مشروع توزيع الكهرباء لمستشفى كامل

Benha University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Dept.
Acknowledgment
First of all we would like to give our great thanks to

Allah for helping us to complete our project
successfully.
And we are very grateful to our supervisors:
Dr. Abd Elsalam Hafez Hamza.

Dr. Nagat Mohamed Kamel.
For helping, encouraging us to work hard.

Finally we wish to cover all points in our project.
Thank you….
Project team students
Prepared by :
∑ Mohamed Adel Mostafa Abd Elhafez
∑ Mohamed Hossam Eldin Gamal Slim
∑ Mohamed Kamal Sayed Rashad
∑ Emad Eldin Hassan Aly
∑ Mohamed Saeed Mohamed Abd El_maksoud
∑ Alaa Mosad Ali
∑ Mohamed Rabiea Eldesawy
∑ Heba Salah Mohamed
∑ Hadeer Mostafa Ragab
∑ Hadeer Salem Abo Elezz
∑ Mai Wageh Mohamed Kamal
∑ Menna Allah Mostafa Ahmed
∑ Manal Atiya Mohammed
∑ Gehad Gamal Ibraheem Abdul-Wahab
∑ Yasmien Abd Elmoteleb Mohamady
Chapter (1): Introduction
Chapter (2): Load Estimation
Chapter (3): Lighting system design
Chapter (4): Sockets and Switches
Chapter (5): Cables
Chapter (6): Light current
Chapter (7) Services
Chapter (8) Power System Protection
Chapter (9) Transformer
Chapter (10) Distribution board
Chapter (11): Earthing system
Chapter (12): Power Factor Correction
Chapter (13): Emergency system
Chapter (14): Calculations
Chapter 1 Introduction
Introduction
Electricity and electric power is most important field in

our life as everything in our life depends on electric power. The
main international race is in the field of electric power and
computer as any progressive field depends on electricity as
field of medicine, agriculture & commercial industrial.
1. About the project:

Before we go through any technical information about
this project we felt that we have to mention some brief
notes about the whole project from a different aspect
away from the technicality in order to show the great size
and value this place possesses and to show how much
hard work we put into this project, these facts are briefly
explained in the following points:
∑ First we have to mention the name of the project
which goes by the name “International Medical
Center” or “IMC”.
To get a general idea about the size and the amount of

power apparatus used in that place we have to describe
the construction features of the site.
Page 2
The IMC consists of:

∑ Basement
∑ Ground floor
∑ First floor
∑ Second floor
∑ Third floor
∑ Fourth floor
∑ Fifth floor
∑ Roof
2. Objective of the project:
The main purpose of the whole project is to make obvious
and clear the relation between theory and application as
possible as can be done.
In this project it’s desired to design a complete
distribution scheme for the entire IMC.
The design should contain:
1. Lighting distribution scheme.
2. Sockets distribution scheme.
3. Power load distribution scheme.
4. Load balance between loads and panels.
5. Determination of CB ratings.
6. Determination of transformers rating.
7. Determination of cables CSA..
8. Calculations of voltage drop.
9. Determination of CB breaking capacity.
10. Riser diagram for hospital.
Page 3
2.1. Designing steps:
The design must go through the following

procedures:
Step 1: Load Estimation
Step 2: Light Distribution

For lighting distribution of luminaires and spots within a
plan the following steps are required:
I. Performing a hand calculation method on a sample
(a room) picked randomly from the project.
II. Preparing the AutoCAD drawing to be inserted into
the lighting distribution program (Dialux).
III. Import the drawing into the Dialux.
IV. Start by distributing the same room using the
program.
V. Compare the results (which induces that both
methods have the same outcome).
VI. Carry on the lighting distribution for the rest of the
rooms by using Dialux considering different levels of
lux for different applications.
VII. The lux values are derived from medical lux tables.
VIII. After finishing the distribution we export the
distributed drawings in a (.dwg) extension then
open it using the AutoCAD and then we could place
the luminaires and spots to the right places.
Page 4
Step 3: Sockets Distribution

We place the sockets according to room requirements
and applications applied.
Step 4: Power Load Distribution

As the power loads' values of project are known we
determine the current of each load and we determine CB
rating, isolating switch rating and feeder size, plot on the
plans the isolating switches on the same places of the
power loads.
Step 5: Load Balance

I. Performing the load balance on all the loads
attached to the local panel boards (LPB).
II. Performing the load balance on all the local boards
attached to the sub-mains (SPB).
III. Performing the load balance on all the sub-mains
attached to the main distribution board (MDB).
All of the previous steps are done taking in

consideration to distribute load equally on the three
phases in order to decrease unbalance between them.
Step 6: CB Ratings
After performing load balance on each board we

determine its design current (Ib) based on its max phase
load and from which we determine the CB ratings (In)
from the Known standards.
Page 5
Step 7: Cable C.S.A

After choosing the suitable circuit breaker rating from
which we deduce the protection current and then by
determining the derating factor according to all the
installation conditions surrounding the process we could
calculate the current carrying capacity of the cables and
then we could find the CSA of the cable.
Step 8: Transformer Rating
Based on the final total load at the main distributions

boards we could determine the transformers ratings that
will be used in the project.
Step 9: Voltage Drop Calculation

As we determined the reactance & resistance of each
cable and also we know the maximum current that flow
through each cable as well as the expected cable length,
then we could calculate voltage drop for each and check
that no cable route voltage drop exceeds the allowable
limits.
Step 10: CB Breaking Capacity
From the available information about cables and

operating voltage (400/230 v) we calculated the short
circuit current at each distribution board in our building ,
based on the calculated values we determined the CB
breaking capacity from the known standards.
Page 6
Step 11: Riser Diagram Of The Hospital
Now we got all the information we need about

distribution boards from cables to CBs & transformers
ratings so right about now we could design the riser
diagram showing the locations of the panel boards circuit
breakers, wirings, transformers, diesel generators and etc
….
2.2 Good system requirements:

1. The voltage drop at the consumer ends not to
exceed or decreased than 5% of the rating voltage.
2. The transmitted cost should not be excessive.
3. The loss of power in the system itself should be
small.
4. The maximum current passing through the
conductor should be limited such a value as not to
higher than conductor rating.
5. The insulation resistance of the whole system
should be very high so that there is no leakage or
danger to human life.
Page 7
Chapter 2 Load Estimation
Electrical Load Estimation
At the beginning of the project,in the draft design (early

design) stage, the electrical design professional should
do the following:
 Make Analysis of load characteristics,
 Review The available voltage system types/classes

and levels.
 Review the utility’s rate structure,
 Make roughly a key single-line diagram and a set of

subsidiary single-line diagrams. The key single-line
diagram should show the sources of power e.g.
generators, utility intakes, the main switchboard
and the interconnections to the subsidiary or
secondary switchboards.
 Develop Demand factor relationship between

connected loads and the actual demand imposed on
the system,
Importance of Electrical Load Estimation ( preliminary

load calculations)
Electrical Load Estimation is very important in the draft

design (early design) stage because it help to:
 Plan the connection to upstream network and MV

circuit configurations.
Page 2
 Plan the transformers substation(s) (if any) and the

main switchgear room.
 Apply to Power Company for supply.
 Calculate initial budget for the electrical works.
Definition of Important terms in Load Estimation:
there are many Important terms which must be

understood before performing the load estimation, these
terms are:
1- Connected load
It is the Sum of all the loads connected to the electrical

system, usually expressed in watts.
2- Demand load
It is The electric load at the receiving terminals averaged

over a specified demand interval of time, usually 15
min., 30 min., or 1 hour based upon the particular
utility’s demand interval. Demand may be expressed in
amperes, kilo-amperes, kilo-watts, kilo-vars, or kilo-volt-
amperes.
3- Demand Interval
It is The period over which the load is averaged, usually

15 min., 30 min., or 1 hour.
Page 3
4- Maximum demand
It is The greatest of all demands that have occurred

during a specified period of time such as 5 minutes, 15
minutes, 30 minutes or one hour. For utility billing
purposes the period of time is generally one month.
5- Demand factor (in IEC , Factor of maximum

utilization ku)
In normal operating conditions the power consumption of

a load is sometimes less than that indicated as its
nominal power rating.
The demand factor is the ratio of the maximum demand

on a system to the total connected load of the system.
Demand factor = Maximum demand load / Total load

connected
Notes:
 This factor must be applied to each individual load,

with particular attention to electric motors, which
are very rarely operated at full load.
 Demand factors for buildings typically range

between 50 and 80 percent of the connected load.
For most building types, the demand factor at the
service where the maximum diversity is experienced
is usually 60 to 75 percent of the connected load.
Specific portions of the system may have much
Page 4
higher demand factors, even approaching 100

percent.
6- Coincidence factor (in IEC, Factor of simultaneity

ks)
It is a matter of common experience that the

simultaneous operation of all installed loads of a given
installation never occurs in practice, i.e. there is always
some degree of diversity and this fact is taken into
account for estimating purposes by the use of a
simultaneity factor (ks).
The coincidence factor is the ratio of the maximum

demand of a system, or part under consideration, to the
sum of the individual maximum demands of the
subdivisions.
Coincidence factor = Maximum system demand / Sum

of individual maximum demands
Notes:
 The factor ks is applied to each group of loads (e.g.

being supplied from a distribution or sub-
distribution board).
Page 5
7- Diversity factor
The diversity factor is the reciprocal of the coincidence

factor. Diversity factor = Sum of individual maximum
demands / Maximum system demand
Notes:
 The Diversity Factor is applied to each group of

loads (e.g. being supplied from a distribution or sub-
Difference between demand and diversity factor:
most of the electrical engineers confuse between the

demand and diversity factors, to solve this
confusion, don't forget that:
 The Demand factor must be applied to each

individual load, with particular attention to electric
motors, which are very rarely operated at full load.
 The Diversity Factor is applied to each group of

loads (e.g. being supplied from a distribution or sub-
8- Load factor
The load factor is the ratio of the average load over a

designated period of time, usually 1 year, to the
maximum load occurring in that period. Load factor =
Average load / Maximum load
Page 6
-At any project there are three main types of loads :

1. Lighting N 10% of total load
2. Power (Sockets) (S - 10% total load)
3. A/C about 60 - 80%
4. Others:
Lifts
Fire Pump
Laundry
Cu Room
Water Pump
Page 7
Lighting background :
∑ Light is life. Good lighting is important for seeing the world

around us.What we want to see needs to be illuminated.
∑ Good lighting also affects the way we feel, however, and thus
helps shape quality of life.
Light is a form of energy represented

by electromagnetic radiation, which
may affect the human eye, and is
produced in many ways, depending
on the causes that provoke it. If it is
due to the radiant body temperature,
the phenomenon is called thermal
radiation. All other examples are
considered as luminescence.
• According to physics point view
light is defined as
electromagnetic radiation or
energy transmitted through
space or a material medium in
the form of electromagnetic
waves.
• But according to illuminating
engineering point view light is
defined as visually evaluated
radiated energy i.e. the light is
the part of the electromagnetic
spectrum visible by the human eye.
In this type of lighting the light from the source falls directly on
the object or the surface to be illuminated.
Only 60-90 % of the flux reaches the working plan directly

while the rest is reflected to illuminate the ceiling and walls.
.
Fundamentals of lighting &Definitions
ß Lamp:
Energy conversion device that converts electrical energy into light.
ß Luminous flux (Φ):
is the amount of light produced by a light source.
ß Lumen:
It is the luminous flux per unit solid angle from a source of candle
power
Lumen = candle power * solid angle
ß Luminous intensity(I):
Is the amount of light that a light source emits per unit solid angle
(lumen / steradian).
ß Illuminance(E) :
Is the amount of light falling per unit surface area.
ß Lux
It is defined as the illumination of the inside of a sphere of radius 1
m at the center of which there is a source of (1) candlepower.
ß Luminance (L):
Known also as (brightness) denotes the intensity of light per square
meter of an illuminated surface.
ß Uniformity:
Is the ratio of the minimum to the maximum illuminance.
ß Luminous efficiency:
It indicates the quantity of light a particular light source emits per
watt.
ß Lamp efficacy:
It is defined as the ratio of the luminous flux to the power. It is
expressed in lumen per watt.
ß Room index:
Defines the relationship between height, length and width
of a room.
ß Space high ratio:
ß It is defined as the ratio of horizontal distance between adjacent
lamps and bright of their mountains.
Space high ratio = horizontal distance between two adjacent lamps

Mounting height of lamps above working plane
laws of illumination:
Inverse square law:

The illumination (E) is inversely to the square of the distance between
the source and the point figure 2 illustrates how the same quantity of
light flux is distributed over a greater area as the distance from the
source to the surface is increased. E α 1 / r^2
Fig 2.2 ( inverse square law )
Lambart's cosine law:

According to this law (E) is directly proportional to the cosine of
the angle made by the
normal to the
illuminated surfac
with the direction
E α cos θ
E= (I* cos θ) /r2
Fig 2.3 ( lambart’s
cosine law )
Combining all this factors together we get:
Factors affecting the illumination and wattage
of a certain lamp:
Utilization factor. (U.F): (0.2 : 0.6)
It is the ratio of the lumen actually received to the total Lumens
emitted by the source, it depends on:
∑ Room dimensions.
∑ Color of the walls.
∑ Type of lighting scheme.
Maintenance factor (M.F):

It is the ratio between illuminations under normal working conditions to
the illumination when everything is clean. It depends on the rate of
cleaning.
M.F. = 0.8 for houses.
= 0.3 for streets.
= 0.6 :0.7 for schools and shopping centers.
Requirement of a good lighting scheme:

1. Provide adequate illumination.
2. Provide light distribution over the entire working plane as
uniform
3. Provide light of suitable color.
4. Avoid glare & hard shadows as far as possible.
5. Reduce cost.
6. Continuous service.
Types of lamps
Incandescent Lamps
The incandescent lamp is the oldest and most common type of lamp.
Light is emitted when electricity flows through—and heats—a
tungsten filament. Incandescent lighting is the most common type of
lighting used in homes. It has traditionally delivered about 85% of
household illumi
Advantages
1- They have a low initial cost.
2-They offer an excellent color rendition.
3- This type of lighting can easily be

dimmed. 4-They have a much cheaper
initial cost. 5-The light up instantly when
turned on.
Disadvantages
1. Short average operating Life (750-2500 hours).
2. Low efficiency compared to other lighting options (10-17 lumens per
watt).
3. Create high temperature.
4- Higher energy costs.
Types of Incandescent Lamps

These are the three most common types of incandescent lamps:
∑ Standard incandescent lamps.
∑ Energy-Saving Incandescent (or Halogen) lamps.
∑ Reflector lamps.
Fluorescent lamp
Fluorescent lamps use about 25% of the energy used by incandescent
lamp to provide the same amount of illumination (efficacy of 30–110
lumens per watt). They also last about 10 times longer (7,000–24,000
hours.).
Advantages
1. It with the lower energy costs.

2. Give off a lot less heat than other types of lights.
3. They have a much longer life span than many other bulbs.
4. High Efficiency.
Disadvantages
1. They can be a health and safety risk.
2. Fluorescent lamps are a non-linear load and generate harmonic
currents in the electrical power supply.
3. Simple inductive fluorescent lamp ballasts have a power factor
of less than unity.
4. The disposal of phosphor and particularly the toxic mercury in the
tubes is an environmental issue.
Fluorescent Lamp Types

1. Compact fluorescent lamps
∑Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) can now be used in many
standard light sockets and fixtures.
∑They can consume up to 75 percent less energy than incandescent
bulbs.
∑They last up to 10 times longer.
∑This makes them ideal for use in fixtures that are not easily
accessible, such as Recessed Luminaires.
2. Linear Fluorescent
∑When selecting a fluorescent fixture for a kitchen, bathroom,
utility or other area, consider purchasing a linear (long straight
tube) fluorescent
∑Many of the lamps sold today give good color rendition
Fig 1.10
-High pressure sodium Lamp

High pressure sodium lamps are used in outdoor lighting of streets
and parking lots and in indoor settings where color rendering is not
critical. These indoor settings include warehouse and shipping areas
and some manufacturing areas.
Fig 1.11
Advantages
1. Long Life and low light depreciation.
2. Very high efficiency hence highly energy efficient.
3. Very short run-up time and quick re-strike.
4. Very High Lumen Output.
5. Ideally suited for fog, dust and rainfall conditions.
6. An economic alternative to high pressure mercury vapor and metal halide

lamps. Most HPS lamps can operate in any position.
Disadvantages
1. The light produced is a golden white color, which may not be
appropriate for certain applications.
2. Once started can take from five to ten minutes to reach full light
output.
3. End of life is characterized by on-off-on cycling.
4. Once started can take from five to ten minutes to reach full light
output.
5. They also require at least a one minute cool-down to re-strike.
6. Continued operation can damage the lamp ballast if not replaced
quickly.
-Low Pressure Sodium Lamp (LPS)

Low pressure sodium (LPS) lamps are the most efficient source of
light commercially available, up to 183 lumens per watt. However,
they are used in very few applications because of their poor color
rendering characteristics.
Fig 1.12
Advantages
1. Most energy efficient light source commercially available, with
an efficacy of 100 to 185 lumens per watt.
2. Most lamps will restart immediately after interruption of
power supply, but require some time to come up to full
brightness.
3. Provides superior uniformity of light distribution over all HID
lamps.
4. Have excellent lumen maintenance.
Disadvantages
1. Most expensive lamp to install.
2. Run time to full light output is the longest (7 to 15 minutes).
3. Requires special disposal considerations.
4. These lamps have poor color rendering characteristics
High-Intensity Discharge Lamp
Principal of operation
The light is produced by passing a current through a metal vapor.
Free electrons colliding with an atom in the vapor momentarily knock
an electron into a higher orbit of the atom. When the displaced
electron falls back to its former level, a quantum of radiation is
emitted.
These are the three most common types of HID lamps
1. Mercury vapor lamps.
2. Metal halide lamps.
3. High-pressure sodium lam.
Disadvantages
1. Containing mercury and/or sodium in significant amounts.
2. HID lamps require special care to protect the environment.
Metal Halide Lamp
Disadvantages
1. Short life compared to other HID lamps.
2. Horizontal operation may severely reduce lamp life.
3. Some lamp types require 2 to 5 minutes to warm-up
before giving full light output and 10 minutes to cool-
down.
4. Color may vary from lamp to lamp (color shift.)
-Mercury Vapor Lamp
Principal of operation
The mercury vapor lamp produces light when the electrical
current passes through a small amount of mercury vapor. The
lamp consists of two glass envelopes: an inner envelope in which
the arc is struck, and an outer protective envelope. The mercury
vapor lamp, like the fluorescent lamp, requires a ballast designed
for its specific use. Special ballasts are required for dimming.
Advantages
1. Three times as efficient as incandescent.
2. Available in a wide variety of ratings, colors, sizes and shapes.
3. Relatively low unit cost
4. High average rated life (about 24,000 hours when operated on
a 10 hour cycle). This is 24 times longer life than
incandescent.
Disadvantages
1. Poor lumen maintenance compared to other HID sources.
2. Mercury lamp ballasts are noisy.
3. Special dimming ballast is required to dim mercury lamps.
4. Require a maximum warm-up period of five to seven minutes
before giving full light output
5. they are the most inefficient source of light
- LED Lamp:
An LED lamp is a light-emitting
diode (LED) product that is
assembled into a lamp (or light
bulb) for use in lighting fixtures.
LED lamps have a lifespan and
electrical efficiency that is several
times better than incandescent
lamps, and significantly better
than most fluorescent lamps,
with some chips able to emit
more than 100 lumens per watt.
Advantages:
1) Energy efficient source of light for short distances
and small areas. The typical LED requires only 30-60
mwatts to operate
2) Durable and shockproof unlike glass bulb lamp types
3) Directional natures is useful for some
applications like reducing stray light pollution on
streetlights.
Disadvantages:
1) May be unreliable in outside applications with great
variations in summer/winter temperatures, more work is
being done now to solve this problem
2) Semiconductors are sensitive to being damaged by
heat, so large heat sinks must be employed to keep
powerful arrays cool, sometimes a fan is required. This
adds to cost and a fan greatly reduces the energy
efficient advantage of LEDs, it is also prone to failure
which leads to unit failure
3) Circuit board solder and thin copper connections
crack when flexed and cause sections of arrays to go out
4) Rare earth metals used in LEDs are subject to
price control monopolies by certain nations
5) Reduced lumen output over time
Applications Life time Efficacy Color Type of

(Lumens/Wat
(Hours) t) Rendering Lamp
1000- Incandesce
Indoor 2000 8-17 100% nt
Lamp
2000-
Indoor 4000 13-25 100% Tungsten
halogen
Indoor &
Outdoor 8000 60-80 60-90% Low
Pressure
Mercury
Outdoor & 5000- 40-60 25-60% High
advertising 24000 Pressure
Mercury
Metal
Outdoor & sport 8000- 60-83 60-90% Halide
Lighting 20000 Lamp
Street & Tunnel 5000- 40-50 0% Low

Lighting 20000 Pressure
Sodium
Street & Tunnel 6000- 40-90 23% High

Lighting 24000 Pressure
Sodium
Indication lights
on 25,000- 28-150 70% for LED Lamp
devices, small
and 100,000 Depending on white LEDs
large lamps,
traffic environment
lights, large
video
screens, signs,
street
Lighting(althoug
h
this is still not
widespread)
i)
ii)
10
The Ingress Protection system (IP) EN 60529, 1991
defines various degrees of protection against the ingress
of foreign bodies, dust and moisture. The term ‘foreign
bodies’ includes thin gs like fingers and tools coming
into contact with the electrical live parts of the product
. Both safety aspects (contact with live parts) and harmful
effects on the function of the luminaire are defined
7. IP ( Ingress protection or index of protection )

IPXY
X : degree of protection against dust.
Y : degree of protection against moisture.
.
:
Type (A)
Technical Data
: Recessed Mounted luminaire 60Cm x60Cm.

