-
duces possible surface defects. Before the metal is poured in the mould, a weight be put on top
to prevent the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid metal from floating cope and allowing metal
to run out of the mould at the parting line.

Figure 3.2: Schematic Of Gating System

8.4 Gating System:

1. It is referred to all the elements which are used to allow the liquid metal into the cavity.

2 Mechanical Engineering
0
 2. Initially the liquid metal is poured into a pouring basin to settle the turbulence of liquid metal
and almost with laminar flow liquid enters into sprue. It prevents splash of molten metal to op-
erator.
3. Sprue is used to provide flow to the metal.

Figure 3.3: Gating System

4. Riser shows us that cavity is filled by molten metal. It provides molten metal to casting
process so that shrinkage losses don’t occur in cast after cooling.
5. Compensation for vena contracta is provided at a place where liquid metal just enters into the
horizontal runner. Otherwise vacuum will be formed in the gating system and atmosphere
gases will be dissolved in the liquid metal.
6. Skim bob is placed in the horizontal runner just before liquid metals enters into mould cavity,
so that heavier impurities settles down and lighter impurities float over it and almost pure
metal enters the mould cavity.

8.5 Objective of Gating System

1. Gating system helps the molten metal to enter the mould cavity with optimum velocity without
turbulence, splashing and within a given time.
2. Molten metal has to enter into the mould cavity without eroding gating elements and mould cavity
with full of molten metal through all the gating elements in orders to avoid air aspiration effect.
3. The molten metal has to enter in the mould cavity without any slag particles and impurities.

2
1
4. We need to design the gating elements such that casting yield is maximum.

8.6 Result and Discussion:

Thus, we have studied to make green sand mould design and complete gating process.

2 Mechanical Engineering
2
Date of Experiment:

Study of various castings defects and testing

9
by UT.
9.1 Aim

Study of various castings defects and testing by UT

9.2 Theory:

NDT stands for Non-Destructive Testing. It refers to an array of inspection methods that allow
inspectors to evaluate and collect data about material, system or component without permanently
altering it.
They may also be called-

1. NDE (non-destructive examination or evaluation)

2. NDI (non-destructive inspection)
NDT plays an important role in the quality control of a product. It is used during all the stages of
manufacturing of a product. It is used to monitor the quality of the:

a) Raw materials which are used in the construction of the product.

b) Fabrication processes which are used to manufacture the product.
c) Finished product before it is put into service.
Use of NDT during all stages of manufacturing results in the following benefits:

a) It increases the safety and reliability of the product during operation.

b) It decreases the cost of the product by reducing scrap and conserving materials, labour and
energy.
c) It enhances the reputation of the manufacturer as producer of quality goods.
d) It enables the design of new products.
Most commonly used NDT methods are:
1. Visual NDT (VT)
2. Liquid penetrant NDT (PT)
 3. Magnetic particle NDT (MT)
4. Eddy current NDT (ET)
5. Radiography NDT (RT)
6. Ultrasonic NDT (UT)
10.2.1 Ultrasonic testing (UT)

Ultrasonic inspection is a non-destructive method by which high frequency sound waves are
introduced into the object being inspected. Most ultrasonic inspection is done at frequencies between
0.5 and 20 MHz. The sound waves travel through the material with some loss of energy (attenuation)
due to material characteristics. The intensity of sound waves is either measured, after reflection (pulse
echo) at interfaces (or flaw) or is measured at the opposite surface of the specimen (pulse
transmission). The reflected beam is detected and analyzed to define the presence and location of 11
flaws. The degree of reflection depends largely on the physical state of matter on the opposite side of
the interface. Partial reflection occurs at metal-liquid or metal-solid interfaces. Ultrasonic testing has a
higher penetrating power than radiography and can detect flaws deep in the test object (up to about 7
metres of steel). It is quite sensitive to small flaws and allows the precise determination of the
location and size of the flaws.
The ultrasonic testing method is:
a) Used for detection of flaws in materials and for thickness measurement.
b) Used for the determination of mechanical properties and grain structure of materials.
Some of the advantages of ultrasonic testing are that:
a) It has high sensitivity which permits detection of minute defects.
b) It has high penetrating power which allows examination of extremely thick sections.
c) It has a high accuracy of measurement of flaw position and size.
d) It has fast response which permits rapid and automatic inspection.
e) It needs access to only one surface of the specimen.
Some of the limitations of this method are:
a) Unfavorable geometry of the test object causes problems during inspection.
b) Inspection of materials having coarse grain microstructure is difficult.
c) It requires the use of a couplant.
d) Defect orientation affects defect detectability.
e) Reference standards and calibration are required.
f) Rough surfaces can be a problem and surface preparation is necessary.

Some of the advantages of ultrasonic testing are:

 a) It has high sensitivity which permits detection of minute defects.
b) It has high penetrating power (of the order of 6 to 7 metres in steel) which allows
examination of extremely thick sections.
c) It has a high accuracy of measurement of flaw position and size.
d) It has fast response which permits rapid and automatic inspection.
e) It needs access to only one surface of the specimen.

.
 10
Stir Casting Process
11.1 Aim

Performing a parametric study of the casting of MMC on stir casting machine

11.2 Theory:

Stir casting is a type of casting process in which a mechanical stirrer is introduced to form a vortex to
mix reinforcement in the matrix material. It is a suitable process for the production of metal matrix
composites due to its cost-effectiveness, applicability to mass production, simplicity, almost net
shaping, and easier control of the composite structure
Stir casting setup, consisting of a furnace, reinforcement feeder, and mechanical
stirrer. The furnace is used to heating and melting of the materials. The bottom poring
furnace is more suitable for the stir casting as after stirring the mixed slurry instant poring is
required to avoid the settling of the solid particles in the bottom of the crucible. The
mechanical stirrer is used to form the vortex which leads to the mixing of the reinforcement
material which is introduced in the melt. Stirrer consists of the stirring rod and the impeller
blade. The impeller blade may be of, various geometry and various number of blades. A flat
blade with three numbers is preferred as it leads to an axial flow pattern in the crucible with
less power consumption. This stirrer is connected to the variable speed motors, the rotation
speed of the stirrer is controlled by the regulator attached to the motor. Further, the feeder is
attached to the furnace and used to feed the reinforcement powder in the melt. A permanent
mold, sand mold, or a lost-wax mold can be used for pouring the mixed slurry.
10.3 Technical Specifications
S. No. Parameters Specifications
1. Operating voltage 400 to 440 VAC
2. Frequency 50 Hz
3. Power 9 KW
4. Capacity 800 gms. To 2 kg of Al or Mg.
5. Retort or crucible  Type: Fixed
 Material: SS 310 grade
 Protective sleeve: Mild steel
6. Max. temp. for heaters  Bottom pouring furnace: 1000 ° C
 Preheating Furnace (Reinforcement): 800 °C
 Die Preheater: 450 °C
7. Stirrer  Lift with Auto cut off at max. top & bottom.
 Speed: 300 to 1400 RPM variable
 Blade & rod material: SS 310 grade
8. Heat insulation Ceramic Fiber for both furnace and preheater.
9. Control panel Through HMI, Wireless interface.
10. Inert & gas mixing  Mainly used for Mg castings.
specifications  Ultra-High Pure Argon Gas Cylinder,
 SF6 gas cylinder works as a fire extinguisher.
 Stainless steel gas mixing chamber is provided to
mix Ar and Sf gas if required.

10.4 Procedure

1) Cleaning & applying Non-Stick Coating:

1. The below parts must be cleaned, and applied with a non-stick coating at room temperature
Stainless steel retort must be cleaned.
2. Bottom pouring tube
 3. Stirrer rod and blade:
4. Tongs and spoons.
5. Die/Mold
6. All other parts of the furnace which is getting in touch with the melt should be coated)
2) The Casting Process:
1. Switch ON the Mains switch in the machine.
2. Switch ON the Mains button in the software, now LOAD LED light will glow in the machine.
3. Lower down the stirrer lift by pressing the DOWN button in the software and close the retort
lid. Put the MELT temperature sensor into the retort.
4. Set the values for the below heaters/furnace and start the heating.
 Furnace Temperature
 Melt Temperature
 Powder
5. Place the die/mould in its stand and place the immersion type die/mould heater into the die
along with its temperature sensor.
6. Set the values for the die/mould heater and start heating.
7. Once the set temperature is reached in the retort.
8. Remove the MELT temperature sensor and place it in its stand.
9. Lift the stirrer by pressing the UP button in the software.
10. Clean the slag in the retort using the scoops provided.
11. Place a graphite crucible directly below the bottom pouring tube.
12. Open the bottom pouring valve using the BOTTOM POUR Switch in the software Once the
bottom pouring valve is OPEN, clean the hole from the top of the retort using the Rod tool
provided. Do not hammer the hole of the bottom pouring valve, clean it gently.
13. Now close the valve using the BOTTOM POUR switch in the software and wait for the valve
to be completely closed.
14. Add the Aluminum and other materials duly weighed in the retort (Calculate the volume of
cast required for the particular die/mold used and add the exact amount of Aluminum or Mag-
nesium duly weighed!)
15. Bring down the stirrer to so as to close the lid. DO NOT ALLOW THE STIRRER ROO TO
HIT THE METAL INGOTS AS IT WILL BE DAMAGE THE STIRRER ROD. insert the
melt temperature sensor into the retort
16. If you are performing Magnesium casting, please open the Gate valve in the Argon Cylinder,
set
17. the Output pressure of the cylinder to 1.5 KgCm2 and set switch ON the gas at 2 LPM in the
HM
18. Software. Once the set temperature is reached, the furnaces will automatically cut off and if
the temperature falls down than the set limit then the HMI controls will switch Of the furnaces
to
19. maintain the set temperature.
20. Add the reinforcement in the preheater and allow it to heat to the required temperature.
21. Once the metal is melted, bring down the stirrer so as to immerse the blade into the melt.
22. Remove the melt thermocouple. Set the required stirrer speed and switch ON the stirrer.
 23. Open the pre-heating valve to slowly introduce the heated reinforcements into the melt.
24. Stirrer speed should be less than 500RPM while adding abrasive alloying material to avoid
flying of powders. Switch OFF the Mould heater in the software and remove the same from
the mould.
25. Place the die/mold below exactly the bottom pouring tube. If required use the funnel provided
26. to pour the melt directly into the die/mould.
27. Press the BOTTOM POUR switch in the software to open the bottom pour valve. Once the
valve
28. is opened, all melt will be poured into the die/mould. Once the bottom pouring is complete
 Switch OFF Pour switch in the software.
 Cleaning of retort at hot condition
 Remove the Melt thermocouple and place it in its holder
 Lift the stirrer UP.
 Remove all the left over slag from retort.
 Keep a graphite crucible below the bottom pouring tube.
 Open the bottom pouring valve and push all the left over materials down.
 Close the bottom pouring valve.
 Clean the bottom pour tube with the T tube provided.
 The machine is now ready for next casting.
 Switch Off the gas in the software and stop the gas flow in the cylinders if you not go-
ing to take any further castings
10.5 How to perform Vacuum Die Casting?

1. Place the die/mold into the Vacuum Casting Chamber with a silicon rubber gasket.
2. Place the die heater & its sensor into the die and heat the die to the required temperature.
3. Once heated remove the die heater If L type of runway tube is fitted, remove
4. Slide the vacuum casting setup in such a way that the melt from bottom pouring tube will fall
into the die directly.
5. Switch ON the vacuum pump, this will generate vacuum on the vacuum chamber and vacuum
created will be shown on the gauge. Wait till the vacuum gauge reaches 650mmHg
6. Vacuum in the high vacuum chamber will not be released until the bottom pouring is ON, this
is controlled by an electric solenoid valve
7. Pour the melt into the die / mold as per the instruction given above.
8. Switch OFF the vacuum pump once the pouring process is complete
9. Slide the vacuum chamber away from the pouring tube
10. Wait for the cast to cool and remove the cast from the mold.
10.6 Precautions:

 DO NOT LOAD THE RETORT FULLY. This will obstruct the movement of stirrer blade
into the
 retort.
 DO NOT KEEP THE MELT TEMP. SENSOR INSIDE THE RETORT WHILE STIRRING.
This will damage the sensor and the stirrer blade.
  DO NOT USE THE MACHINE WITHOUT PROPER TRAINING.
.