Description
Luminaire housing of sheet steel with internal and
Luminaire housing :
External electrostatic white paint.
: High-gloss optic, double parabolic

Reflector
Control Gear : Electronic Ballast. High Frequency Regulator (HFR)
Lamps : Fluorescent lamps 4x14 w TL-5
Degree of protection : IP20
Color index White color (4000K)
Manufacturer : Similar toPhilipsCatalogue (tbs260)or approved equal.

‫اﻟﻣﻛﺎﺗب‬ ‫ ﻣرﻛز اﻻﺷﻌﺔ‬- ‫ﻏرف اﻟﻔﺣص ﻓﻰ اﻟﻌﯾﺎدات‬ ‫ﻏرف اﻟﻣرﺿﮫ‬
Application :
‫ اﻟﻣﻛﺗﺑﺔ‬-‫اﻟﻣدرﺟﺎت‬
Type(C)
Technical Data
: Surface Mounted TL5 fluorescent lamps.

Description
Luminaire housing : fibre-glass reinforced polyester, grey.
: Polycarbonate.
Reflector
Electronic Ballast. High Frequency Regulator
Control Gear :
(HFR)
Lamps : Fluorescent lamps 2x28W TL-5.
Similar toPhilips Catalogue (Pacific TCW216)or

Manufacturer :
approved equal.
‫‪Application‬‬ ‫ﻓﻰ اﻟﻣﺧﺎزن واﻟﺟراج وﻏرﻓﺔ اﻟﻛﮭرﺑﺎء واﻻوﻓﯾس واﻟﻣطﺑﺦ ‪:‬‬
Type(B)
Technical Data
Recessed Mounted2 PL-L compact fluorescent

:
lamps,
Description
Luminaire housing : plastic, injection molded
plastic, injection molded with high efficient

:
Reflector reflective layer
Lamps : compact fluorescent PL-C lamps 2 x 55
Similar tophilips Catalogue (fbs163)or approved

Manufacturer : equal.
Application : Meeting Hall, V.I.P rooms,

Type(R)
Technical Data
: Recessed MountedTL5Fluorescent lamps.

Description
Luminaire housing : antibacterial
: Opal acrylic cover (O)

Reflector
Lamps : Fluorescent lamps4 x 14 w TL-5
Similar tophilipsCatalogue(CR200B)or approved equal.

Manufacturer :
Intensive Care, Chamber of operation, Resuscitate the
Application :
lounge ‫اى ﻣﻛﺎن ﯾوﺟد ﺑﮫ ﺗﺧدﯾر او ﺗﻌﻘﯾم‬
Type(D)
Technical Data
fixed downlight with compact fluorescent lamp(s)
:
Description 2 x 26.
: PIRSIMATIC cover (P))

Reflector
Lamps : Fluorescent lamps2 x 26 w
Color index Worm white color (3000K)
Similar tophilips Catalogueor approved equal.

Manufacturer :
Application : Corridors- ‫اﻧﺗظﺎر‬-‫اﻻﺳﺗﻘﺑﺎل‬

Type: (T)
Technical Data
: Surface wall-mounted
Diffuser
Made of high quality extruded aluminum, painted in
Luminaire housing : stove enameledwhite baked epoxy polyester mix-
powder.
: Opal metacrylate diffuser

Reflector
Control Gear :
Electronic ballast
Polyurethane gasket, elastic washers and rubber
Tightness :
seals,
Lamps : (1*28W+1*14W) TL-5 Fluorescent lamp
Degree of
: IP54
protection
Class I
Manufacturer : Philips or approved equal.
Type: (E)
‫ﻛﺷﺎف اﻟﺣﻣﺎم‬Type: (F)
Technical Data
: Energy saving and particle universal. luminaire.

Description
Luminaire housing : Heatresistant thermoplastic housing.
: Acrylic diffuser reflector.

Reflector
Control Gear : Electronic Ballast
Lamps : Compact fluorescent, Dulux F36W
Similar to Lival-Finland of type Globus or approved

Manufacturer :
equal.
Application ‫اﻟﺳﻠم‬
Technical Data
: Energy saving and slim lined luminaire.

Description
Luminaire housing : Heat resistant thermoplastic housing.
: Acrylic diffuser.
Reflector
Control Gear : Electronic ballast.
Lamps : Compact fluorescent 2x18 W.
Manufacturer : Lival-Finland or approved equal.
Type (W)
Technical Data
: Surface mounting Luminaire.

Description
Housing of sheet steel with internal and external
Luminaire housing :
electrostatic white paint
Aluminum sheet electrostatic white paint

:
Reflector reflector&High mirror diffuser.
Control Gear : ElectronicBallast.
Lamps : Fluorescent lamps4x14 w TL-5
Similar toEL SEWEDY-EGYLUX or approved equal.

Manufacturer :
Type (O)
Technical Data
: Recessed Mounted luminaire 60Cm x60Cm.
Description
Luminaire housing of sheet steel with internal and
Luminaire housing :
External electrostatic white paint.
cover : Opal cover
Lamps : Fluorescent lamps 4x14 w TL-5
Manufacturer : Similar toPhilips Catalogue (tbs260)or approved equal.
Application : ‫اﻟﺟراﺣﮫ‬ ‫ﺻﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺗدرﯾب‬ ‫اﻟﻣﻌﺎﻣل‬
4)
A) The manual Method:
Step no.(1):
Determine the room dimensions a & b & H
Where: a = length of room (m).
b = width of room (m).
H = height of room (m).
∑ Assume the Mounting Height (h) to
be 3m Height
∑ Calculate the Area (A) of any
Compartment will be:
Area (A) = length (a) * width (b) (m2)
Lux (E) * Area (A)

M.F * U.F * Φ
∑
∑
Total No. of Lamps (N)
No. of Lamps/Luminaire
2.13DIALux Program:
The Software Standard for
Calculating Lighting Layouts
Fig 2.14
Create a New Project:

If you click on the New button you will generate a newproject. DIALux
can handle only one project at a time. An already opened project must
therefore be closed before
the new project can be
generated. In the Inspector
you can define the Project
Name and Descriptions of
the project.
DIALux adds automatically
the creation date.
Alternatively you can edit
the date, by deactivating the
Automatic box..
Fig 2.15( create new project )
Edit Rooms:
In order to generate a room, click in The
Guide on the Insert New Room button
Generate a new room
Fig 2.16( Edit rooms )
Edit Room Geometry:

Afterwards the ground plan view appears on the right side within the
CAD window and the room coordinates are displayed in the Inspector.
Generally the coordinate origin of the room is down left (x=0, y=0).
You can change the room geometry by moving the individual points
via the mouse or you can insert points with the right mouse button.
Alternatively you can edit the room coordinates in the Inspector.
DIALux transfers the values entered in the table after you have
operated the tab key. After finishing editing the room data confirm with
the OK button.
Edit Room Data:
If you select a room in the Project manager, you can specify different
properties via the Inspector. In the General tab you can define
theroom’s Name and a Description text.
After choosing a luminaire, the user can place it in any arrangement.

Also there is access to technical details of the luminaire
Fig 2.19(Technical data of the placed luminaire )
Because the luminous flux and the correction factor havean influence
on the number of luminaires required these values can be edited here.
Insert and Edit Luminaires and Luminaire
Arrangements:
You can open the luminaire tree by clicking in The Guide Select
Luminaires. In the luminaire tree you will see installed PlugIns under
DIALux catalogues. With one double-click on a name of a
manufacturer you can open a PlugIn. Under not installed PlugIns you
can find the DIALux project partners, whosePlugIns are not yet
installed. A double-click on the corresponding names of the
manufacturers opens its internet page. There you can download the
DIALuxPlugIn. Additionally telephone numbers and e-mail addresses
are displayed.
At the bottom of the list the last used luminaires are always indicated.
This can be up to 20 luminaires of different manufacturers.
Individual Luminaires:
Individual luminaires can be inserted into the room from the project or
luminaire tree via Drag and Drop. Simply pull the luminaire from the
tree to the room. The luminaire is inserted into the room at that
position (X and Y coordinates) where you release the mouse button.
The way it is inserted influences the arrangement type. Via Drag and
Drop you can position luminaires only inside rooms.
In the Luminaire Property Page you can select the luminaire to be

positioned.
According to the Mounting tab you can make various settings for the
mounting.
To modify the Technical Data of the luminaires, these must have

been inserted into the room. In the Project manager, the luminaires
contained in the arrangement are
listed beneath the respective
arrangement type (An individual
luminaire arrangement in this
case). If you select one of these
luminaires, you can modify its
technical data. If you select
multiple luminaires in the CAD,
you can modify the values of all
selected luminaires.
Output
Viewing Calculation Results
After a calculation has been completed, DIALux shows the 3D display
of the room.
Project output can be viewed before or after a calculation. The output
types which are not affected by the calculation results can be viewed
at any time, for example the project cover sheet, luminaire parts lists,
luminaire coordinates, room coordinates etc.
Most output types need to be calculated first. If one of these output
types is opened when there are no results yet, DIALux enquires
whether the calculation should be performed.
Fig 2.27
DWG and DXF Import and Export

With DIALux you may import DWG and DXF drawings and use them
for your work. After you finished your planning you can export the
room geometry, the room elements, the luminaires and the furniture
into your CAD-drawing.
DWG / DXF-Import
∑ Create an empty rectangular room (If you work on an exterior
scene create that)
∑ Go to the ground plan view
∑ From the menu File Import use the option DWG or DXF File. The
wizard asks you to select the dwg or dxf file.
∑ Let the wizard read the file.
∑ The units used in the dwg / dxf-file are not yet defined. When
you select the probable unit, the
∑ size of the drawing is listed in two fields.
∑ You can place the origin of the planning at the origin of the
global coordinates system (0.00/0.00/0.00) or you can choose a
point defined in the file or you can place the origin at the gravity
centre of the used area (the middle of the drawing).
DWG / DXF-Export
You can export the result of your planning in dwg or dxfformat and
specify the file type dwg or dxf in the “Save under“ dialogue which you
can open via“Search…”.
Chapter 4 Sockets and Switches
.1 Importance of sockets:
When electricity was first introduced into the local

environment a means of connection to the supply was
required (electrical outlet). So the two-pin plugs made its
appearance, as we will see below the different types of
sockets needed to supply the different equipment in the
building and to achieve proper distribution of sockets in
the building to satisfy the needs of all users.
.2 Types of Sockets:
1-Normal sockets.
2-Power sockets.
3- UPS_Sockets.
4-Emergency Power sockets.
.2.1 Normal Sockets:

 They are used mainly for light loads only.
 The rating of each normal socket is 180 VA.
 Cable C.S.A. is 2.5 mm2.
 Number of sockets in a certain room depends on the
usage and the area of the room.
 Generally we put one socket every 3 meters and there
are 5: 7 sockets on the circuit.
 M.C.B. rating for normal socket = 16 A
Page 2
Fig 3.1 ( normal socket )
 They are used mainly for heavy loads such as heaters,

dishwasher, microwave, freezer, exhaust fans, oven and
cleaners, these are the loads that
draw high currents (larger than 25
A) momentarily (during starting) or
continuously (during operation).
 The rating of each power socket
between 1000 W
Fig 3.2 ( power socket )
.2.2UPS Sockets:
Mainly used in offices (each socket is 200VA).
.3 Special Power Sockets:

.3.1 Emergency power sockets:
 They are mainly used in ventilation system
 The rating of each socket for charging
emergency EXIT
Sign is 200VA as illustrated in figure 3
F
ig 3.3 ( Emergency PS )
Page 3
Some Types of Emergency Sockets
.4 Types of Sockets layout:

.4.1 Wall mounted sockets:
They are fixed on the wall at 40 or 120 cm above the finished
ground, They are mainly used for decorative lighting and
general purposes.
.4.2 Floor Sockets:

They are sockets fit on the ground and they are covered by a
flap for protection.
Their protection against water or any other thing that may
cause damage to sockets.
Also it is safer for personnel. They are placed under the
computer tables to make it easy to access the supply to
computers. They also provide simplicity in connection and
prevent the long paths of cables which are not safe for both
personnel and equipment
.5 Design of Sockets:
1. Sockets used to supply the electrical equipments.
2. Sockets should be fixed at height (35-40 cm), but in
kitchen & bathrooms should be fixed at height (135 cm)
that's from the final ground datum.
3. The socket box is made of rigid insulating material & also
non_flammable material & has high melting temperature.
Page 4
4. Each two successive sockets are placed (2 - 3 m) apart

according to the location where it is placed.
5. Each circuit contains maximum 5- 6 sockets in order to
use cable to the distribution board 2 mm2.
.6 Socket calculation:
.6.1 Normal socket calculation basics:
1. We put 1 socket every 3.5 m considering the best
location and the distribution of furniture is taken in to
consideration.
2. We put 5:7 socket per circuit.
3. M.C.B rating for normal socket=16A
.6.2 Power socket calculation basics:

1. Each line will be on a separate circuit.
2. Each final circuit shall be connected to a separate Circuit
to a distribution board.
3. I Circuit Breaker = 1.25 ICircuit
4. Choose nearest Circuit Breaker rating = 10 A, 16 A, 25,
32 A.
5. C.B rating for power socket=20A.
.7 Sockets Table:
The following table: some types of sockets and its connectors
and countries that use these types and also rating of these
types:
Type(A) :
Used in, among others, North and
Central America and Japan.
Page 5
Type(B) :
Used in, among others, North and
Central America and Japan (is rated
at 15 A).
Type(C):
Used in Egypt, all countries of Europe
except the United Kingdom, Ireland,
Cyprus and Malta (is rated at 2.5 A or
Less).
Type(D) :
Used almost exclusively in India,
SriLanka and Namibia
(is rated at 5 A).
Type(E) :
Primarily used in Egypt, France,
Belgium, Poland, Slovakia, Tunisia and
Morocco (is rated at 16 A).
Page 6
Type(F) :
Used in Egypt, among others, Germany,
Austria, The Netherlands, Sweden,
Norway, Finland, Portugal, Spain and
Eastern Europe (is rated up to 16 A).
Type(G) :
Mainly used in the United Kingdom,
Ireland, Cyprus, Malta, Malaysia and
Singapore (is rated at 5 A for lighting
rings and 3 A for small appliances
like radio).
Type(H) :
Used exclusively in Israel (is rated at
16 A).
Type(I) :
Mainly used in Australia, New Zealand,
Papua New Guinea and Argentina
(is rated up to 10 A).
Page 7
Type(J) :
Used almost exclusively in Switzerland
andLiechtenstein (is rated up to 10 A).
Type(K) :
Used almost exclusively in Denmark
andGreenland (is rated at 10 A).
Type(L) :
Used almost exclusively in Italy and
randomly found throughout North
Africa (has two styles rated at 10 A
and 16 A).
Type(M) :
Used almost exclusively in South Africa,
Swaziland and Lesotho
(is rated at 15 A).
Page 8
Switches
It is an electromechanical element used for connects and
disconnect electric current.
Construction:
1- Box
2- Mechanism
a- Dolly switch
b- b- Rocker operated switch
c- 3- Front plate
Page 9
.1Types of switches
1- Single pole switch
it controls and opens the phase or live lead to the consuming load only
It's used for light loads
Rating (5A, 15A, 20A)
2- Double pole switch
Opens both phases and neutral circuit
Used for power equipment as fans
Rating (15A, 20A, 30A, 45A, 60A)
Page 10
.2Design
1- Placed switch on side of the door at height 1.5 M from floor
2- Bath room or kitchen switches should be placed outside
3- Switches nearest the door control one or more of principal

light of the room
4- Switches both single and double shall be mounted the dolly

is up when the switch is in off position
5- Normally all local switches shall be mounted with the

dollies between 1.0m and 1.5m above the finished floor level
6-If there are two or more horizontal rows of local switches

the lowest row shall have dollies at least 1.0 above the
finished floor
7- Switches shall be mounted inside the room on the side of

the door where lock is situated the nearest frame.
8- The switches nearest the door shall control one or more of

the principal lights of the room
9- In path rooms and kitchens, all switches shall be of the

water proof type
Page 11
Used single pole switch in the project
symbol description Usage Switch shape
One way For small number

Gang One of lamps with low
switch wattage inside room
(with water of one door
proof)
One way For large number of

Gang Two lamps with high
of one door
Two way For small number

gang One of lumps with low
of two doors
Two way For high number of

gang Two lamps with high
of two doors
. Switch Fuse
Used for heavy loads such as microwave, oven…
Preform the same function of socket
Page 12
.1.Construction
Similar to socket outlet put it have a fuse
They have neon indicator
Have no socket for a plug to be pushed
.2.Design
1- Each switch fuse is a single circuit directly connected to distribution

panel board
3- Its rating (1200-2000) depend on the load served
a- telephone outlet
b- Net outlet
3- In case of failure it will be replaced from the front
Page 13
Chapter 5 Cables
.1 Introduction:
A cable is an assembly of two or more electrical
conductors, usually held together with an overall sheath.
The assembly is used for transmission of electrical power.
Power cables may be installed as permanent wiring within
buildings, buried in the ground, run overhead, or exposed.
Flexible power cables are used for portable devices,
mobile tools and machinery.
.2 Types of cables used in distribution

systems:
1. Low voltage cables.
2. Power cables.
3. Distribution cables.
4. Control cable.
5. Fire resistant.
6. LAN and telephone cable.
7. Coaxial cable
8. Mineral Isolated Copper.
.3 Construction of cable:
A cable has three main parts:
(i) The conductor.
(ii) The
insulator.
(iii) The sheath (mechanical protection).
.3.1 Conductors
The essential components of a cable are a metallic conductor
of low resistivity to carry the current. The conductor used in
Page 2
Chapter 5 Cables
cables should be stranded copper or aluminum of high

conductivity. Stranding is done so that conductor may become
flexible and carry more current.
Copper is preferred because it has good mechanical and
electrical properties, cheap, light weight. the current rating of
the cable is dependent upon the cross-sectional area of each
core. The very smallest cables have conductors consisting of
only one strand of copper; larger cables however have
stranded conductors consisting of many individual strands or
wires laid up together; this gives flexibility, allowing the cable
to be bent more readily during installation,. To achieve a
circular conductor, the number of strands follows a particular
progression: 3, 7, 19, 37, 61, and 127 etc, the diameter of
each strand being chosen to achieve the desired cross-
sectional area of tile whole conductor.
As seen in Figure, 3-core and 4-core cables in the larger sizes
have conductors with the strands laid up in a segmental
formation; this achieves a better space factor and reduces the
overall diameter of the cable. It also reduces the inductance of
the cable due to decreased spacing between phases.
Segmental Cores
Page 3
Chapter 5 Cables
Standard conductor sizes range from1.5mm2 to 400mm2 for

2-core, 3-core and 4-core cables, and from 50mm2 to
1000mm2 for single-core cables.
.3.2. Insulation
Natural rubber or oil-impregnated paper is no longer used for
the insulation of cables up to 3810/6600V; synthetic materials
are now used. For high-voltage cables the insulation is
ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) and for low-voltage cables it
is polyvinyl chloride (PVC). EPR has good electrical properties
and is resistant to heat and chemicals; it is suitable for a
conductor temperature up to 85oC. PVC is a thermoplastic
material, therefore care must be taken not to overheat it; it is
suitable for conductor temperatures up to 70°C. PVC insulated
cables should not be laid when the temperature is less than
0oC because it becomes brittle and is liable to crack. Have
good properties for voltage less 3kv.
High-voltage cables have an earthed metallic screen over the

insulation of each core. This screen consists of a lapped
copper tape or metallic foil, and its purpose is to control the
electric field within the insulation and thus the voltage gradient
across it, as shown in Figure . Also, it avoids any interaction of
the electric stresses due to the voltages on different phase
conductors within the same cable.
-Core insulation may be colored red, yellow, blue and black to
identify the three phases and neutral. Twin cores are colored
red and black. Single-core cables are identified by colored
PVC tape applied to the outer sheath.
.3.2.1 Types of insulations

1. Poly vinyl chloride (PVC)
This type of insulating material is a synthetic compound. It is
obtained from the polymerization of acetylene and is in the form of
white powder.
Page 4
Chapter 5 Cables
Advantages of PVC insulation
 -Tough
 -Fire proof
 -Chemically UN active
 -doesn’t deteriorate with age
 -Used at 50c but not used at higher than 70c.
 -Has high dielectric strength
2. Cross linked Poly Ethylene ( XLPE )
It used at high temperature and used with armored cable.