Process Parameters of Welding

11
1. Aim

To study the effect of process parameters of (a) Gas welding, (b) Spot welding (c) TIG, and (d) MIG
11.1 Gas Welding
11.1.1 Apparatus:
Gas welding setup (Torch body or handle, two separate gas tubes for different oxygen and acetylene
cylinder, separate control valves, mixing chamber, flame tube, welding tip.
11.1.2 Principle:
Burning acetylene in the presence of oxygen due to exothermic reaction, heat can be produced and it
will be used for melting of the base material to produce fusion joint.

Figure 8.1.1 Schematic diagram of gas welding

 Figure 8.1.2. Equipment diagram of gas welding

Chemical reaction during burning: Two-stage chemical reaction of acetylene and oxygen :
 First stage reaction- C 2 H 2 +O2 → 2 CO+ H 2 + Heat
 Second stage reaction- 2CO+ H 2 +1.5 O2 → 2C O2+ H 2O+ Heat
 Final reaction: C 2 H 2 +2.5 O2 → 2 C O2+ H 2O+ Heat
In the above reaction, we can conclude that for the complete combustion of 1 mole of acetylene, 2.5
moles of oxygen is required. 1 mole of oxygen is consumed from oxygen cylinder and 1.5 moles are
consumed from the atmosphere.

8.1.3 Effect of Process Parameters

By controlling the volume flow rates of oxygen and acetylene, different flames can be produced for
different applications. Therefore,the ratio of gases is an input process parameter required for different
temperature /application.

Table a.1. Oxyacetylene Flame Temperature

Ratio of Oxygen Types of Flames Temperature
to Acetylene
℃ ℉
.8 to 1.0 Carburizing 3065 5550
.9 to 1.0 Carburizing 3150 5700
1.0 to 1.0 Neutral 3100 5600
1.5 to 1.0 Oxidizing 3427 6200
1.8 to 1.0 Oxidizing 3482 6300
 Figure 8.1.3: Flames with temperature status

Figure a.4: Flames with different cones

8.1.4 Result and Discussion:
Neutral flame: Mild steel, low carbon steel, aluminum alloys cast iron etc.
Oxidizing flame: Copper, zinc and brass etc.
Carburizing flame: Nickel based alloy and high carbon steel etc.

8.2 SPOT WELDING

8.2.1 Apparatus:
Spot welding machine with power supply arrangement and copper electrodes (one movable and other
fixed), timer.
8.2.2 Principle:
Resistance spot welding (RSW) is a process in which contacting metal surface points are joined by
the heat obtained from resistance to electric current. It is a subset of electric resistance welding.
Workpieces are held together under pressure exerted by electrodes. Typically the sheets are in the 1- 2
mm thickness range. The process uses two shaped copper alloy electrodes to concentrate welding
current into a small "spot" and simultaneously sheets are clamped together. Forcing a large current
through the spot will melt the metal and form the weld. The attractive feature of spot welding is that a
lot of energy can be delivered to the spot in a very short time (.5 - 2 sec)w which permits the welding
to occur without excessive heating of the remainder of the sheet.
Figure 8.2.1. Schematic diagram of spot-welding Figure 8.2.2 Equipment diagram of spot welding
8.2.3 Effect of process parameters
The determination of appropriate welding parameters for spot welding is a very complex issue. A
small change of one parameter will affect all the other parameters and output.
1. Electrode force
When the electrode force is increased the heat energy will decrease. This means that higher electrode
force requires a higher weld current. When weld current becomes too high spatter will occur between
electrodes and sheets. This will cause the electrodes to get stuck to the sheet.
2. Squeeze time
Squeeze time is the time interval between the initial application of the electrode force on the work and
the first application of current. Squeeze time is necessary to delay the weld current until the electrode
force has attained the desired level.
3. Weld time
Weld time is the time during which welding current is applied to the metal sheets. The weld time is
measured and adjusted in cycles of line voltage.
4. Hold time
Hold time is necessary to allow the weld nugget to solidify before releasing the welded parts, but it
must not be too long as this may cause the heat in the weld spot to spread to the electrode and heat it.
The electrode will then get more exposed to wear.
5. Weld current
The weld current is the current in the welding circuit during the making of a weld. Higher weld
current is required for higher thickness.
 Figure b.3. Spot squeeze timing diagram

Table b.1. Variation of process parameters according to thickness

Electrode Weld current, Electrode
Sheet thickness, t Weld time Hold time
force, F I diameter, d
[mm] [cycles] [cycles]
[KN] [A] [mm]
0.63 + 0.63 2.00 8 500 6 1 6
0.71 + 0.71 2.12 8 750 7 1 6
0.80 + 0.80 2.24 9 000 8 2 6
0.90 + 0.90 2.36 9 250 9 2 6
1.00 + 1.00 2.50 9 500 10 2 6

8.2.4 Result and discussion: Increase in thickness of work piece increases the electrode force,
weld current, weld time and hold time. Lap joints of sheet metals in automobile bodies and
refrigerator bodies are done by spot welding.

8.3 Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding (GTAW) / Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding:

8.3.1 Apparatus:
TIG welding machine, inert gas cylinder with pressure regulator, TIG welding torch, hand shield,
welding cable etc.

8.3.2 Principle: In gas tungsten-arc welding (GTAW), formerly known as TIG (tungsten inert
gas) welding. The filler metal is supplied from a filler wire. The tungsten electrode is not consumed in
this operation. A constant and stable arc gap is maintained at a constant current level. The filler metals
are similar to the metals to be welded, and flux is not used. The shielding gas is usually argon or
helium (or a mixture of the two).

Figure 8.3.1. Schematic illustration of TIG welding

 Figure 8.3.2 Equipment used in TIG welding

Filler metals may not be required for example in the welding of close-fit joints of thin sections.
Depending on the metals to be welded, the power supply is either DC or AC. DCRP (Direct current
reverse polarity) is rarely used because it tends to melt tungsten electrode. In general, AC is preferred
for aluminum and magnesium, because the cleaning action of AC removes oxides and improves weld
quality. Electrode diameters of 0.8 to 5 mm are commonly used with welding speeds ranging from
about 8 mm/s to over 50 mm/s.
The GTAW process is used for a wide variety of applications and metals, particularly aluminum,
magnesium, titanium, and the refractory metals. It is especially suitable for thinner metals (below
6mm). The cost of the inert gas and circulating cooling water makes this process more expensive.
8.3.3 Effect of process parameter
The following Ishikawa diagram shows various process parameters affecting weld quality as
described-

Figure 8.3.3. Ishikawa diagram for GTAW process parameters (Reference: “A Review on Effects of
GTAW Process Parameters on weld”, IJRASET)

1. Welding Current
Increasing welding current increases the deposition rate and bead height at the same time reduces
hardness. Increasing the welding current also increase the melting efficiency however the rate of heat
loss to the surrounding is more with increased current.
Welding Polarity
Welding polarity affects the depth of penetration. DCEN polarity provides deep penetration whereas
DCEP provides shallow penetration. Degradation of tungsten electrode is more with DCEP polarity as
heat is directed towards the electrode in DCEP.
2. Weld Speed
Bead geometry gets affected with weld speed. Depth of penetration increases with increasing welding
speed up to the optimum value then starts decreasing with further increase in welding speed. Bead
width decreases with increase in welding speed. Process efficiency and melting efficiency increases
with increase in welding speed.
3. Welding Voltage
Depth of penetration and deposition rate decreases with increase in welding voltage. At high voltage
arc length increases which results in wider bead width.
4. Shielding Gas
Shielding gas protects the molten metal pool, filler rod, HAZ from air contaminations. CO 2 gives
highest arc constriction as compared to Argon and Helium gas used individually. Addition of small
amount of oxygen in He-Ar mix, increases the depth of penetration.
5. Electrode Tip Geometry
Arc temperature near sharp electrode tip is more than that with blunt tip. Arc velocity, current
densities and heat flux decreases with increase in tip angle. Current densities and heat flux at work
surface remains unaffected with respect to varying work tip angle.

8.4 Gas Metal-Arc Welding (GMAW) / Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

8.4.1 Apparatus: MIG welding machine, inert gas or CO 2 cylinder with pressure regulator, MIG
welding torch/gun, wire feeding system, hand shield, welding cable.