It's rated up to 150oc.
3. Vulcanized India rubber (V/R OR VIR)
Corrosive action of copper

4. Butyl Rubber
Used for high temp such as heater

5. Silicon Rubber
Resist of moisture from 60c to 150c and also used in

hospital equipment such as boiling water but damage by
fire
6. Glass Fibber
Used at high temperature and in the internal connection of

electrical furnace and used at temperature up to 200 C
Page 5
Chapter 5 Cables
7. MICC
Single wire barred which carry high current and used in

high temperature, has high mechanical protection and
used exposed and carry the double capacity of the current
compared to any cable with same C.S.A.
8. Flexible card
Has C.S.A up to 4mm^2

9.Co-axial cable
Used of high frequency signal such as RADIO and TV

distribution system
.3.3 sheath :
.3.3.1 the sheath consists of three elements :
1-Bedding
The bedding consists of a layer of PVC extruded over the core
insulation as a base for the armouring.
2-Armouring
To make mechanical protection for cables put single layer
of wire strands laid over the bedding. Steel wire is used for
3-core or 4-core cables, but single-core cables have
aluminium wire armouring. With 3-core or 4-core cables
the vector sum of the currents in the conductors is zero,
and there is nearly no resultant magnetic flux. This is not
for a single-core cable, where eddy-current heating would
occur if a magnetic material were used for the armouring.
Armouring is described as Steel Wire Armoured (SWA) or
Aluminium Wire Armoured (AWA).
Page 6
Chapter 5 Cables
3-Outer Sheath
The outer sheath of extruded PVC protects the armouring
and the cable against moisture and generally provides an
overall protective covering.
High-voltage cables are identified by outer sheaths

coloured red; a black sheath indicates a low-voltage cable
.
.4 Cable classifications:
.4.1 According to type of conductor:
There are many types of conductors used inside the cables like
(CU , AL , Gold , Silver ,etc.. ) and the best type of them is Gold
because it has a perfect conductivity but it is very expensive so it is
not used , and the CU & AL is commonly used because they are
cheap compared to Gold and they have good conductivity .
a) Copper conductors:
i. Copper has low resistivity and thus, higher conductivity than
Aluminum.
ii. Copper conductors are comparatively soft and strong, and are
most suitable for indoor and outdoor wires.
iii. Copper is easier to install.
iv. Copper is corrosion resistant.
b) Aluminum conductors:
i. AL conductor is cheaper than copper conductor.
ii. AL is Lighter and more available than copper conductor.
iii. AL conductors commonly
Page 7
Chapter 5 Cables
4.3.2 According to the shape of the conductor:

Conductor of cable used for ordinary consumers installations are
usually of annealed copper. Hard drawn copper (which has a
slightly higher resistively) is used for bus bars and over headlines,
To give flexibility the conductors of many cables are stranded,
The number of wires making up a stranded conductor is normally
one of following:3, 7, 19, 37, 61, 91, 197. Conductors of the three
strands were included in empirical standard but not in the new
metric standard.
Single solid (UN stranded) wires may be used as conductors for
smaller metric cable (blew 4 mm2 cross sectional area).
Conductor sizes are expressed either by number of strands
followed by diameter of each strand or by the total cross sectional
area.
4.3.3 According to number of cores:

Depending on the number of cores they are laid up with, power
cables come as: single-core, two-or twin-core, three-core, and
four-core.
4.3.4 According to insulation:

Cables are usually classified according to the type of insulation;
used Insulation must have following properties:
1- It should have a high specific resistance.
2- It should have high dielectric strength.
3- It should be tough and flexible. .
4- It should not absorb moisture from air or surroundings
5- It should be capable of withstanding high temperatures
6- It should be non-inflammable.
7- It should not be attacked by acids or alkalizes.
8- It should be capable of withstanding high rupturing voltages.
9- Low power factor.
Page 8
Chapter 5 Cables
4.4 Factors controlling cable size:

1- Types of insulation
2-Current rating & De-rating Factor (temperature &grouping)
3-Voltage Dro
4-Short Circuit Current
5-Cost
4.5 Determination the size of cable:

1- Get the nominal current
( I = P / ( V*PF ))
2- Divide the nominal current of the excess current device
by the appropriate correction factor
3- Determine the size of the cable from the table according
to the type of insulation , the configuration of the cores
inside the cable and the current rating of the cable
Page 9
Chapter 5 Cables
4.6 Calculation of Voltage drop:

1- Calculate (Imax) passing in the cables.
2- Determine the actual length (L).
3- Determine the value of mv/A/m of all cables from the
catalogue.
4- The voltage drop of each cable calculated by this
equation :
V.D = mv * L * I /1000 Volts
Page 10
Chapter 5 Cables
V.D (%) = VD *100 /380

5- This percentage must not exceed 2.5%
Page 11
Chapter 5 Cables
SHORT CIRCUIT
Introduction
 What is short circuit Current?
It’s a value of current higher than the value of normal
current when S.c
Occurred and expressed as the r.m.s value (in kA)
 What are the main causes of short circuit current?
a) Insulation breakdown due to Heat, humidity or a

corrosive
b) Break in a conductor, electrical contact between two
conductors, and an animal cause’s connection between the
conductors.
c) Internal or external (atmospheric) over voltages
 Effect of short circuit currents on power system:

• The fault current could be several thousands of
amperes, which has a heating effect and could result in
melting of conductors or insulation failure.
• Short circuits are associated with arcs which lead to
fires.
• Excessive currents lead to excessive forces
between conductors, bus bars, transformers and coils.
• When a fault occurs, the voltage drops to zero
causing the nearest generating station to go out of
step.
• In oil transformers, bubbles maybe formed which
may lead to arc occurrence and possibility of explosion.
As a result we should make a design for a good
protective system which can ensure a safe operation of
the power system
Page 12
Chapter 5 Cables
 Types of faults in power systems:

The faults in a power system can be classified into:
1. Symmetrical faults.
2. Unsymmetrical fault.
1-Symmetrical faults
Current & voltage value are the same for the 3 phases
Symmetrical faults
- It occurs when the three phases are connected together
and to the ground.
- It’s the most severe fault (has maximum short circuit
current).
- It’s the least probable type of fault (probability of
happening is very small).
- It’s used to determine the breaking (rupturing) capacity
of circuit breakers.
2-Unsymmetrical faults
These faults give rise to unsymmetrical currents (Current differ in
magnitude and phase in the three phases of power system)
 A. Line to Ground fault
Line to Ground fault
Page 13
Chapter 5 Cables
It occurs when a conductor of one phase touches the ground.

It’s the most common type fault (probability of occurrence
equals about 80 % of faults).
It results from flashover on insulator string.
 B. Line to Line fault
Line to Line fault

It occurs when conductor of different phases touch each other’s.
C.Line to Line to Ground fault (Double Line to Ground
fault
Double Line to Ground fault
This is similar to line to line fault but also involves a fault to earth
Page 14
Chapter 5 Cables
What are the reasons for short circuit calculations?
1. To make design to C.B. to withstand the max. Value of S.C.
For single phase
Relation between short circuit current and time duration
Page 15
Chapter 5 Cables
I cu: rated breaking capacity current.

2. To make design to bus bar to withstand the max. Value of
S.C.
3. To make design to riser to withstand the max. Value of S.C.
Why is a short circuit dangerous?
A short circuit always involves the flow of uncontrolled current t

hat isn't restrained by the normal load
Resistance. When a short circuit occurs, resistance of a circuit or
the resistance of a part of a circuit drops in
Heating is value to almost zero ohms. Ohm’s Law demonstrates

the relationship of current, voltage, and resistance
For example, a 240 volt motor with 24 ohms of resistance would
normally draw 10 amps of current.
I=V/Z
I = 240 /24
Page 16
Chapter 5 Cables
I = 10 amps
When a short circuit develops, resistance drops almost to zero. Say

if resistance drops to 24 milliohms,
Current will be 10,000 amps.
I = 240 / 0.024
I = 10,000 amps
This increased flow of current quickly heats the conductors and
equipment, since has a function of
Current squared
Types of Derating Factor:
• Ambient temperature DF.

• Ground temperature DF.
• Grouping Factor.
• Burial depth DF.
• Soil Thermal resistivity.
Page 17
Chapter 5 Cables
Page 18
Chapter 5 Cables
S.C calculation
 first method
IS.C= …………………………………….KA
Where
V: output voltage of transformer
RT: sum of resistance from transformer to point of S.C.
XT: sum of reactance from transformer to point of S.C.
 How TO Calculate RT and XT
Any electrical network contain

1-up stream network (generation)
2-transformer
3-bus burs.
4-cables.
1-up stream network (generation)
voltage 11KV 22KV

MVAS.C 500 MVA 750 MVA
R1=Z cos φ * 10-3 &

X1=Z sin φ*10-3
Where:-
Cos φ=0.15 & sin φ=0.98 &
Z=
Page 19
Chapter 5 Cables
At 11KV Z=4002 /500 =320 µ

At 22KV Z= 4002 /750 =213 µ
2-transformer
R2= *10-3 ……………………………… m

X2= ………………………………… m
Z=
Where
Wc:- copper loses of transformer
S:- apparent power of transformer (KVA)
Vscc:-S.C voltage of transformer in %
Note-
We can get R2 and X2 of trance former from table
Page 20
Chapter 5 Cables
3-bus burs.
R3=
X3=0.15L
Where
=22.5 if copper ……………(.m)
=35 if aluminum………....(.m)
L: length of bus bar.
A: cross section area
R:-Resistance of bus bar
X: reactance of bus bars
Page 21
Chapter 5 Cables
4-cables.
R4=
X4=0.08 L
Where:-
=22.5 if copper ……………(.m)
=35 if aluminum………....(.m)
L: length of cable (m).
A: cross section area (mm2)
R: Resistance of cable
X: reactance of cable
Finally
Is.c=
Is.c=…………………………………………… KA
Notes
 For upstream we can neglect R , X as the value of R
, X is very small compared with cables and
transformers.
 We can neglect R of bus bar as is very small
 We neglect R, X of C.B.
 If cross section area of cable 2(4*300)+150
 Taken calculation A=600 mm2
 We can get cross section area of cable from
catalogues
Page 22
Chapter 5 Cables
Page 23
Chapter 5 Cables
Very important note

According to the upstream S.c current, the length
and C.S.A of cable we can find S.c at the panel.
Page 24
Chapter 5 Cables
 Short
circuit calculation is also calculated to test the cable sizing to
withstand S.C value.
 a (mm2)=9 copper
conductor which withstand temperature until 90c
 a (mm2)=14.2 aluminum
conductor which withstand temperature until 90c
Page 25
Chapter 5 Cables
EXAMPLE
1-upstream network
R1=Z cos φ * 10-3 &
Page 26
Chapter 5 Cables
X1=Z sin φ*10-3

Cos φ=0.15 & sin φ=0.98 &
Z=
At 11KV Z=4002 /500 =320 µ
R1=320*0.15*10-3=0.048 m
X1=320*0.98*10-3=0.3136 m
 2-transformer
From catalogue
X2=9.4 m R2=1.7 m
 3-bus bar
L=6m I==1600A
A=W*D=(108*6.35)685.8mm2
R3= = =0.196 m
X3=0.15L=0.15*6=0.196 m
 1-To calculate S.C at MLVDKB
Is.c= =
=22 KA
 We select the slandered value

of S.C =25 KA.
 All ingoing and outgoing of
C.B must be design at I cu =25 KA
 2-to calculate S.C at DB-C.
 4-cables
L=60m & A=50mm2
Page 27
Chapter 5 Cables
R4= m
X4=0.08*60=4.8 m
S.C level at DB-C
Is.c= =
=7.04KA
Select Is.c=10 KA
So must all ingoing and outgoing of C.B. withstand this
value of S.C
 Second method (MVA method)

It is easy and fast method but not common
 Step no.1
Calculate the value of M for each element

M (generator, motor, transformer) = MVA/XP.u
M (cable) =
 Step no.2
Calculate the equivalent value of M
 For Series
? ? ? (? .? ) =? /? ? ? (? .? )(?? ? ?? e)+? /
? ? ? (? .? )(??? ? ??? ?? ? ? )+? / ? ? ? (? .? )(?? ? ?? )+⋯
 For Parallel
MVA (S.c) = MVA (Trans) + MVA (source) + MVA
Page 28
Chapter 5 Cables
(Cable)…
 Note:-
The equivalent value of group of M connected in parallel
is calculated as if they connected in series and via versa
 step no.3
Is.c=
KV is the volt at which the volt occur
 Example
Calculate Is.c by MVA method at DB panel which
located at 200 m from transformer 5 MVA and X of
transformer 5%, 11/.38 KV and length of cable 0.01
/km?
 answer
M1=M- source =300 MVA
M2=M- transformer= 5/.05= 100 MVA
M3=M-cable= = 72.2 MVA
= +
Meq=36.5MVA (MVA S.c)
Is.c= =55KA
Page 29
Chapter 6 Light current
Light current
-Introduction :-
The light current system is that system which takes low amount
of current.
-Light current system consists of :-
-Telephone system
-Data system
-Sound system
-Nurse call system
-CCTV
Telephone system
Page 2
-Introduction:-
Communication system is consists of not only the telephone

devices but also a network of switched transmission circuit. This
network provides the rapid connection between any telephone
lines.
The telephone network, consisting of a worldwide net of

telephone lines, fibrotic cables, microwave transmission,
cellular networks, communications satellites, and undersea
telephone cables connected by switching centers, allows any
telephone in the world to communicate with any other.
-Types of installation :-
The Telephone installation working on low voltage , so it can
supplied by a battery or by an electric power back .

1-The internal telephone installation
That is which connect between the entire offices in the

industry " factory " and it is independent on the public
telephones.
2-The external telephone installation
That is which connect the industry with others in other places.
Page 3
-Telephone system consists of :-
A-Telephone box.
B-Telephone socket.
C-Telephone wire.
D-Patch panel
E-Patch cord
F-Switch
G-Servers
H-Rack
A) Telephone box:-
Page 4
The boxes is manufactured from steel painted and are placed ins
ide the
wall of building. These boxes must be enough for the connection
of
telephone lines and the other accessories according to the numb
er of
telephone lines and 50% additional lines for the future expansio
n.
B) Telephone socket
It is made of metallic box containing the parts for

connection of lines
C)Telephone wire:-
A pair of copper wires runs from a box at the road to
a box (often called an entrance bridge).
The cable is used for Indoor installation and interconnection of

Telephones
Page 5
D) patch panel: Panel of network ports contained together ,

usually within a
telecommunications closet, which connects incoming and outgoi
ng lines of
a LAN or other communication, electronic or electrical system. I
n a LAN,
the patch panel connects the network's computers to each other
and to the
outside lines that enable the LAN to connect to the Internet or an
other
WAN. Connections are made with patch cords. The patch panel al
lows
circuits to be arranged and rearranged by plugging and unpluggi
ng the patch cords
Page 6
E) patch cord:-
Patch cable or patch cord (sometimes patchable or patch cord) i

s an electrical or optical cable, used to connect ("patch-
in") one electronic or
optical device to another for signal routing. Devices of different t
ypes (i.e.:
a switch connected to a computer, or switch to router in case of
data
systems) are connected with patch cords. Patch cords are usuall
y produced
in many different colors so as to be easily distinguishable, and ar
e
relatively short, perhaps no longer than two meters. However, p
atch cords
typically only refer to those short ones used with patch panels.
Page 7
F) switch:
A network switch or switching hub is a computer networking device that

connects network segment.
G) servers:
Is a distributed application
structure that partitions tasks or workloads
between service providers.
Page 8
h) rack:
It is also known as distribution boxes or cabinets and it is usuall

y metal
box which contains the patch panel, patch cords, switches, route
rs, and the
incoming communication cables. And it may be one of the follow
ing:
1-Wall mounted rack :
It
depends on the number of data or telephone outlets where if the
number
of outlets is large then it requires large rack (freestanding rack),
and if the number of outlets is small then it requires small rack
(wall mounted rack).
Page 9
Data and net work
Introduction:-
In the past the communication system was very difficult. Then

telegraph and telephones were invented and communication
becomes more easier.in the last century the computers
appeared it was a revolution that made the whole world a small
village. Nowadays, network becomes an essential part in any
industry or company
-Data communication system has five component
1-Message: is the information to be communicated
2- Sender: devices send data.
3- Receiver: devices receive message.
4- Transmission medium: path by which message travels from

sender to receiver.
5- Protocol: it is rules of data communications; it represents an

agreement between communicated devices
Page 10
Computer network:-
It is any set of computers or devices connected to each other
with the ability to exchange data. Users and network
administrators often have different views of their networks.
A computer network allows sharing of resources and

information among devices connected to the network.
Example of network
There are two basic types of data networks in

operation today:-
Page 11
∑ The private data network:
The private data network is a local network that is designed

to allow for the transmission of data between the various
departments within a company. All locations of the
company may be included as nodes on the network, and be
able to communicate through a common server.
b) The public network:
The devices on the network are visible to devices outside the

network.
Examples of different networks are:
a) Local area network (LAN):
Which is usually a small network constrained to a small

geographic area.
b) Wide area network (WAN) :
That is usually a larger network that covers a large geographic

area.
c)Wireless LANs and WANs:
(WLAN & WWAN) are the wireless equivalent of the LAN

and WAN
Page 12
Computer network consists of:
1-Routers.
2-Switches.
3-Wires.
Fig ( computer network component )
a). Router:-
A router is a device that interconnects two or more

computer networks,
and selectively interchanges packets of data between them.
Fig (
Router )
b). Switches:
A network switch is a computer networking device that connects

network segments. The function of it is the network switch;
packet switch plays an integral part in most LANs
Page 13
The types of switches are:
8- Port device.
. Fig ( switch )
16-Port device.
24-Port device.
c)-Wires:
The most commonly cables used are Category 5 (or CAT5) it

comes with 4 pairs of wires inside (that is 8 wires total). It is
necessary to mention that there is also a cable out there called
CAT 3 which will NOT work with the faster networks these days.
CAT5 allows communications to be at least 10 times faster than
that of CAT3.
Fig ( network wires )
Important designing considerations:

Page 14
1-The length of the cable from the end point to the rack
shouldn’t exceed 90 meters not to weak the travelling
signals.
2- The cables must be carefully treated during installation

because it consist of pairs copper conductors of small
cross section areas.
3-Using two pairs or more than two pairs for telephone

installations, where one pair only is connected between
the end point (extension) and rack and the other pair is
left as spare conductors in case of breaking the first pair
during installation and pulling the cables.
4-Keeping suitable displacement between the power

conductors and communication conductors not to affect
the travelling signals and cause disturbances especially
on data system.
5-Telephone and data racks must be located in an

independent room for more security
Remarks:
1. Length of wire from switch to computer cannot be greater

than 100m.
2. Don’t run your network wires closely along any voltage wires.
Page 15
Sound System
Introduction
Sound is a mechanical wave that is an oscillation of pressure

transmitted through a solid, liquid, or gas, composed of
frequencies within the range of hearing and of a level
sufficiently strong to be heard, or the sensation stimulated in
organs of hearing by such vibrations.
Sound is a sequence of waves of pressure that propagates

through compressible media such as air or water. (Sound can
propagate through solids as well, but there are additional modes
of propagation). During propagation, waves can be reflected,
refracted, or attenuated by the medium. The perception of
sound in any organism is limited to a certain range of
frequencies. For humans, hearing is normally limited to
frequencies between about 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20 kHz),
although these limits are not definite. The upper limit generally
decreases with age. Other species have a different range of
hearing.
-Component of sound system
1-microphone
2-Amplifier
3-signal processor
4-Speaker (loud speaker)
Page 16
Types of microphones
1- Addressed microphones.
2- Integrated microphones
3- Automatic microphones
Mixer Amplifiers:
Are available in various power ratings, with the most common

being 15, 30, 60, 120, 160, 260 or 360 watts. All mixer
amplifiers have multiple inputs that allow connection of
music, paging and signaling sources (such as door
chimes or fire alarms).
Page 17
Some mixer amplifiers have other features such as

automatic muting of the music when a page is made,
room combining capability and auto level controls.
Volume Controls:
Can be added to a specific speaker or to a group of speakers to

allow adjustment of those speakers without affecting the rest.
Volume controls are rated in wattage and typically come in 10,
50, 100 & 200-watt ratings. A volume control must be rated
higher than the actual wattage draw of all the speakers it is
controlling.
Speakers:
-Types of Speakers:
1-According to mounting:
a)Flush mount speakers.
b)Surface mount speakers.
c)Pendant mount speakers.
2-According to application:
a)Indoor Speaker:-
We have two types of Indoor speakers In-Wall And In-Ceiling where
they are finding their way into thousands of hotels, and it's easy to
Page 18
see why. They're finally good enough for people who want really
enjoyable audio, and discreet enough for folks who want to enjoy
music without having to see their speakers.
1-An in-wall speaker:
works essentially the same way as a regular speaker.
However, instead of being inside a cabinet, it is mounted in a

frame and set into the wall
wall speaker
b)Outdoor speakers:
The great outdoors presents a different listening environment

than your typical room. Inside your home, there are walls to
reinforce low-frequency response and reflect and contain sound.
Outside, of course, it's wide open, and there's usually much more
background noise, wind, traffic, barking dogs, and even crickets.
-The most popular two sound systems
1-Conference system.
2-Paging system .
Page 19
Sound system design
To make good design of sound system we must have good

knowledge about:
1-the audio system chain
2-products of sound system
3-dimensions of place which we design sound system for it
4-good distribution for sound system component
Nurse call system
Introduction
A nurse call button is a button found around a hospital
bed that allows patients in health care settings to alert a
nurse or other health care staff member remotely of their
need for help.
When the button is pressed, a signal alerts staff at the

nurse's station, and usually, a nurse or nurse assistant
responds to such a call.
Some systems also allow the patient to speak directly to

the staffer; others simply beep or buzz at the station,
requiring a staffer to actually visit the patient's room to
determine the patient's needs.
The call button provides the following benefits to patients:

Page 20
∑ Enables a patient who is confined to bed and has no other

way of communicating with staff to alert a nurse of the
need for any type of assistance
∑ Enables a patient who is able to get out of bed, but for

whom this may be hazardous, exhausting, or otherwise
difficult to alert a nurse of the need for any type of
assistance
∑ Provides the patient an increased sense of security
∑ The call button can also be used by a health care

staff member already with the patient to call for
another when such assistance is needed, or by
visitors to call for help on behalf of the patient.
Laws and regulations
Laws in most places require that a call button must be in reach

of the patient at all times. It is essential to patients in
emergencies. There are also laws that vary by location setting
the amount of time in which staff must respond to a call.
It is the responsibility of nursing staff to explain to the patients

that they have a call button and to teach them how to use it.
System types
Page 21
1-Basic
The most basic system has nothing more than a button for the
patient. When the button is pressed, nursing staff is alerted by a
light and/or an audible sound at the nurse's station. This can
only be turned off from the patient's bedside, thereby
compelling staff to respond to the patient.
2-Intercoms
In some facilities, often in hospitals, a more advanced system

is included, in which staff from the nurse's station can
communicate directly with patients via intercom. This has the
advantage in which staff does not need to waste time walking
to the patient's room to determine the reason by speaking the
patient made the call, and they can determine by speaking to
the patient whether the situation is urgent or if it can wait until
later.
With the intercom system, the alert can be turned off from the
nurse's station, allowing staff to avoid entry into the patient's
room if it is determined that the patient's need can be met
without doing so.
3-Cell phone alerts
Newer technology allows call buttons to reach cell phone-like

devices carried around by nursing staff. Staffers can then
answer the calls from wherever they are located within the
facility, thereby improving the speed and efficiency in the
response.
4-Nurse Call Integration

Page 22
Nurse Call Integration is an application that connects Nurse Call

Systems to mobile communication systems and other
communication platforms. This is done through a real-time
communication system often called nurse call integration
middleware. Middleware is powerful technology that provides
the messaging backbone for critical alarm and event
management in thousands of hospitals today. Nurse Call
integration enables the Nurse Call System to send its many
alerts, in a message format, to mobile and other communication
devices. Each of these devices provides varying levels of
messaging capability. Most will display a text message which
typically includes the location or room number and the time the
alarm was initiated, as well as the type of alarm generated. Some
systems allow hospital staff to communicate directly to the
patient, while more sophisticated devices allow the staff
members to acknowledge, decline, escalate or forward the
messages.
Closed Circuit Television System (CCTV)
Introduction:
Security Cameras are one of the best ways to monitor homes or

offices or buildings and Operates on closed loop basis. First it
must decided whether you need an indoor or an outdoor system
and whether or not to use closed-circuit (CCTV) or wireless
cameras. Day or night use will also affect the type of camera,
some have built in infra-red that allow them to 'see' in the dark.
Types of Security Cameras:-
Page 23
1-Outdoor Cameras
Outdoor cameras need to be able to withstand extreme

temperatures and humidity and Usually come in a weather proof
casing that also helps protect against vandalism.
Out door
2-Indoor Cameras
Indoor cameras are usually used inside buildings
indoor
3-Infra-Red Cameras
These cameras have infrared LED installed around the lens of
the camera. This provides light the camera can use to see in the
dark even when no outside light is available. In some low light
installations, a day/night camera will work as well as. (Day
/Night Security Cameras)
4-Mini Security Cameras

Mini cameras are some of the smallest available.The compact
design of these coin cameras make them very easy to hide and
difficult to see.
Page 24
4-Bullet / Finger Cameras

Bullet / Finger cameras are small, compact and can be placed
almost anywhere. These cameras are great for covert
surveillance. The lens is built into the camera and can't be
switched. The main advantage to the bullet camera is their low
cost and their small size .
5-Dome Cameras
Dome cameras are a popular style. Dome cameras present a
streamline and professional look to any company, organization
or building. Typically, they're only used indoors
Dome cameras
Closed-circuit Television (CCTV)
Closed-circuit television (CCTV) is the use of television cameras

surveillance it differs from broadcast television in that all
components are directly linked via cables or other direct means.
CCTV is often used in areas where there is an increased need for
security.
Type of cameras according to use
Fixed camera:
It is used to cover a certain area and it is difficult to break it.
Rotating camera:
It is used in active area and it is easy to be broken
Page 25
Internet Protocol (IP) system:
The Internet Protocol (IP) is a protocol used for communicating

data across a packet-switched internet work using the Internet
Protocol Suite, also referred to as TCP/IP.
Components of (IP) system:

∑ IP cameras:
IP cameras are cameras that use Internet Protocol to transmit

image data and control signals over a Fast Ethernet link. As such,
IP cameras are also commonly referred to as network cameras.
A number of IP cameras are normally deployed together with a
Network Video Recorder (NVR) to form a video surveillance
system.
The main function of (IP)camera :
Monitoring
taking snapshots and videos
Integration with sensors and alarms to enhance the security
Page 26
Network video recorder (NVR):

NVR Used to see the live view of the IP network camera,
record the video and play it at a later time.
c)-Monitors
d)-Ethernet cable & switch:
Connects the IP network camera to the NVR. The length of

Ethernet cable between two directly connected network devices
is up to 100 meters. For longer distances, an Ethernet switch has
to be used.
e)-Video Server (VS):

Used to transform the analog video signal from a CCTV camera into the
digital data and send it over the network to the NVR. With the aid of VS,
the user can still use the existing CCTV cameras and keep the old
investment.
Page 27
Fire alarm system
ÿ Aim of fire alarm system:

An automatic fire detection system is designed to
detect a fire in its incipient stage and to automatically
initiate programed control function.All Fire Alarm
Systems essentially operate on the same principle. If a
detector detects smoke or heat or someone operates a
break glass unit (manual break point), then alarm
sounders operate to warn others in the building that
there may be a fire and to evacuate and save life.
The choice of fire alarm system depends on the

building structure, the purpose and use of the building.
ÿ Main components of fire alarm system:

1- Detectors
2-Manual call points
3-outputs (Sounders, Flashers and etc.)
4-control panel
5-power supply
6-cables
AS shown in the figure
Page 28
Design of fire alarm system
1- Types of detectors:
A-smoke detector
It mainly used to detect the visible and invisible
combustion gases emanating from fires.
It has two types:
1 Optical (photoelectric) smoke detector
the best for detecting the smokes produced in home

fires. It has light sensor that sense the scattered
reversed light due to reach of any smoke then
activate the siren of the danger.It consists of a
photo cell and a light source and are normally
applied where a fire is expected to generate large
amount of visible particles of combustion.The
principle of operation is that smoke entering the
path of a light
source willblock the light and prevent it from
striking a photo cell, thus generating an alarm
Page 29
2/Ionization smoke detector
It's better for detecting the smoke generated by
commercial installation. It capable of detecting the
presence of both visible and invisible particles, but it
more sensitive to invisible particles. It consists of a
source, detection circuit and ionization chamber
containing a small radioactive alpha source. When
particles of combustion enter the ionization chamber,
they will attract themselves to the charged particles
and reduce their flow. The detector circuitry will sense
this flow reduction and generate an alarm
signal.Generally smoke detector used in places where
the smokes are not required.Such as (laboraties
,corridors ,bed rooms……ect )
Page 30
B-Heat detector
It mainly used to detect the up normal rapid rise of

temperature.
Heat detectors are normally used in environments
where a smoke detectormight generate false
alarmsfor example kitchens or shower rooms.
It has two types:
1-Rate of rise heat detector
2-Fixed temperature heat detector

1/Rate of rise heat detector
It's which differentiate the

temperature with respect to time.
It will be activated
when undesired temperature rise
occurs.
2/Fixed temperature heat detector
It will generate an alarm
signal when the temperature
of the internal detection
element reaches its rated

Page 31
Chapter 6
operating temperature.Used in places
that normally has change in
temperature.
C-Beam detector
Smoke detector includes one wired

transmitter/receiver unit. When smoke enters the
area between the unit and the reflector it causes a
reduction in the signal. The alarm is activated when
the smoke level reaches the predetermined
threshold.
Used in wide open areas.
D-Multi detector
This detector combines optical smoke

detector and heat detector. Used in
electrical rooms.
Page 32
E-Duct detector
Used in air conditioning pipes.designed for

prevention of smoke recirculation in areas by the
air handling systems. Fans, blowers, and complete
systems may be shut down in the event of smoke
detection.
ß Spacing of detectors:
All smoke detectors have similar spacing distance,
all heat detectors also have similar spacing
distance.For general areas the spacing between any
point in a protected area and the detector nearest
to that point should not exceed 7.5m for a smoke
detector and 5.3m for a heat detector.To ensure

Page 33
complete coverage, spacing between detectors
should be reduced to 10.0m between smoke
detectors and 7.0m between heat detectors.
For corridors less than 2m wide only the center line
need be considered as it is not necessary to reduce
detector spacing in order to provide complete
coverage. Then for smoke detectors spacing
becomes 7.5m from a wall and 15.0m between
detectors. For heat detectors the spacing becomes
5.3m to a wall and 10.6m between detectors.
Page 34
If the ceiling height more than 3m from the floor,

the spacing between detectors should be reduced so
that it is equal to a percentage of the distance
interfaces in the table below from EC.
Heat detector spacing
Ceiling height Percent (%) of listed

(feet) spacing
0-10 100
10-12 91
12-14 48
14-16 77
16-18 71
18-20 48
20-22 84
22-24 85
24-26 84
26-28 85
2-Manual call points:
Types of manual call point:
• Frangible glass element

• Micro switch operation ensures
reliability
• Insert key for easy testing
• Wide variety of models and
accessories
• Wireless version available
Page 35
Part Number Description

MCPR: Red FIRE ALARM break glass
MCPWE: White EMERGENCY alarm break glass
MCPW: White DOOR RELEASE break glass
MCPG: Green DOOR RELEASE break glass
MCPWDP: MCPW fitted with double pole switch
MCPFLAP: Clear flap for all MCP
MCPWP: Weatherproof FIRE ALARM break glass
MCPREXP: Explosion proof MCPR
MCPK: Break glass key holder
MCPGR: 5 pack replacement glass
Wireless FIRE ALARM break glass

5817/MCPR:
SSL Listed
The break glass call point is a device to enable

personnel to raise the alarm in the event of a fire,
by simply breaking a frangible element and thus
activating the alarm system.
ÿ The following notes give guidance for the correct siting

and positioning of break glass call point:
1. Break glass call points should be located on exit

routes and in particular on the floor landings of
staircases and at all exits to open air
Page 36
2. Break glass call points should be located so that

no person need travel more than 30m from any
position within the premises in order to give an
alarm.
3. Generally, call points should be fixed at a height
of 1.4m above the floor, at easily accessible, well-
illuminated and conspicuous positions free from
obstruction.
4. The method of operation of all call points in an
installation should be identical unless there is a
special reason for differentiation.
5. Manual and automatic devices may be installed on
the same system although it may be advisable to
install the manual call point on separate zone for
speed of identification.
Page 37
ß Audible Devices
1-Bells
Only used if they are only forfire, or

have a distinctive sound from other
bell signaling devices. Oftenused as
an external gong to indicatethe flow of
water in the sprinklersystem.
2-Horns
Loud and distinctive output. Often used in

high-noise environments, such as
manufacturing plants.
3-Sounders
Electronic or mechanical audible devices, which are

capable of producing a variety of tones. Often, the
tone is selectable during installation of the device.
Page 38
4-Sirens
Extremely loud devicesgenerally limited

in use to outdooror heavy industrial
areas.
5-Speakers
Audible devices used inconjunction with voice

evacuationmessages. Life-Safety speakersarenot
generally associated with Muzaksystems.
4-control panel
Main Controller
The brains of the system, It Provides power to

thesystem, monitors inputs
andcontrols outputs throughvarious circuits. It
performs other functions
Page 39
Types of fire alarm control panel
A/conventional system:
Simplest type of control unit.Limited special

functions and capabilities.In a
Conventional Fire Alarm System, a number of call
points and detectors are wired to the Fire Alarm
Control Panel in Zones. A Zone is a circuit and
typically one would wire a circuit per floor or fire
compartment. The Fire Alarm Control Panel has a
number of Zone Lamps. A group of initiating devices
is used to protect a certain area, if any of those
devices senses a fire, an alarm is sent without
detection of the zone of fire or which device sends
an alarm.
The Control Panel is wired to a minimum of two

sounder circuits which could contain bells, electronic
Page 40
sounders or other audible devices. Each circuit has

an end of line device which is used for monitoring
purposes.
B/Addressable system:
It is similar to a Conventional System except that the

Control Panel can determine exactly which detector or call
point has initiated the alarm. The detection circuit is
wired as a loop and up to 022 devices may be connected to
each loop.
The address in each detector is set by switches and the
Control Panel is programmed to display the information
required when that particular detector is operated, so it
help to determine quickly the correct location of fire.Used
in large buildings or systems require more complications.

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There are other types of this system but more intelligent.
1- Wireless Fire Alarm System
Wireless fire alarm systems are an effective
alternative to traditional wired fire alarm systems
for all applications. It is a simple concept, which
provides many unique benefits and is a full analogue
addressable fire detection system without the need
for cable.
2- Analogue Addressable Fire Alarm Systems
It is known as Intelligent Fire Alarm Systems. With
a true Intelligent Analogue System each detector
incorporates its own computer which evaluates the
environment around it, and communicates to the
Control Panel whether there is a fire, fault or the
detector head needs cleaning.
5- Power supply:
1- Normal supply
The normal supply for the system should bederived

from the public supply system
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2- Standby supplies
Secondary batteries; the most commonly used type
of standby supply is a secondary battery with an
automatic charger.For small fire alarm systems;
mains and battery are normally built into the fire
alarm control panel. On the medium and larger sized
Fire Alarm systems, the standby batteries will
often not fit within the control panel.
6- Cables:
Must be copper wire and fit it'spurpose.Must
provide protection and inserted inside tubes if
exposed to mechanical factors or shocks.Wire cross
section areas of 1 mm2 and must be chosen so that
it does not cause lowvoltage and effect on the
efficiency of devices.The outer shell must
beresistant to moisture and non-
flammable.Electrical connection must be installed for
the detection and alarm system at a distance not
less than 50mm from any special electrical
connections lighting parallel to the track.

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Cable must withstand temperature of 1050 deg. C.
Fire resistance cables usually used have a 0cores of

1.5 mm2.
For distances less than 1000 M the 1.5 mm2 is
used for higher distance 2
*2.5 mm2 is used
Other components used in this system:

ÿ
Repeaters
The repeater panels are connected to the

main panel, but the user can’t reset any Alarms.
The main control is from the main panel any
message can appear in any repeater panel also the
user of the main panels can send a message to the
other repeater
ÿ Monitor Module
Addressable input modules to allow the

connection of either one or two supervised
hard contact input zones to the
addressable loop. Each module incorporates a
short circuit isolator to provide additional loop
protection. One module also incorporates an output
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relay in addition to the input facility. For mounting,

modules require either a surface box or a din rail
ÿ Control Module
Addressable modules to provide either

supervised or clean contact relay outputs
from the analog loop. The selection of output
type is via an onboard dip switch. This module
incorporates a short circuit isolator to provide
additional loop protection
ÿ Fault Insulator Module

Isolator module to disconnect the affected
area of a loop when a short circuit occurs.
These should installed to at least meet the
minimum requirements of AS1670.1
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The interface between the other systems
We should make interface with the following systems

1- Elevator
To make the elevators in case of fire go to the ground
floor automatically
2- Audio System
To send a warning message in case of fire to make
people pay attention and be ready to escape.
3- CCTV
To make the cameras make zoom in the area where
the detector made alarm to check is there a fire or a
false alarm.
4- Fire Pump
To operate the fire pump in case of fire to pump
water to fight the fire.
5- Main Distribution board

To turn off the electric power from the building.
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ÿ IN our poject we used these

types of detctors:
1-optical smoke detectors:
for bublic places , stores and coridores
2-Rate of rise heat detectors:
for kitchens
3-Multi sensor detectors:
for electicity rooms , computer rooms and
surgery rooms
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Elevators
An elevator is a vertical transport equipment that

efficiently moves people or goods between floors
(levels,decks) of a building, vessel or other structure.
Elevators are generally powered by electric motors that
either drive traction cables or counterweight systems
like a hoist, or pump hydraulic fluid to raise a cylindrical
.piston like a jack
How elevators work:

Most elevators operate automatically. Only a few are
run by attendants who ride in the cars. A person brings
an elevator to a certain floor by pushing a button in the
wall.
The elevator doors open automatically after the car
arrives at the floor, and they close after the passenger
has entered the elevator. The passenger pushes a
button to indicate the floor where he or she wants the
elevator to stop.
Most elevators in buildings of 10 or more floors are
powered by electric traction systems and are lifted by
steel cables. There are two types of electric traction
elevators, gearless traction and geared traction.
Types of elevators:
I:passenger lifts
A passenger elevator is designed to move people between a
building's floors.
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Passenger elevators capacity is related to the available floor

space. Generally passenger elevators are available in
capacities from 1,000 to 6,000 pounds (450–2,700 kg) in 500
lb (230 kg) increments.
Generally passenger elevators in buildings eight floors or less
are hydraulic or electric, which can reach speeds up to 200
ft/min (1.0 m/s) hydraulic and up to 500 ft/min electric. In
buildings up to ten floors, electric and gearless elevators are
likely to have speeds up to 500 ft/min (2.5 m/s), and above ten
floors speeds begin at 500 ft/min (2.5 m/s) up to 2000 ft/min
(10 m/s).
The elevator that provides access to the station from a hilltop

neighborhood doubles as city
transportation: the station's ticket
barriers are set up in such a way that
passengers can pay to reach the
elevator from the entrance in the lower
city, or vice versa. See also the
Elevators for urban transport section.
ii:Goods lift
designed to transport goods and
may be transport personals
iii:Services lift
designed to transport producers and cant transport
personals
Benefits:
 creates more usable space
 use less energy (70-80% less than hydraulic
elevators)
 uses no oil
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 all components are above ground similar to roped

hydraulic type elevators (this takes away the
environmental concern that was created by the
hydraulic cylinder on direct hydraulic type
elevators being stored underground)
 slightly lower cost than other elevators
 can operate at faster speeds than hydraulics but not

normal traction units
Elevators power calculations:
First we get the height ,width and the depth of the

cabinet of elevators. Then ,we use this details in getting
the(kilograms) of each cabinet
from the (table 1 )if residential buildings if not (table 2 )
.is for non buildings
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* From this table we get the speed of the motor of elevators.
Then, form fig1 we get the power of the motor of elevators in
kilowatts.
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In our project :
The total load of elevators is 88 KVA
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Air Condition
1. Introduction:
Air conditioning improves the efficiency of workers.
Employees stay more alert and become less tired in air-
conditioned office and factories. They make fewer mistakes and
have fewer accidents. Air conditioning also protects workers
against high temperatures and harmful dust, smoke, and
fumes. In stores and shops, air-conditioning keeps merchandise
clean, it also increases sales, because people like to shop in
comfort.
Air conditioning is defined as a process, which heat, cools,
cleans and circulates air and controls its moisture content.
The conditioner consists of three main units:
1. Indoor unit (fan coil unit), for closed areas such that
(shops, hotel rooms, offices, gym. ...Etc.).
2. Indoor unit (air handling unit), for open areas such as
(reception, halls, coffe shops, restaurants…etc.).
3. Outdoor unit (chiller unit).
2. Function of air condition:

There are three main kinds of air-conditioning system. Summer
air conditioning cleans, cools, and removes moisture from air.
Winter air conditioning cleans, heats, and adds moisture to air.
Year-round air conditioning cleans and controls the
temperature and moisture contact of air throughout the year.
All air-conditioning systems have some way of blowing, or
circulating , the conditioned air through rooms.
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2.1. Cleaning the air:
 It can be done in several ways:
1. Some air conditioners force the air through filters.

2. Air can also be cleaned by bloweing it through sprays of
water called air washers, a central air conditioner that
uses this method has a raw of nozzles that passes fine water
into the air. The water rines out the dirt.
 Central air conditioners may also be equipped with
electrostatic filters, or electrostatic precipitators. These
devices put a positive electric charge on the particales of dirt
in the air, negatively charged collector plates atttract the
positive particles out of the air.
Some central air conditioners force the air through porous
pieces of carbon, which absorb adors.
 Drug firms and hospitals require extermely pure air. They
usually have air conditioners equipped with special filters.
These filters remove all dirt particles down to a size of
1/85,000 inch (0.003 millimater). Air conditioners may also
have special lamps that kill germs in the air with ultravioler
rays.
2.2. Controlling the temperature:

After an air conitioner cleans the air, it must cool it in summer
and heat in in winter.
To cool the air, some air conditioners blow it through sprays of

cold water. The same sprays that clean the air may also cool it.
Most air conditioners blow the air over coils (large groups of
tubes) that are filled with cold water or a chemical refrigerant.
Refrigeration machines may be used to chill the water or

refrigerant that flows through these coils. Other air
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conditioners may use cold water that comes from a river, or a

city’s water system.
Most air conditioners used large buildings heat air by blowing it

over coils filled with hot water or steam. A boiler heated by a
gas or oil burner produces the hot water or steam.
2.3. Controlling the moisture:
The evaporation of moisture from our skin helps cool our

bodies. But in summer, air often becomes humid .
The amount of moisture in air compared with the amount it can
hold is called the relative humidity.
Air conditioners can remove moisture from air in several ways.
 Cold air cannot hold as much moisture as warm air can.
When air conditioners cool air by passing it over cooling
coils, the water or refrigerant in the coils can be made cold
enough to cause the moisture in the air to condense ( turns
to water).
 Air condition also can remove moisture from air by passing it

through sprays of cold water. These sprays cool the air
enough to condense some of the moisture.
2.4. Circulating the air:
Fans blow conditioned air through the room. The air may be
blown in direct or through ducts (pipes) that lead to various
parts of a bulding .
Eventually, an air conditioner replaces all the air in a room or

building with ventilation air drawn in from outside. An air
conditioner can circulate air through a room at a rate of about
15 to 40 cubic feet (0.4 to 1.1 cubic meters) per minute. The
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amount of air circulated through a room depends on the size

and speed of the fan used in the air conditioner.
3. How air condition works:
3.1. Fan coil unit:
It is a small indoor cooling unit and is usually placed under the

fall ceiling. It circulates the cold air taken from the chiller .The
numbers of fan coil unit for a room depends on the area of the
room.
3.2. Water cooled chillers:
The chiller is a device for cooling the water system for the
whole system of air conditioning.
Chiller may be installed in parallel. Units should be of equal size
to ensure balanced fluid flows.
And here we have a scheme which can show us
How the chiller operates?
# FIG. (1):
Shows us the system of air conditioning using chiller and air
handling unit. And the connection between them.
# FIG. (2):
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Is a zoom in -on the chiller part- from the whole system, to

explain on it the process of the chiller?
 An air condition cools your home with a cold indoor coil

called the evaporator. The condenser, a hot outdoor coil,
releases the collected heat outside.
 The evaporator and consenser coils are serpentine tubing

surrounded by aluminum fins. This tubing is usually made
of copper. A pump, called the compressor, moves a heat
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transfer fluid (or refrigerant) between the evaporator and

the condenser.
 The pump forces the refrigerant through the circuit of

tubing and fins in the coils. The liquid refrigerant
evaporates in the indoor evaporator coil, pulling heat out
of indoor air and here by cooling the home. The hot
refrigerant gas is pumped outdoors into the condenser
where it reverts back to a liquid giving up its heat to the air
flowing over the condenser’s metal tubing and fins.
4. Types of air condition:
4.1. Room air condition:
 It cools rooms rather than entire home.

 Less expensive to operate than central units, even though
their efficieny is generally lower than that of central air
conditioners.
4.2. Central air condition:
Central air conditioners circulate cool air through a system of

supply and return ducts. Supply ducts and registers (i.e.,
openings in the walls, floors, or celings covered by grills) carry
cooled air from the air conditioner to the home. This colled air
becomes warmer as it circulates through the home; then it
flows back to the central air conditioner through return ducts
and registers. A central air conditioner is either a split-system
unit ir a packaged unit.
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4.2.1 Split system air condition:
An outdoor metal cabinet contains the condenser and

compressor, and an indoor cabinet contains the
evaporator. In many split-system air conditioners, this
indoor cabinet also contains a furnace or the indoor part
of a heat pump. The air conditioners evaporator coil is
installed in the cabinet or main supply duct of this furnace
or heat pump. If your home already has a furnace but no
air conditioner, a split-system is the most economical
central air conditioner to install.
4.2.2 packaged central air conditioner:
the evaporator, condenser, and compressor are all

located in one cabinet, which usually is placed on a roof
or on a concrete slab next to the house’s foundation. This
type of air conditioner also is used in small commercials
buildings. Air supply and return ducts come from indoors
through he home’s exterior wall or roof to connect with
the packaged air conditioner, which is usually located
outdoors.
Packged air conditioners often include electric heating
coils or a natural has furnace. This combination of air
conditioner and central heater eliminates the need for a
separate furnace indoors.
4.3. Combination room and central air conditioners:

 Used in large buildings They combine the advantages of
both types:
1. One kind of combination system has a central conditioner

to condition outside air. It circulates the conditioned air to a
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unit in each room.The room unit contrls the temperature

and moistture-content of the air.
2. Another type another type of combination system

furnishes cold water or a refrigrant from a central
refrigeration machines to a conditioner in every room. Each
room conditioner has a fan, filter, and cooling coils to
condition and circulate the air.
3.A third variety of combination system conditions amixture

of outside and inside air. This system supplies each room
with cool, conditioned air through one duct, and warmed,
conditioned air through another duct. A mixing-box unit in
eac room mixes the two air streams to provide the right
temperature. Combination systems have the advantage of
supplying conditioned air or a cooling fluid from a central
source. This cuts the cost of maintaining them. At the same
time, the individual room units allow the people in each
room to adjust the temperature to suit their wishes.
5. Cooling capacity and unit efficiency:
When selecting a central air conditioner the cooling capacity

and efficiency of the system are important points to consider.
Cooling capacity of air conditioners is measured in terms of
British thermal units per hour (Btu) and equates to the amount
of heat that can be removed from a building in one hour. When
purchasing a central cooling system, we must make sure that it
is correctly sized for the place. A system that is too small may
not produce enough cooled air to make the place comfortable.
An over-sized unit will perform inefficiently, often causing a
cool and clammy feeling.
In addition to adequate cooling capacity, our unit should be
efficient.
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Although the initial cost will probably be higher, a more

efficient unit uses less energy and thus costs less to operate
over the life of the unit than a less efficient one.
For example:
A new central air conditioner's annual operating costs may be
half of what an older model costs to run.
To evaluate unit efficiency, we must know a few terms. The
energy efficiency for an air conditioner and the cooling side of a
heat pump are shown by the Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio
(SEER). The SEER indicates how much cooling (expressed in Btu)
we get for each watt of electricity we use on a seasonal basis.
The higher the SEER of a unit, the more efficient it is. Using the
SEER, you may compare the efficiency of different units. For
example, if unit A's SEER is 10 and unit B's SEER is 5, unit A is
twice as efficient as unit B and will cost approximately half as
much to operate. Because a heat pumps warms as well as cools
the place.
6. Improving the efficiency of the chiller:
The chiller plant represents a significant percentage of the total

building electrical consumption and maximizing the efficiency
of the chiller plant is a crucial part of managing the facility's
mechanical system. Most building operators are unable to
achieve maximum system efficiency because they do not have
the data necessary to evaluate the success of measures
implemented to improve efficiency.
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Many factors contribute to decreased chiller efficiency, the

four most common ones include:
Poor operating practices ignored or deferred maintenance,
ignored cooling tower maintenance and over sizing chillers.
While each of these factors poses a real and significant threat
to chiller efficiency, all can be easily controlled or eliminated by
maintenance managers.
6.1 Poor operating practices:

Poor operating practices not only can decrease chiller
efficiency, but also chiller life. Most such practices are the
result of one of two situations: trying to get a chiller to do
something that it was not designed to do or not
understanding the consequences of a particular action.
For example:
One common practice when trying to provide more cooling
water to a facility is to increase the rate of chilled water flow
through the chiller. The belief is that with a higher flow rate,
more cooling water will be available.
In reality, however, increasing the flow rate through a chiller

beyond the manufacturer’s recommendation actually reduces
the operating efficiency of the chiller. Equally important, flow
Rates higher than those recommended increase the rate of

erosion in the chiller’s tubes, leading to early tube failure.
The problem with poor operating practices is that their

impact on chiller operation generally goes unnoticed.
Chillers continue to operate, meeting various building loads

under a range of conditions. Soon, however, poor operating
practices become accepted as standard operating procedure,
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and one day, a problem in the chiller’s operation might

become obvious, or the chiller might not be able to satisfy a
cooling load that previously had never been a problem. When
that occurs, technicians often blame the weather or the
chiller itself; not the way the chiller is being operated and
maintained.
6.2 Ignored maintenance:

Although good maintenance practices are important to the
efficient operation of all building equipment, there are few
areas where this is more evident than in the maintenance of
building chillers. For example, consider the impact that good
maintenance can have on chiller efficiency.
Most new, high-efficiency centrifugal chillers carry a full-load

efficiency rating of approximately 0.50 kW per ton. If that
chiller is well maintained, in five years it can be expected to
have a full-load efficiency of 0.55-0.60 kW per ton.
If maintenance has been ignored for that same chiller, it

would not be surprising to find that the full-load efficiency
had decreased to 0.90 to 1.0 kW per ton. On an annual basis,
this means that a poorly maintained chiller will use 20-25
percent more energy annually to produce the same cooling
Recording chiller operating parameters regularly can provide
maintenance.
Most chiller problems develop slowly over time. By tracking

chiller data and reviewing it regularly, operators can identify
trends in chiller performance, helping maintenance personnel
pinpoint the underlying cause.
Another important element in chiller maintenance programs

is the performance of regularly scheduled inspections. These
inspections performed daily, weekly, monthly or annually help
to identify the health and operating efficiency of the chiller.
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Most can be performed without having to take the chiller out

of service. Some, such as the annual inspection of the chiller’s
tubes, require that the chiller be out of service for several
days.
6.3 Ignoring cooling towers:
Cooling towers are critical components in the efficient

operation of chiller systems. In most cases, the operation of
the cooling tower determines the operating efficiency of the
chiller, to a great extent. Towers that are in good condition,
operated properly and well maintained allow chillers to
operate at peak efficiency.
Even the slightest decrease in performance in cooling tower

operation will have a major impact on chiller efficiency. For
example, for each degree Fahrenheit increase in condenser
water supply coming from the tower, chiller efficiency will
decrease by an average of 2 percent.
In spite of the important role that cooling towers play in

chiller operation, they are often overlooked. Typically located
on a building’s roof, cooling towers all too often suffer from
being out of sight and out of mind. Performing proper
maintenance is particularly important, given the environment
in which cooling towers must operate.
Cooling towers are exposed to the elements and are good

collectors of dirt, leaves and other debris that can clog air and
water passages. Also, the warm, moist environment in which
they operate promotes biological growth that can clog spray
nozzles and reduce their heat-transfer efficiencies. Built up of
solids in the cooling tower water also can clog spray nozzles
and water Water-treatment programs must be implemented
in order to keep the concentration of suspended solids in the
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tower water system within acceptable limits. Also, tower-fan

and water-level controls must be operating properly.
6.4 Over sizing:

Properly sizing a chiller also is important to its efficient
operation because chiller efficiency drops off rapidly with
decreasing load. Chances are when the facility was new, the
chiller was slightly oversized in order to allow some growth in
cooling loads within the facility without having to replace the
chiller.
The loads that a chiller faces after even just a few years can
be vastly different from those for which it was designed to
meet.
This situation is particularly true if a facility has been modified

to improve its energy efficiency.
Over sizing is most easily corrected at the time when the

chiller is replaced. By studying the operation and performance
of the existing chiller and the cooling loads it is actually
serving, managers can more closely size a new chiller to meet
these needs. If a facility is served by multiple chillers,
replacements can be sized so that different chillers of
different capacities operate as needed to meet cooling loads,
allowing operators to stage operation as needed.
Between chiller replacements, managers can help correct for

over sizing by installing variable-frequency drives on existing
chillers. These drives slow the operation of the chiller as
cooling loads decrease, allowing chillers to operate at near
full-load capacity over a range of loads.
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7. Safety precautions:
 Inherent compressor thermal protection with

automatic reset de energizes control circuit if
extreme motor temperature should occur due to
excessive suction gas temperature or motor
overloading.
 Low pressure switch automatically shuts off

compressor if refrigerant pressure drops below
setting for loss of charge protection.
 Fusible plugs located in refrigerant system

protection against excessive pressures or
temperature in case of fire or other abnormal high
temperature condition. Inherent outdoor fan motor
protection with automatic reset power circuit opens
if motor temperature becomes excessive.
 Inherent fan motor circuit breakers. These manually

reset circuit breakers protect against fan motor over
load.
 Limit switches, heat limiters and over current circuit

breakers provides thermal and over current
protection for electric resistance heaters.
 Compressors circuits breakers are current sensitive

and temperature compensated off compressor of
current draw so excessive must be manually reset.
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8. Chiller calculations In Our Project:

1 (ton) = 1.6 KW
1 (ton) = 20 m2
The Area of Project= 18000 m2

TON Cooling = 900
Rated (KW) = 1440KW
Taking Power Factor = 0.8
Rated (MVA) = 1.8 MVA
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Chapter 8 Power System Protection
INTRODUCTION:
Objective of Power System Protection
The objective of power system protection is to isolate a faulty

section of electrical power system
from rest of the live system so that the rest portion can function
satisfactorily without any severer damage due to fault current.
Actually circuit breaker isolates the faulty system from rest of
the healthy system and this circuit breakers automatically open
during fault condition due to its trip signal comes from
protection relay. The main philosophy about protection is that
no protection of power system can prevent the flow of fault
current through the system, it only can prevent the continuation
of flowing of fault current by quickly disconnect the short
circuit path from the system. For satisfying this quick
disconnection the protection relays should have following
Protection System in Power System
Let’s have a discussion on basic concept of protection system in

power system and coordination of protection relays.
power system protection relays
In the picture the basic connection of protection relay has been
shown. It is quite simple. The secondary of current transformer
is connected to the current coil of relay. And secondary of
voltage transformer is connected to the voltage coil of the relay.
Whenever any fault occurs in the feeder circuit, proportionate
secondary current of the CT will flow through the current coil
of the relay due to which mmf of that coil is increased. This
increased mmf is sufficient to mechanically close the normally
open contact of the relay. This relay contact actually closes and
completes the DC trip coil circuit and hence the trip coil is
energized. The mmf of the trip coil initiates the mechanical
movement of the tripping mechanism of the circuit breaker and
ultimately the circuit breaker is tripped to isolate the fault.
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Functional Requirements of Protection Relay
Reliability
The most important requisite of protective relay is reliability.