8.4.2 Principle: Gas metal-arc welding (GMAW) developed in the 1950s and formerly called
metal inert-gas (MIG) welding. The weld area is shielded by effectively inert atmosphere of argon,
helium, carbon dioxide, or their mixtures. The consumable wire is fed automatically through a nozzle
into the weld arc by a wire-feed drive motor.
 Figure d.1. Schematic illustration of MIG welding

Figure 8.4.1 Equipment used in MIG welding

Deoxidizers usually are present in the electrode metal itself in order to prevent oxidation of the
molten-weld puddle. Power supply is either DC or AC. DCRP (Direct current reverse polarity) is
generally used.
Electrode diameters of 0.8 to 1.2 mm are commonly used. Higher currents are required with increase
in electrode diameter. The GMAW process is suitable for welding most ferrous and nonferrous metals
and is used extensively in the metal-fabrication industry. The process is versatile, rapid and
economical.

8.4.3 Effect of welding parameters:

1. Welding Voltage
Welding voltage primarily controls the arc length which is the distance between the molten weld pool
and the wire filler metal at the point of melting within the arc. As the voltage is increased, the weld
bead will flatten out more and have an increasing width-to-depth ratio. The depth of penetration also
increases with increase in arc voltage. For a given current the specimen with low arc voltage will have
more hardness as compared with that at high arc voltage.
2. Welding current
The depth of penetration increases linearly with increase in welding current.
3. Wire feed rate
Wire feed rate should be maintained higher for extraction of bead height and bead width.
4. Weld speed
As travel speed increases, the amount of time that the arc is over a particular point along the joint is
less and the resulting level of penetration decreases.

8.4.4 Result and discussion

It has been studied TIG & MIG in context of their working, equipment’s, applications, relative merits,
parameters and their effects.
Important parameters like welding voltage, current and speed should be suitably selected based on
weld bead requirement, material to be welded and thickness, etc.
Supply current is controllable parameter according to job thickness as per given in table d.1.

Table d.1. Current requirement according to thickness in TIG and MIG

Current, A
Job thickness, mm
TIG Welding MIG Welding
1-1.5 50-60 80-100
1.5-2 60-80 100-120
2-2.5 80-100 120-130
2.5-3 100-120 130-140
3-3.5 120-140 140-150
4-4.5 140-160 150-160

Process Parameters of Welding

12
12.1 Aim

Study of various weld defects and testing by NDT. i.e. UT/DP

12.2 Theory

This is a method that can be employed for the detection of surface-breaking defects in any industrial
product made from a non-porous material. This method is widely used for testing of non-magnetic
materials. In this method, a liquid penetrant is applied to the surface of the product for a certain
predetermined time, after which the excess penetrant is removed from the surface. The surface is then
dried and a developer is applied to it. The developer absorbs the penetrant which remains in the defect
to indicate the presence as well as the location, size and nature of the defect.
Penetrants used are either visible dye or fluorescent dye. The inspection for the presence of visible
dye indications is made under white light while inspection of presence of indications by fluorescent
dye penetrant is made under ultraviolet (or black) light under darkened conditions.
Liquid penetrant processes are further sub-divided according to the method of washing of the
component. Penetrants can be: (i) water-washable, (ii) post-emulsifiable, i.e. an emulsifier is added to
the excess penetrant on surface of the component to make it water-washable, and (iii) solvent
removable, i.e. the excess.

In order of decreasing sensitivity and decreasing cost, the liquid penetrant processes can be listed as:
a) Post emulsifiable fluorescent dye penetrant.
b) Solvent removable fluorescent dye penetrant.
c) Water washable fluorescent dye penetrant.
d) Post emulsifiable visible dye penetrant.
e) Solvent removable visible dye penetrant.
f) Water washable visible dye penetrant.

The advantages of liquid penetrant testing are as follows:

a) Relatively low cost.
b) Highly portable NDT method.
c) Highly sensitive to fine, tight discontinuities.
d) Applicable to a variety of materials.
e) Large area inspection.

The limitations of liquid penetrant testing are as follows:

a) Test surface must be free of all dirt, oil, grease, paint, rust, etc.
b) Detects surface discontinuities only.
c) Cannot be used on porous and very rough surfaces.
d) Removal of all penetrant materials, following the test, is often
required.
e) There is no easy method to produce permanent record.
 Laboratory work evaluation report
Lab Name / Code: Score
Rema
Sl. No. Title of the Experiment Expt. No. Date of Perform Recor Viva Tota
Expt. d l
10

Total number of experiments preformed: Maximum Marks: Marks obtained: Normalized score:
Mechanical Engineering