They remain inoperative for a long time before a fault occurs;
but if a fault occurs, the relays must respond instantly and
correctly.
Selectivity
The relay must be operated in only those conditions for which

relays are commissioned in the electrical power system. There
may be some typical condition during fault for which some
relays should not be operated or operated after some definite
time delay hence protection relay must be sufficiently capable to
select appropriate condition for which it would be operated.
Sensitivity
The relaying equipment must be sufficiently sensitive so that it
can be operated reliably when level of fault condition just
crosses the predefined limit.
Speed
The protective relays must operate at the required speed. There

must be a correct coordination provided in various power
system protection relays in such a way that for fault at one
portion of the system should not disturb other healthy portion.
Fault current may flow through a part of healthy portion since
they are electrically connected but relays associated with that
healthy portion should not be operated faster than the relays of
faulty portion otherwise undesired interruption of healthy
system may occur. Again if relay associated with faulty portion
is not operated in proper time due to any defect in it or other
reason, then only the next relay associated with the healthy
portion of the system must be operated to isolate the fault.
Hence it should neither be too slow which may result in damage
to the equipment nor should it be too fast which may result in
undesired operation.
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• Protection systems usually comprise five

components:
• Current and voltage transformers to step down the
high voltages and currents of the electrical power
system to convenient levels for the relays to deal
with.
• Protective relays to sense the fault and initiate a trip,
or disconnection, order.
• Circuit breakers to open/close the system based on
relay and auto reclose commands.
• fuses are capable of both sensing and disconnecting
faults.tripping of equipment.
There are three parts of protective devices

Instrument transformer: current or potential CT or VT
Relay
Circuit breaker
Advantages of protected devices with these three basic
[components include safety, economy, and accuracy.
Safety: Instrument transformers create electrical isolation from
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the power system, and thus establishing a safer environment for

.personnel working with the relays
Economy: Relays are able to be simpler, smaller, and cheaper
.given lower-level relay inputs
Accuracy: Power system voltages and currents are accurately
reproduced by instrument transformers over large operating
.ranges
Coordination
Protective device coordination is the process of determining the
"best fit" timing of current interruption when abnormal electrical
conditions occur. The goal is to minimize an outage to the
greatest extent possible. Historically, protective device
coordination was done on translucent log–log paper. Modern
methods normally include detailed computer based analysis and
.reporting
Protection coordination is also handled through dividing the

power system into protective zones. If a fault were to occur in a
given zone, necessary actions will be executed to isolate that
zone from the entire system. Zone definitions account for
generators, buses, transformers, transmission and distribution
lines, and motors. Additionally, zones possess the following
features: zones overlap, overlap regions denote circuit breakers,
and all circuit breakers in a given zone with a fault will open in
order to isolate the fault. Overlapped regions are created by two
sets of instrument transformers and relays for each circuit
breaker. They are designed for redundancy to eliminate
unprotected areas; however, overlapped regions are devised to
remain as small as possible such that when a fault occurs in an
overlap region and the two zones which encompass the fault are
isolated, the sector of the power system which is lost from
[service is still small despite two zones being isolated
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What is Circuit Breaker?

Definition of circuit breaker : - Electrical circuit breaker is a
switching device which can be operated manually as well as
automatically for controlling and protection of electrical power
system respectively. As the modern power system deals with
huge currents, the spacial attention should be given during
designing of circuit breaker to safe interruption of arc produced
during the operation of circuit breaker. This was the basic
definition of circuit breaker.
Introduction to Circuit Breaker:

The modern power system deals with huge power network and
huge numbers of associated electrical equipment. During short
circuit fault or any other types of electrical fault these equipment
as well as the power network suffer a high stress of fault current
in them which may damage the equipment and networks
permanently. For saving these equipment and the power
networks the fault current should be cleared from the system as
quickly as possible. Again after the fault is cleared, the system
must come to its normal working condition as soon as possible
for supplying reliable quality power to the receiving ends. In
addition to that for proper controlling of power system, different
switching operations are required to be performe
So for timely disconnecting and reconnecting different parts of
power system network for protection and control, there must be
some special type of switching devices which can be operated
safely under huge current carrying condition. During
interruption of huge current, there would be large arcing in
between switching contacts, so care should be taken to quench
these arcs in circuit breaker in safe manner. The circuit breaker
is the special device which does all the required switching
operations during current carrying condition. This was the
basic introduction to circuit breaker.
Page 6
Working Principle of Circuit Breaker:
The circuit breaker mainly consists of fixed contacts and

moving contacts. In normal "on" condition of circuit breaker,
these two contacts are physically connected to each other due to
applied mechanical pressure on the moving contacts. There is an
arrangement stored potential energy in the operating mechanism
of circuit breaker which is realized if switching signal given to
the breaker. The potential energy can be stored in the circuit
breaker by different ways like by deforming metal spring, by
compressed air, or by hydrolic pressure. But whatever the
source of potential energy, it must be released during operation.
Release of potential energy makes sliding of the moving contact
at extremely fast manner. All circuit breaker have operating
coils (tripping coils and close coil), whenever these coils are
energized by switching pulse, the plunger inside them
displaced. This operating coil plunger is typically attached to the
operating mechanism of circuit breaker, as a result the
mechanically stored potential energy in the breaker mechanism
is released in forms of kinetic energy, which makes the moving
contact to move as these moving contacts mechanically attached
through a gear lever arrangement with the operating mechanism.
After a cycle of operation of circuit breaker the total stored
energy is released and hence the potential energy again stored in
the operating mechanism of circuit breaker by means of spring
charging motor or air compressor or by any other means. Till
now we have discussed about mechanical working principle of
circuit breaker. But there are electrical characteristics of a circuit
breaker which also should be consider in this discussion of
operation of circuit breaker .
Types of Circuit Breaker:
According different criteria there are different types of circuit

breaker.
According to their arc quenching media the circuit breaker can
be divided as-
Page 7
Oil circuit breaker.

Air circuit breaker.
SF6 circuit breaker.
Vacuum circuit breaker.
According to their services the circuit breaker can be divided as-
Outdoor circuit breaker
Indoor breaker.
According to the voltage level of installation types of circuit
breaker are referred as-
High voltage circuit breaker.
Medium voltage circuit breaker.
Low voltage circuit breaker
Some types of circuit breaker
Some types of circuit breaker ∑
a) MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)
These are used extensively in low voltage domestic,
commercial and industrial applications. They replaced
Conventional fuses and combine the features of a good
HRC fuse and a good switch .
For normal operation it's used as switch but during
overloads or faults, it automatically trips off .
The tripping mechanism is actuated by magnetic and
thermal sensing devices provided within the MCB.
So MCB is used at final distribution boards, for
cables protection.
Page 8
Typical ratings of MCB
-CurrentRatings :( 6,10,15,16,20,25,32, 40, 50, 63) Amp

-Voltage Rating: 240V/415V AC
-breaking Capacity “AC”: (4:25) kA at 415V
b) MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)
It is a thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Used for

MDB,SMDB,cables, generators and motors protection.
It may be motorized or not.
It may be Plugged-in or fixed.
It has Ampere adjustment (AMP Frame & AMP Trip). -
Maintenance is available for some parts.
-
c) Air circuit breaker:
Page 9
Often used for main power distribution in large industrial plant,

where the breakers are arranged in draw-out enclosures for
maintenance.
It may be motorized or not. -
It may be withdrawal or fixed.
It has Ampere adjustment (AMP Frame & AMP Trip).
Maintenance is available.
Trip characteristics are often fully adjustable including
configurable trip thresholds and delays.
Usually electronically controlled, though some
models are microprocessor.
Typical ratings of Air CB

Rated Current I(rated): (800:3600) AMP - Short Circuit -
Current I(S.C): Up to 150 K.AMP
d) MV SF6 circuit-breakers for secondary
distribution:
Used for distributer protection on incoming &outgoing feeders,
used for protection of transformers >2MVA.
Rated voltage up to 36 kV.

Rated normal current up to 1250 A.
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rated breaking capacity up to 25 kA.

Soft quenching without chopping currents.
Fast recovery of the quenching media dielectric properties.
•Quenching technique free of re-strike and re-ignition.
Maintenance-free.
SF6 pressure control set (on request).
Definition of Protective Relay

A relay is automatic device which senses an abnormal condition
of electrical circuit and closes its contacts. These contacts in
turns close and complete the circuit breaker trip coil circuit
hence make the circuit breaker tripped for disconnecting the
faulty portion of the electrical circuit from rest of the healthy
circuit
Basic design and operation:
A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire
wrapped around a soft iron core, an iron yoke which
provides a low reluctancepath for magnetic flux, a
movable iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts
(there are two contacts in the relay pictured). The
armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to
one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place by
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a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an

air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the
two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the
other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer
sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in
the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the
yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the
moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on
the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is
soldered to the PCB.
When an electric current is passed through the coil it
generates a magnetic field that activates the armature,
and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s)
either makes or breaks (depending upon construction) a
connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was
closed when the relay was de-energized, then the
movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection,
and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the
current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned
by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic
force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided
by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial
motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate
quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in
a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing.
When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is
often placed across the coil to dissipate the energy from
the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would
otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous
to semiconductor circuit components. Such diodes were
not widely used before the application of transistors as
relay drivers, but soon became ubiquitous as
early germanium transistors were easily destroyed by this
surge. Some automotive relays include a diode inside the
relay case.
If the relay is driving a large, or especially a reactive load,
Page 12
there may be a similar problem of surge currents around

the relay output contacts. In this case a snubber circuit (a
capacitor and resistor in series) across the contacts may
absorb the surge. Suitably rated capacitors and the
associated resistor are sold as a single packaged
component for this commonplace use.
If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating
current (AC), some method is used to split the flux into two
out-of-phase components which add together, increasing
the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.
Typically this is done with a small copper "shading ring"
crimped around a portion of the core that creates the
delayed, out-of-phase component,[9] which holds the
contacts during the zero crossings of the control voltage.
Types of relays
Solid-state relay
A solid state relay or SSR is a solid state electronic
component that provides a function similar to
an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving
components, increasing long-term reliability. A solid-state
relay uses a thyristor, TRIAC or other solid-state switching
device, activated by the control signal, to switch the
controlled load, instead of a solenoid.
An optocoupler (a light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with
a photo transistor) can be used to isolate control and
controlled circuits.
Page 13
As every solid-state device has a small voltage drop

across it, this voltage drop limits the amount of current a
given SSR can handle. The minimum voltage drop for
such a relay is a function of the material used to make the
device. Solid-state relays rated to handle as much as
1,200 amperes have become commercially available.
Compared to electromagnetic relays, they may be falsely
triggered by transients and in general may be susceptible
to damage by extreme cosmic ray and EMP episodes.[
Solid state contactor relay
A solid state contactor is a heavy-duty solid state relay,
including the necessary heat sink, used where frequent
on/off cycles are required, such as with electric heaters,
small electric motors, and lighting loads. There are no
moving parts to wear out and there is no contact bounce
due to vibration. They are activated by AC control signals
or DC control signals from Programmable logic
controller(PLCs), PCs, Transistor-transistor logic (TTL)
sources, or other microprocessor and microcontroller
control
25 A or 40 A solid state contactors
Buchholz relay
A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the

accumulation of gas in large oil-
filled transformers, which will alarm on slow
accumulation of gas or shut down the
Page 14
transformer if gas is produced rapidly in the transformer

oil. The contacts are not operated by an electric current
but by the pressure of accumulated gas or oil flow.
dvantages :
1. It is the simplest form of transformer protection.
2. It detects the incipient faults at a stage much earlier than
is possible with other forms of protection.
Disadvantages :
1. It can only be used with oil immersed transformers
equipped with conservator tanks.
2. The device can detect only faults below oil level in the
transformer. Therefore, separate protection is needed for
connecting cables.
Overload protection relay
Electric motors need overcurrent protection to prevent
damage from over-loading the motor, or to protect against
short circuits in connecting cables or internal faults in the
motor windings.[15] The overload sensing devices are a
form of heat operated relay where a coil heats a bimetallic
strip, or where a solder pot melts, releasing a spring to
operate auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary contacts are in
series with the coil. If the overload senses excess current
in the load, the coil is de-energized.
This thermal protection operates relatively slowly allowing
the motor to draw higher starting currents before the
protection relay will trip. Where the overload relay is
exposed to the same environment as the motor, a useful
though crude compensation for motor ambient
temperature is provided.
The other common overload protection system uses an
electromagnet coil in series with the motor circuit that
directly operates contacts. This is similar to a control relay
but requires a rather high fault current to operate the
contacts. To prevent short over current spikes from
Page 15
causing nuisance triggering the armature movement is

damped with adashpot. The thermal and magnetic
overload detections are typically used together in a motor
protection relay.
Electronic overload protection relays measure motor
current and can estimate motor winding temperature using
a "thermal model" of the motor armature system that can
be set to provide more accurate motor protection. Some
motor protection relays include temperature detector
inputs for direct measurement from
a thermocouple or resistance thermometer sensor
embedded in the winding.
Vacuum relay
A sensitive relay having its contacts mounted in a highly
evacuated glass housing, to permit handling radio-
frequency voltages as high as 20,000 volts without
flashover between contacts even though contact spacing
is but a few hundredths of an inch when open.
Fuse electrical
In electronics and electrical engineering, a fuse is a type of low
resistance resistor that acts as a sacrificial device to provide
overcurrent protection, of either the load or source circuit. Its
essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts when too
much current flows through it, interrupting the circuit that it
connects. Short circuits, overloading, mismatched loads, or
device failure are the prime reasons for excessive current. Fuses
can be used as alternatives to circuit breakers.
Construction
A fuse consists of a metal strip or wire fuse element, of small
cross-section compared to the circuit conductors, mounted
between a pair of electrical terminals, and (usually) enclosed by
a non-combustible housing. The fuse is arranged in series to
carry all the current passing through the protected circuit. The
resistance of the element generates heat due to the current flow.
Page 16
The size and construction of the element is (empirically)

determined so that the heat produced for a normal current does
not cause the element to attain a high temperature. If too high a
current flows, the element rises to a higher temperature and
either directly melts, or else melts a soldered joint within the
fuse, opening the circuit.
The fuse element is made of zinc, copper, silver,

aluminum,[citation needed] or alloys to provide stable and
predictable characteristics.[4][5] The fuse ideally would carry its
rated current indefinitely, and melt quickly on a small excess.
The element must not be damaged by minor harmless surges of
current, and must not oxidize or change its behavior after
possibly years of service.
The fuse elements may be shaped to increase heating effect. In

large fuses, current may be divided between multiple strips of
metal. A dual-element fuse may contain a metal strip that melts
instantly on a short-circuit, and also contain a low-melting
solder joint that responds to long-term overload of low values
compared to a short-circuit. Fuse elements may be supported by
steel or nichrome wires, so that no strain is placed on the
element, but a spring may be included to increase the speed of
parting of the element fragments.
The fuse element may be surrounded by air, or by materials

intended to speed the quenching of the arc. Silica sand or non-
conducting liquids may be used.
Characteristic parameters
Rated current IN
A maximum current that the fuse can continuously conduct
without interrupting the circuit.[
Speed
The speed at which a fuse blows depends on how much current
flows through it and the material of which the fuse is made of.
Page 17
The operating time is not a fixed interval, but decreases as the

current increases. Fuses have different characteristics of
operating time compared to current, characterized as, according
to time required to respond to an overcurrent condition. A
standard fuse may require twice its rated current to open in one
second, a fast-blow fuse may require twice its rated current to
blow in 0.1 seconds, and a slow-blow fuse may require twice its
rated current for tens of seconds to blow.
Fuse selection depends on the load's characteristics.

Semiconductor devices may use a fast or ultrafast fuse as
semiconductor devices heat rapidly when excess current flows.
The fastest blowing fuses are designed for the most sensitive
electrical equipment, where even a short exposure to an
overload current could be very damaging. Normal fast-blow
fuses are the most general purpose fuses. The time delay fuse
(also known as anti-surge, or slow-blow) are designed to allow a
current which is above the rated value of the fuse to flow for a
short period of time without the fuse blowing. These types of
fuse are used on equipment such as motors, which can draw
larger than normal currents for up to several seconds while
coming up to speed.
The I2t value

The I2t rating is related to the amount of energy let through by
the fuse element when it clears the electrical fault. This term is
normally used in short circuit conditions and the values are used
to perform co-ordination studies in electrical networks. I2t
parameters are provided by charts in manufacturer data sheets
for each fuse family. For coordination of fuse operation with
upstream or downstream devices, both melting I2t and clearing
I2t are specified. The melting I2t, is proportional to the amount
of energy required to begin melting the fuse element. The
clearing I2t is proportional to the total energy let through by the
fuse when clearing a fault. The energy is mainly dependent on
current and time for fuses as well as the available fault level and
system voltage. Since the I2t rating of the fuse is proportional to
Page 18
the energy it lets through, it is a measure of the thermal damage

and magnetic forces that will be produced by a fault.
Breaking capacity
The breaking capacity is the maximum current that can safely be
interrupted by the fuse. Generally, this should be higher than the
prospective short circuit current. Miniature fuses may have an
interrupting rating only 10 times their rated current. Some fuses
are designated High Rupture Capacity (HRC) and are usually
filled with sand or a similar material. Fuses for small, low-
voltage, usually residential, wiring systems are commonly rated,
in North American practice, to interrupt 10,000 amperes. Fuses
for larger power systems must have higher interrupting ratings,
with some low-voltage current-limiting high interrupting fuses
rated for 300,000 amperes. Fuses for high-voltage equipment,
up to 115,000 volts, are rated by the total apparent power
(megavolt-amperes, MVA) of the fault level on the circuit.
Rated voltage
Voltage rating of the fuse must be equal to, or greater than, what
would become the open circuit voltage. For example, a glass
tube fuse rated at 32 volts would not reliably interrupt current
from a voltage source of 120 or 230 V. If a 32 V fuse attempts
to interrupt the 120 or 230 V source, an arc may result. Plasma
inside the glass tube may continue to conduct current until the
current diminishes to the point where the plasma becomes a
non-conducting gas. Rated voltage should be higher than the
maximum voltage source it would have to disconnect.
Connecting fuses in series does not increase the rated voltage of
the combination, nor of any one fuse.
Medium-voltage fuses rated for a few thousand volts are never

used on low voltage circuits, because of their cost and because
they cannot properly clear the circuit when operating at very low
voltages.
Page 19
Voltage drop
A voltage drop across the fuse is usually provided by its
manufacturer. There is a direct relationship between a fuse's
cold resistance and its voltage drop value. Once current is
applied, resistance and voltage drop of a fuse will constantly
grow with the rise of its operating temperature until the fuse
finally reaches thermal equilibrium or alternatively melts when
higher currents than its rated current are administered over
sufficiently long periods of time. This resulting voltage drop
should be taken into account, particularly when using a fuse in
low-voltage applications. Voltage drop often is not significant in
more traditional wire type fuses, but can be significant in other
technologies such as resettable (PPTC) type fuses.
Temperature derating
Ambient temperature will change a fuse's operational
parameters. A fuse rated for 1 A at 25 °C may conduct up to
10% or 20% more current at −40 °C and may open at 80% of its
rated value at 100 °C. Operating values will vary with each fuse
family and are provided in manufacturer data sheets.
What is an electrical fuse?

An electrical fuse is a simple device used to interrupt an
electrical circuit during over current condition due to short
circuit and/or overload. An electrical fuse operates on the
principle of heating effect of electric current. During normal
operating condition, the current flowing through the fusing
element is such that the rate of heat production in the fuse
element is nearly equal to the rate of heat dissipation from the
fuse element and thereby they are will be no considerable
increase of temperature of that fuse element. But if current
through the fuse element crosses certain predetermined value,
the rate of production of heat is no longer equal to the rate of
dissipation of heat and as a result there will be a rapid increase
of temperature of the fuse element and very soon it reaches to
the melting point of the fuse element. Then the fuse element
melts and disconnects the supply from the load and safes the
circuit connected through this fuse element. In this way an
Page 20
electrical fuse protects an electrical installation from permanent

damage due to overheating. The time required for melting the
fuse element depends upon the magnitude of the over current. If,
more over current flows through a fuse element, more rapidly it
is melted to disconnect the supply .
What are the advantages of using an electrical fuse?

There are numbers of advantages available for using electrical
fuse in system.
. This is the cheapest form of protection system available for
electrical circuits.
. This is also simplest form of protection system and it is almost
maintenance less.
. This is inherently operates automatically there is no need of
any extra arrangement for its automatic operation unlike the
operations of circuit breakers.
. It interrupts electrical circuit without any noise, flame, gas or
smoke.
. The minimum operating time and the minimum operating
current can be easily adjusted by choosing appropriate cross-
sectional area of fusing element.
. If the over current, flowing through the fuse element is higher,
the rate of temperature rise of the element is also higher which
causes very fast melting of fuse element. In other words there is
an inverse time current characteristics of fuse element which
makes it very suitable for using in overload protections
.
What are the disadvantages of using an electrical fuse?
Although it is simplest and cheapest form of protection but still
electrical fuse systems suffer for number of disadvantages.
After melting a fuse element, considerable amount of time is
required for renewing or replacing the melted element and hence
there will be a long time of interruption in the circuit.
On heavy short circuit faults, discrimination between fuses in
series cannot be obtained unless there is considerable difference
in the relative sizes of the fuses concerned.
Electrical fuse cannot be used for very high voltage system
Page 21
because at very high voltage there will be huge arcing even after
melting of fuse element. Hence for high voltage system instead
of using fuse element, electrical circuit breaker is used.
In the case of three phase system, it is sometime required to
isolate instantly the entire faulty equipment from the system but
in case of fuse protection only faulty phase can be isolated
instantly not enter equipment.
For the system in which the over current faults likely to be
occurred frequently, electrical fuse protection cannot be used as
every time for replacement of fuse element there will be a huge
time of interruption in the system.
What are the materials used for fuse element?

The main properties of a fuse element are
They must have low melting point.
They must have low ohmic loss.
They must have low resistivity.
They must be free from deterioration.
They must be of moderate cost.
The metals like tin, lead and zinc are having all the above
mentioned properties hence used widely as fuse element.
Although silver has very high cost but still it is used as fuse
element where cost is not the main criteria of application
.
Why electrical fuse units are used in electrical system?
Whenever there is a short circuit, overload or earth fault in the
system, huge current starts flowing through the system
conductor which leads to hide temperature rise of the conductor
itself. If this huge current is not prevented, after a certain time
the heat generated from the conductor part is so high, it can melt
the conductor itself along with damage the insulation parts of
the equipment. Even there may be a chance of fire hazard due to
extremely high temperature in the system. As a whole there will
be permanent damage in the equipment. To prevent this, the
huge short-circuit current should be allowed to flow through the
system for very short time so that there would not be any serious
temperature rise. Actually during fault nobody can prevent the
Page 22
flowing of huge over current through the system but the duration
of flowing of this huge over current can be limited by using
electrical fuse or other types of over-current protective devices.
The electrical fuse is blown out when there is an over current
flowing through it for a certain time. The time required for
blowing out a fuse element is roughly determined by magnitude
of over current. Hence the faulty portion of the circuit is isolated
from its healthy portion.
Types of fuse
High rupturing capacity fuses cartridge (H.R.C):
• Fuse is the simplest current interrupting device for
protection from excessive currents. It is used for over
load or short circuit protection in medium voltage (up to
33K.V.) and low voltage (up to 400 v) installations.
high rupturing capacity cartridge fuses (HRC) provides
• a reliable discrimination and accurate characteristics.
In some aspects HRC fuses are superior to C.B.
Striker fuse:
A device which incorporates fuse, and a mechanical
device, the operation of fuse release the striker with certain
pressure and displacement.
Page 23
Switch fuse:
A combined unit comprising fuse and switch.
Fuses Markings
The symbols on the name plate have the following meaning:
I = Rated current
N
U = Rated voltage
I = Minimum breaking current
I1 = Maximum SC current for which the fuse is tested.
The arrowhead indicates in which the end of the fuselink the
indicator and striker pin appears. Additionally this end
contact of the fuse link is specially marked.
Application of HRC fuses:

-Motor protection.
-Transformer protection.
Page 24
Chapter 9 Transformer
Transformers
1- Introduction
Electrical power transformer is a static device which

transforms electrical energy from one circuit to another
with the help of mutual induction between two windings.
It transforms power from one circuit to another without
changing its frequency but may be in different voltage
level
2-Working Principle of Transformer
It depends on "Faraday's law of electromagnetic

induction".
"Rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time is
directly proportional to the induced EMF in a conductor or
coil".
Whenever we apply alternating current to an electric coil,

there will be an alternating flux surrounding that coil. Now
if we bring another coil near the first one, there will be an
alternating flux linkage with that second coil. As the flux is
alternating, there will be obviously a rate of change in flux
linkage with respect to time in the second coil. Naturally
emf will be induced in it as per Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. This is the most basic concept
of the theory of transformer
The winding which takes electrical power from the source,

is generally known as primary winding of transformer.
The winding which gives the desired output voltage due to

mutual induction in the transformer, is commonly known
as secondary winding of transformer.
Page 2
IP.NP = IS.NS
Where
Ip and Npare the current and number of turns in the primary &
IS and NS are the current and number of turns in the secondary

respectively.
3-Main Constructional Parts of Transformer:
The three main parts of a transformer are,
1. Primary Winding of transformer - which produces

magnetic flux when it is connected to electrical source.
2. Magnetic Core of transformer - the magnetic flux

produced by the primary winding, that will pass through
this low reluctance path linked with secondary winding
and create a closed magnetic circuit.
3. Secondary Winding of transformer - the flux,

produced by primary winding, passes through the core,
will link with the secondary winding. This winding also
wounds on the same core and gives the desired output
of the transformer.
Page 3
-core
Made of conducting material which represents the magnetic paths
for flux.
It consists of thin strips of silicon steel called lamination which
Separated by thin insulating
-Winding
Made of high conducting material

depending on application. they are low voltage and high voltage
winding.
All winding must be good electrically isolated from each other to

avoid leakage current
.-Tap changer (taps-turns ratio adjustment)
Voltage taps are usually necessary to compensate for small changes in

the primary supply to the transformer, or to vary the secondary voltage
level with changes in the load requirements.
Page 4
-Tank:
has two main parts:
a –The tank:
Is made of welding steel plate to a container for holding the core
and coil assembly together with insulating oil.
b – Conservator
The tank is providing with a reservoir (conservator) which allows
for the expansion of the oil during operation. The conservator is
designed to hold a total vacuum and may be provide with a rubber
membrane preventing direct contact between the oil and the air.
4-Equivalent circuit of transformer

Referring to the diagram,
Winding joule losses and leakage reactances are represented by
the following series loop impedances of the model:
∑ Primary winding: RP, XP

∑ Secondary winding: RS, XS.
In normal course of circuit equivalence transformation, RS and XS are in
practice usually referred to the primary side by multiplying these
impedances by the turns ratio squared, (NP/NS) 2 a^2
Real transformer equivalent circuit
Where:
RP, XP: primary winding resistance and inductance
respectively
Page 5
RS, XS: secondary winding resistance and inductance

respectively (referring to the primary side after multiplying the
components by turns ratio (Np/Ns)2).
RC, Xm: resistance and inductance of magnetizing branch.
Io: no load current (equal to the sum of Ic and Im)
5-Transformer losses:
An ideal transformer have no energy losses ( zero losses), and
100% efficient. but in real (In practical) transformers,.
energy is dissipated in the windings, core and surrounding

structures
5.1- Copper losses
Current flowing through the windings causes resistive

heating of the conductors. At higher frequencies, skin
effect and proximity effect create additional winding
resistance and losses.
5.2- Core or iron losses
There are two types of core or iron losses in

a Transformer.
a-Hysteresis losses.
b-Eddy current losses
the core loss is due to eddy-current induction loss and
hysteresis (molecular friction) loss, caused by the changing
polarity of the applied AC.
5.3- Stray losses

due to Stray fluxes link with the mechanical structure and
winding conductors.
Page 6
5.4- Mechanical losses.
6-Classification of transformers:
The transformer types could be classified according to their power
rating, voltage, current, weight, type of cooling etc., but such
approach would have a limited applicability
6.1-according to the number of phases in:

- single-phase transformers
- three-phase transformers
6.2-according to basic design:
-core type
-shell type
6.3-according to the insulating/cooling fluid in:

- liquid-filled transformers
- gas-filled transformers (mainly with SF6)
- dry-type transformers
6.4- according to the transformer application:
- power transformers
- distribution transformers
- reactors
6.5-according to winding turns ratio:
-step up
-step down
6.6-according to power capacity:
From a fraction of a volt-ampere (VA) to over a thousand MVA
6.7-according to voltage:
From a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts.
Page 7
7-Tests of transformers:
1.Open circuit test:

It's performed in order to determine magnetizing branch
parameters (i.e., RC and Xm) of the equivalent circuit, the no-load
loss, the no-load exciting current, and the no-load power factor.
2.Short-Circuit Tes:
It's performed by short-circuiting the secondary terminal of the
transformer, and applying a reduced voltage to the primary
terminals, the rated current flow through the windings. The input
voltage, VSC, current, ISC, and real power, PSC, are measured.
8-Parallel operation of three phase transformer:
Ideal parallel operation between Transformers occurs when

1) there are no circulating currents on open circuit, and
2) the load division between the Transformers is proportional to
their kVA ratings.
The requirements for any - two or more three phase
Transformers, which are desired to be operated in parallel, should
possess:
1) The same no load ratio of transformation.

2) The same percentage impedance.
3) The same resistance to reactance ratio.
4) The same polarity.
5) The same phase rotation.
6) The same inherent phase-angle displacement between
primary and secondary terminals.
7) The same power ratio between the corresponding
windings.
Page 8
9-transformer cooling system and method:

The main source of heat generation in transformer is its
copper loss or I2R loss. Although there are other factors
contribute heat in transformer such as hysteresis & eddy
current losses .
If this heat is not dissipated properly, the temperature of
the transformer will rise continually which may cause
damages in paper insulation and liquid insulation
medium of transformer. So it is essential to control the
temperature with in permissible limit to ensure the long
life of transformer by reducing thermal degradation of its
insulation system.
-In electrical power transformer we use external

transformer cooling system to accelerate the
dissipation rate of heat of transformer.
1.Dry-type transformers:
Which are designed without oil around the core and windings.
Small dry-type transformers may be mounted in end frames with
the coils exposed for indoor operation, or they may be provided
with a metal housing for protection. Such transformers are cooled
by the natural circulation of air around their coils and core. In large
and medium size dry-type transformers, additional cooling is
provided by air ducts through the winding.
2. oil-immersed type transformers:
In this type the coils and core are mounted in a tank filled with oil,
which serves the double purpose of helping to insulate the
transformer and of carrying heat caused by the transformer losses
to the cooling surfaces where it is dissipated.There are several
variations to cooling systems on oil immersed transformersas that
will be shown later.
-Different Transformer Cooling Methods:
The kinds of cooling medium and their symbols adopted by:
Page 9
(a) Mineral oil or equivalent flammable insulating liquid O

(b) Non flammable synthetic insulating liquid L
(c) Gas G
(d) Water W
(e) Air A
The kinds of circulation for the cooling medium and their
symbols are:
(a) Natural N
(b) Forced (Oil not directed) F
(c) Forced (Oil directed) D
Each cooling method of Transformer is identified by four symbols.
The first letter represents the kind of cooling medium in contact
with winding, the second letter represents the kind of circulation for
the cooling medium, the third letter represents the cooling medium
that is in contact with the external cooling system and fourth
symbol represents the kind of circulation for the external medium.
Thus oil immersed Transformer with natural oil circulation and
forced air external cooling is designated ONAF.
1-ONAN Cooling of Transformer
This is the simplest transformer cooling system. The

full form of ONAN is "Oil Natural Air Natural".
2-ONAF Cooling of Transformer

The full form of ONAF is "Oil Natural Air Forced".
3-OFAF Cooling of Transformer

The full form of OFAF is "oil forced air forced"
4-OFWF Cooling of Transformer

OFWF means "Oil Forced Water Forced"
Page 10
5-ODAF Cooling of Transformer

ODAF or oil directed air forced cooling of transformer can
be considered as the improved version of OFAF.
6-ODWF Cooling of Transformer

ODWF or oil directed water forced cooling
10-Types of transformers:( according to application )

1) Auto transformers:
It has only one winding, two terminal points and intermediate tap.
2) poly phase transformers:
In this type all three phases are connected together, so magnetic
circuits are connected together and core containing three phase
flow flux number of windings are connecting together by phase
shifting.
3) Instrument transformers:
They are used for measuring voltage and current in electrical
power systems, and for power system protection and control.
They are two types:
-Potentional transformers (PT):
- they are used in general to step-down the voltage of the primary
circuits to values connection to a volt meter and instrument to
measure power
-Current transformers(CT):
electric device that produces an alternating current (AC) in its
secondary which is proportional to the AC in its primary.
4)distribution transformer
- these transformer take power from the primary lines and deliver it
direct to the consumers.
Page 11
5)Power Transmission Transformers
- these transformers are installed in or near the central station or

source of power, or in substation.
11-Protection of transformers:
Different transformers demand different schemes of
transformer protection depending upon their
importance, winding connections, earthing methods and
mode of operation etc.
It is common practice to provide Buchholz relay protection
to all 0.5 MVA and above transformers.
While for all small size distribution transformers, only high
voltage fuses are used as main protective device.
For all larger rated and important distribution
transformers, over current protection along with restricted
earth fault protection is applied.
Differential protection should be provided in the
transformers rated above 5 MVA.
Depending upon the normal service condition, nature of
transformer faults, degree of sustained over load, scheme
of tap changing, and many other factors, the suitable
transformer protection schemes are chosen.
Nature of Transformer Faults
A transformer generally suffers from following types of

transformer fault:
1-Over current due to overloads and external short

circuits,
2-Terminal faults,
3-Winding faults,
4-Incipient faults.
Page 12
-differential protection of transformers
-Buchhloz Device
Protective devices are used as in fault development inside a
Transformer, an alarm is set off or the Transformer is
disconnected from the circuit. During the fault, oil or insulations
decomposes by heat, producing gas or developing an impulse
oil flow.
To detect these phenomena, a Buchholz relay is installed at the
middle of the connection pipe between the Transformer tank
and the conservator
-Earth faults relay

Providing protection against earth fault only.
-Over current relay
Providing protection mainly against phase to phase faults
and over loading.
12-Transformer selection in our project:
-The transformer shouldn't be loaded more than 80% of the full

load power so, we will select our transformer as follows:
Total load = 2700 KVA
So, we will select two transformer with capacity of 3MVA
-we use three phase transformer.
Page 13
Chapter 10 Distribution board
Distribution board:
When initiating the wiring design of a building, it is
important to be able to estimate the total building load in
order to plan such spaces as transformer rooms, chases,
and closets. This information is also required by the local
power company well in advance of the start of
construction.
Such an estimate (average) can be made from standard
tables or by equipment ratings.
After calculating all categories of loads they should be
added together without application of demand or diversity
factor in order to obtain the maximum load for which the
building service equipment must be sized.
The main use of panel board is to provide protection for
overall system connected and make control by using
many components (fuses, circuit breakers, etc...)
1. Types of loads:
1) Residential loads:
Cities & the countries.
2) Commercial loads &services:
Hospitals, hotels, theatres, play ground& airports.
3) Industrial loads:
Includes small and large factories.
4) Municipal loads:
Include street lighting loads
Page 2
.2 The electrical loads in any facility can be

categorized as follow:
1. lighting
2. miscellaneous power, which includes data-
processing equipment, convenience outlets and
small motors
3. heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC)
4. plumbing or sanitary equipment
5. vertical transportation equipment
6. kitchen equipment
7. special equipment
.3 Panel boards :
The National Electrical Code (NEC ) defines a panel board
as a single panel or group of panel units designed for
assembly the form of a single panel; including buses
automatic over current devices, and equipped with or
without switches for the control of light, heat, or power
circuits; designed to be placed in a cabinet or cutout box
placed in or against a wall or partition and accessible only
from the front as illustrated in figure 6.1.
Page 3
.4 Types of distribution boards:

The principle type of distribution boards are :
a) final distribution board:
 Lighting distribution board.

 Power distribution board.
 Emergency distribution board.
Fig 8.6( final D.)
b) sub –main distribution board:

 Normal sub main distribution board.
 Emergency submain distribution board.
F
i
g 8.7( sub_ main D.B )
♦ It's supplied from main panel to feeding the distribution

boards in this zone and feeding also heavy load which
protected by mould case circuit breaker(MCCB).
♦ At least there are one sub-main distribution board in each
floor.
Page 4
♦ Emergency panelboards supplied through emergency sub

main panel board.
c) Main distribution board:
Fig 8.8( Main D.B )
♦ It is supplied from utility through one step down transformer

(11000/380 V) or more depend on the rated of apparent power
of total loads and the rated of transformer.
♦ available rated of transformer 1, 1.5, 2.5, 3,MVA
1- Lighting distribution board:

♦The NEC state that lighting circuit has a connection to the
neutral of the panel board and has over current protection of
30 amperes or less in one or more conductors.
♦ Maximum rating for the final circuit of light is 2000 VA which
connected to the board by a feeder of 1.5mm^2 cross section
area through 10A miniature circuit breaker.
♦ Number of light distribution board in each zone depend on
the quantity of lighting use.
Page 5
2- Power distribution board:

♦ Aboard which considered as assembly of switch fuses for
large motors and equipments ,protected by a miniture circuit
breaker of rated above 15 ampere
3- Emergency distribution board:
♦ Aboard which contain important & critical loads to ensure
continuity of power supplied even if the main source
interrupted.
Page 6
Chapter 1 Earthing system
Earthing system:
1. Introduction
When fault current flows inside the human body can cause
burns and cardiac arrest. lungs, brain and heart are the
most sensitive organs affected by fault current which can
be avoided by using earthing system for buildings,
machines, tower,…. So in this chapter we will study the
importance of earthing system for safety of person and
availability of electrical power against hazards of insulation
faults, atmospheric conditions, fault of designing and
operation
Page 2
Why we make earthing?

1-To provide safety to personnel during normal and fault
conditions
2-To dissipate lightning strikes.
3- To prevent damage to electrical apparatus.
4- To protect people working in the electric site from
electric shock due to touching any metal part
5- To make the high faulty current go to earth through a
low resistance.
6- The grounding system of the medium voltage zones are
usually formed by a horizontal grid and several vertical
ground rods connected to each other and to all equipment
frames.
2.Earth & Neutral:
Earth: is a conductor that provides a low impedance
path to the earth to prevent hazardous voltages
Normally, ground conductor doesn’t carry current.
The earth conductor shall have colour coding as the PE–
Page 3
green/yellow.
Neutral: is a circuit conductor that carries current in
normal operation.
3-Types of Earthing system

1- TN: transformer neutral earthed, frame connected to
neutral,
2-TT: transformer neutral earthed, and frame earthed
3- IT: unearthed transformer neutral, earthed frame.
1-"TN" system
a) TN-C system: combined between neutral &protective
conductor (PEN).
b) TN-S system: separate the neutral & protective

conductor
**This arrangement is the current standard for most

residential and industrial electric systems partially in
Europe.
It Preferred For :
Page 4
Continuity of service not essential ,but maintenance

service required .
Very long networks .
Load furnaces .
Large HF Filters (large computers ).
c) TN-C-S system: use of a TN-S downstream from
a TN- C
2-"TT" system
3-"IT" system
Page 5
4.Comparison of Earthing systems

TT IT TN-S TN-C TN-C-S
Earth fault loop High Highest Low Low Low

impedance
RCD preferred? Yes No Yes No No
Need earth electrode Yes Yes No No No

at site?
PE conductor cost Low Low Highest Least High
Risk of broken No No No Highest High

neutral
Safety Safe Less Safe Safest Least Safe Safe
Electromagnetic Least Least Low High Low

interference
Safety risks High loop impedance Double fault, None Broken Broken
(step voltages) overvoltage neutral neutral
Advantages Safe and reliable Continuity of Safest Cost Safety

operation, cost and cost
Page 6
5-APPLICATION
- (T-T) system used for standby power supply “UPS”.
- (T-T) or (I-T) system used in load with high fault
current “motor”.
-(T-T) or (I-T) system used in control or monitoring
device.
-(TN-S) system used in furnaces.
-(TN-S) system used for very long network.
6.Ground resistance:
Determine the amount of current flown through an object
Depends on:
1-length (depth ) of ground electrode :
By doubling the length of ground electrode ,we can reduce

the ground resistance by 40% .
2-diameter of ground electrode :
-By doubling the diameter of ground electrode ,we can
reduce the ground resistance by 10% .
3-no. of ground electrodes :
-We can use multiple ground electrodes to reduce ground
resistance
-Spacing between two electrodes need to be equal to
depth of electrodes
Page 7
4-soil resistivity :
-Soil resistivity effected by :
* Soil composition.
* Moisture content.
* Tempreture.
* Adding chemical salts.
Soil resistivity measurement
Firstly, we measure the soil resistivity by "Four-point
method" called 'WENNERS "method: Insert four-point with
equally spaced into test area then pass a known current
from a current generator between outer electrodes then
measure the resistance between the inner electrodes by
Megger device such that: total potential at white point due
to current entering blue and leaving at red will be :
Vwhite= (rI / (2*p*a)) - (rI / (2*p*2a))

Similarly the total potential at p2 will be
Vblack= (rI / (2*p*2a)) - (rI / (2*p*a))
Hence the potential difference between p1 and p2 will be
V= Vwhite - Vblack = (2Ir / 2p)[(1/a)-(1/2a)]= Ir/(2*p*a)
But for circulating current (I), if we tap the potential
difference the points p1 and p2, then [V / I = R] should give
the resistance between p1and p2 which is constant.
V / I= R = r / (2*p*a)
r=2*p*a*R
7-Ground electrode
Page 8
A ground rod is a metal shaft used for grounding. These

rods are being used for services and other devices to be
grounded. These rods are to be driven in the ground at
least 8 ft. These rods when made of iron or steel shall be
at least 5/8 inches thick. Non ferrous rods should be free
of paint or any other non conductive material should be
listed and not less than 1/2 inches thick.
Componentsof aGround electrode
1-ground conductor .
2-clamp (connection between ground conductor and
ground electrode) .
3-ground electrode .
Earth electrode materials:(IEC 60364-5-54-1980)

- Bare copper.
- Tin-coated copper.
- Zinc-coated copper.
- Hot-dip galvanized steel.
- Stainless steel.
- Copper sheathed steel.
- Steel with electro-deposited copper coating.
Page 9
120
100
ity
tiv
80
nu
dc
60
%o
C
40
20
0
Copper Copper- Zinc- Stainless
clad steel coated steel
steel
Ma terial types
8- Ground system design

Simple grounding systems consist of a single ground
electrode driven into the ground. The use of a single
ground electrode is the most common form of grounding
and can be found outside your home or place of business.
Complex grounding systems consist of multiple ground
rods, connected, mesh or grid networks, ground plates,
and ground loops.
9-Methods of measuring earth resistance
Calculating earth resistance experimentally is based on
the assumption of uniform resistivity.

There are several methods for measuring the grounding
Page 10
resistance, and the most common one used is:

"3 Point measurement"
X: electrode under test
Y: auxiliary potential electrode
Z: auxiliary ground electrode
The potential difference between X & Y “V “is measured

by voltmeter ( V) and the current flow between X & Z “I “is
measured by ammeter ( A). Then according to ohms low:
R=V/I
10-Determination of earth cable size
Phase conductor size Earth conductor size
Circuit up to 16 mm^2 same size as line
Circuit up to 25 mm^2 16 mm^2
Circuit up to 35 mm^2 25mm^2
Page 11
Circuit over 35 mm^2 half of cross-sectional area of the

line
11-Earthing System In our project

The aim we focused on while designing the Earthing
system is to reach the minimum value of earth resistance
for the grounding electrodes as referred in the Egyptian
code (not exceeding 5 ohms).
ɳ= screening coefficient “less than 1” that depend on:

1) the ratio between ( S/L )
2) the number of electrode (N)
N N S/L ɳ N S/L
ɳ S/L ɳ
0.95 – 0.97 2 3 0.93 – 2 2 0.8 – 0.87 2 1
0.95
0.92 – 0.95 3 3 0.9 – 0.92 3 2 0.76 – 0.8 3 1
0.89 – 0.91 5 3 0.86 – 5 2 0.67 – 5 1
0.89 0.72
0.82 – 0.88 10 3 0.8 – 0.85 10 2 0.56 – 10 1
0.62
0.79 – 20 3 0.76 – 20 2 0.5 – 20 1
Page 12
0.81 0.79 0.47
*THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS METHOD:

1) For managerial building: ((LV Earthing Systems))
We assume its soil is loam so, its soil resistivity = 80
Ω-m.
Assume, we put the electrode on depth = 6 meter,
where we
make coupling between five rod connected in series
each rod
have length = 120 Cm =1.2 meter.
So, the length of one electrode around building so,
its dimensions = 100 meter in length *100 meter in
width.
= 5*1.2= 6 meter, L = 6 m.
Assume, take the number of electrodes connected in
parallel= 16 , N =16,Total area of building = 18000
m2.
So, we put electrodes as square shape
Then the spacing between two electrode =100/4= 25
meter ,S = 25 m. From Fig.(1) at N = 16, S/L = 1.5625 ,
so, ɳ=0.8
So, the ground resistance: Rg = ρ / (L*N*ɳ) = 80 /
(6*16*0.8) = 1.04 Ω.
According to (IEC 60364-5-54-1980)
the ground resistance for distribution substation not
exceeds 1Ω…….( suitable ).
Page 13
Chapter 12 Power Factor Correction
.1 Introduction:
AC power flow has three components:
 Real power or active power (P), expressed

in watts (W)
 Apparent power (S), usually expressed in volt-
amperes (VA)
 Reactive power (Q), usually expressed in reactive
volt-amperes (VAR)
The VA and VAR are non-SI units mathematically identical
to the Watt, but are used in engineering practice instead of
the Watt in order to state what quantity is being
expressed. The SI explicitly disallows using units for this
purpose or as the only source of information about a
physical quantity as used.
All inductive (electromagnetic) machines and devices that
operate on A.C systems convert electrical energy from the
power_ system generators into mechanical work and heat.
This energy is measured by kWh meters, and is referred
to as “active” or “Wattful” energy.
In order to perform this conversion, magnetic fields have
to be established in the machines, and these fields are
associated with another form of energy to be supplied
from the power system, known as ”reactive” or “Wattless”
energy.
The combination of inductive current passing through an
inductive reactance produces the worst possible condition
of voltage drop.
Page 2
.2 Definition of power factor:
The power factor is defined as the ratio of real power to

apparent power.
As power is transferred along a transmission line, it does
not consist purely of real power that can do work once
transferred to the load, but rather consists of a
combination of real and reactive power, called apparent
power. The power factor describes the amount of real
power transmitted along a transmission line relative to the
total apparent power flowing in the line.
The Power Triangle:
We can relate the various components of AC power by

using the power triangle. Real power extends horizontally
in the î direction as it represents a purely real component
of AC power. Reactive power extends in the direction of ĵ
as it represents a purely imaginary component of AC
power. Apparent power represents a combination of both
real and reactive power, and therefore can be calculated
by using the vector sum of these two components. We can
conclude that the mathematical relationship between
these components is:
Page 3
Increasing the Power Factor:
As the power factor (i.e. cos θ) increases, the ratio of real

power to apparent power (which = cos θ), increases and
approaches unity (1), while the angle θ decreases and the
reactive power decreases. [As cos θ → 1, its maximum
possible value, θ → 0 and so Q → 0, as the load becomes
less reactive and more purely resistive].
Decreasing the Power Factor:
As the power factor decreases, the ratio of real power to

apparent power also decreases, as the angle θ increases
and reactive power increases.
Page 4
Lagging and Leading Power Factors:

In addition, there is also a difference between a lagging
and leading power factor. A lagging power factor signifies
that the load is inductive, as the load will “consume”
reactive power, and therefore the reactive component Q is
positive as reactive power travels through the circuit and is
“consumed” by the inductive load. A leading power factor
signifies that the load is capacitive, as the load “supplies”
reactive power, and therefore the reactive component Q is
negative as reactive power is being supplied to the
circuit.
Importance of power factor in distribution systems

Power factors below 1.0 require a utility to generate more than the
minimum volt-amperes necessary to supply the real power (watts).
This increases generation and transmission costs. For example, if
the load power factor were as low as 0.7, the apparent power
would be 1.4 times the real power used by the load. Line current in
the circuit would also be 1.4 times the current required at 1.0
power factor, so the losses in the circuit would be doubled (since
they are proportional to the square of the current). Alternatively all
components of the system such as generators, conductors,
transformers, and switchgear would be increased in size (and cost)
to carry the extra current.
Page 5
Utilities typically charge additional costs to commercial customers

who have a power factor below some limit, which is typically 0.9 to
0.95. Engineers are often interested in the power factor of a load
as one of the factors that affect the efficiency of power
transmission.
.3 Causes of low power factor:

The main cause of low Power factor is Inductive Load. As in
pure inductive circuit, Current lags 90° from Voltage, this large
difference of phase angle between current and voltage causes
zero power factor . Basically, all those circuit having
Capacitance and inductance (except resonance circuit (or Tune
Circuit) where inductive reactance = capacitive reactance (XL =
Xc), so the circuit becomes a resistive circuit), power factor
would be exist over there because Capacitance and inductance
causes in difference of phase angle (θ) between current and
voltage.
Following are the causes of low Power factor:

1. Single phase and three phase induction Motors (Usually,
Induction motor works
At poor power factor i.e. at:
Full load, Pf = 0.8 -0.9
Small load, Pf = 0.2 -0.3
No Load, Pf may come to Zero (0).
2. Varying Load in Power System (As we know that load on
power system is varying. During low load period, supply
voltage is increased which increase the magnetizing current
which cause the decreased power factor)
3. Industrial heating furnaces
4. Electrical discharge lamps (High intensity discharge
lighting) Arc lamps (operate
a very low power factor)
5. Under loaded Transformers
6. Harmonic Currents
Page 6
.4 Low power factor effects:
When the power factor is 1.0, the current and voltage are
perfectly in phase with each other and the electrical system is
delivering the maximum power that can be delivered by a given
value of voltage and current.
When the power factor is less than 1.0, the current is negative
while the voltage is positive and the current is positive while the
voltage is negative during parts of each cycle. That means that
some energy is circulating back and forth between the electrical
system and the load rather than being converted to by the load to
do useful work. A higher current is required to deliver a given
flow of power.
The negative effects from the point of view of the energy

supplier are reduced capacity and reduced efficiency. The
capacity is reduced because the generator can only supply a
certain maximum current and the power lines, transformers, etc.
can only carry a maximum current. If the maximum current is
reached without reaching the maximum power, the supplier
cannot sell as much power as the system is capable of
delivering. Transmission losses are proportional to current, so
the losses are higher than they would be if the same power were
to be delivered by supplying a lower current. That means
reduced efficiency.
From the consumer’s point of view, the power distribution

components owned by the consumer have a reduced capacity.
That might force the consumer to add more distribution circuits.
There is also a reduced efficiency, but the total losses are much
smaller, because the current flows through much shorter lengths
of wire and fewer transformers etc. on the consumer side of the
meter. If the supplier charges extra for low power factor, that is
the biggest negative effect for the consumer
Page 7
So effects of low power factor

. 1)The main effect of low power factor is the tariff
penalty.
2) Low power factor also cause reduction of the
efficiency and power quality, and cost effectiveness of
operating a plant.
3) Low power factor has harmful effects into the
system itself, such as excessive voltage drops,
excessive current and losses.
4) Increase of cable size.
The increasing of reactive current flow will increase
cable size that feed the consumer, this increase is
necessary to decrease the voltage drop and to
improve the voltage.
10.5 Benefits of Power Factor Correction:

 1- Reduction in the cost of electricity
 2- Technical/economic optimization
o 2.1- Reduction of cable size
o 2.2- Reduction of losses (P, kW) in cables
o 2.3- Reduction of voltage drop
o 2.4- Increase in available power
Reduction in the cost of electricity
Improvement of the power factor of

an installation presents several
technical and economic advantages,
notably in the reduction of electricity
bills
Good management in the consumption of reactive energy
brings economic advantages.
Page 8
These notes are based on an actual tariff structure

commonly applied in Europe, designed to encourage
consumers to minimize their consumption of reactive
energy.
The installation of power-factor correction equipment on
installations permits the consumer to reduce his electricity
bill by maintaining the level of reactive-power consumption
below a value contractually agreed with the power supply
authority.
In this particular tariff, reactive energy is billed according
to the tan φ criterion.
As previously noted:
The same ratio applies to energies:
The power supply authority delivers reactive energy for

free:
 If the reactive energy represents less than 40% of the

active energy (tan φ < 0.4) for a maximum period of 16
hours each day (from 06-00 h to 22-00 h) during the
most-heavily loaded period (often in winter)
 Without limitation during light-load periods in winter,
and in spring and summer.
During the periods of limitation, reactive energy
consumption exceeding 40% of the active energy (i.e. tan
φ > 0.4) is billed monthly at the current rates. Thus, the
quantity of reactive energy billed in these periods will be:
kvarh (to be billed) = kWh (tan φ - 0.4) where:
- kWh is the active energy consumed during the periods
of limitation
- kWh tan φ is the total reactive energy during a period of
limitation
- 0.4 kWh is the amount of reactive energy delivered for
Page 9
free during a period of limitation

tan φ = 0.4 corresponds to a power factor of 0.93 so that,
if steps are taken to ensure that during the limitation
periods the power factor never falls below 0.93, the
consumer will have nothing to pay for the reactive power
consumed.
Against the financial advantages of reduced billing, the
consumer must balance the cost of purchasing, installing
and maintaining the power factor correction equipment
and controlling switchgear, automatic control equipment
(where stepped levels of compensation are required)
together with the additional kWh consumed by the losses
of the equipment, etc. It may be found that it is more
economic to provide partial compensation only, and that
paying for some of the reactive energy consumed is less
expensive than providing 100% compensation.
The question of power-factor correction is a matter of
optimization, except in very simple cases.
Technical/economic optimization
Power factor improvement allows the

use of smaller transformers,
switchgear and cables, etc. as well
as reducing power losses and
voltage drop in an installation
A high power factor allows the optimization of the

components of an installation. Overating of certain
equipment can be avoided, but to achieve the best results,
the correction should be effected as close to the individual
inductive items as possible.
Reduction of cable size
Figure L7 shows the required increase in the size of
cables as the power factor is reduced from unity to 0.4, for
Page 10
the same active power transmitted.
Multiplying factor for the 1 1.25 1.67 2.5

cross-sectional area of the
cable core(s)
cos φ 1 0.8 0.6 0.4
Fig. L7: Multiplying factor for cable size as a function of

cos φ
Reduction of losses (P, kW) in cables
Losses in cables are proportional to the current squared,
and are measured by the kWh meter of the installation.
Reduction of the total current in a conductor by 10% for
example, will reduce the losses by almost 20%.
Reduction of voltage drop
Power factor correction equipment reduce or even cancel
completely the (inductive) reactive current in upstream
conductors, thereby reducing or eliminating voltage drops.
Note: Over compensation will produce a voltage rise at
the equipment level.
Increase in available power
By improving the power factor of a load supplied from a
transformer, the current through the transformer will be
reduced, thereby allowing more load to be added. In
practice, it may be less expensive to improve the power
factor(1) , than to replace the transformer by a larger unit.
10.6 Power Factor Correction:
Many loads are highly inductive, such a lightly loaded
motors and illumination transformers and ballasts.
You may want to correct the power factor by adding
parallel capacitors. You can also add series capacitors to
"remove" the effect of leakage inductance that limits the
output current.
Page 11
10.7 Equipment using for compensation:

1) Static VAR COMPENSATION by using bank of
capacitor
1.1) Fixed capacitors
Consists of capacitor bank connected in parallel with
the network, the total
Reactive power of capacitor bank is provided by the
assembly of capacitors of identical or different unit
powers.
The bank is energized by a contactor that simultaneously
supplies the capacitors (A single step).so this
arrangement is employed to form a constant level of
Compensation.
.Drawbacks of fixed power factor

Correction .
1) Danger of Excess Capacitance can cause leading
Power Factor at light load operation conditions.
2) Danger of Resonance.
3) An excess of capacitance in service can lead to higher
than desired voltages.
1.2) Automatic power factor correction system
(Automatic capacitor bank)
Consists of several capacitor banks of identical or
different powers (several steps), energized separately
according to the value of the power factor to be
corrected.
2) Synchronous condenser
Synchronous condenser is a Synchronous motor at
certain condition, this condition is:
Page 12
1) Synchronous motor running at no-load

2) Synchronous motor operates at over-excited.
(Lead current).
Disadvantage.
1 ) Have losses.
2) The maintenance cost is high.
3) It produces noise.
10.8 Calculation of the capacitors

ratings:
Static capacitors_ units that used for power factor
Improvements are normally rated in terms of KVAR
To calculate the KVAR required for particular load
power factor improvement, three Informations are
necessary:
1- The load active power “KW” of the system
2- The existing power factor
3- The desired power factor.
. First method
This figure shows atypical required reactive power Qc

with power factor correction from cos ø1 to cos ø2
QC = Q1- Q2
Page 13
QC = p (tan (ø1)-tan (ø2))

C = QC /(6πfv^2)
• Where:
P: the active power
• Q1: the reactive power and the phase displacement
angle before power factor correction.
• Q2: the reactive power and the phase displacement
angle after power factor correction.
• Qc: the reactive power for power factor correction.
• C: the capacitance.
Calculations of the used compensator (capacitor bank) in

the project
We used automatic power factor correction (automatic
capacitor bank) and we put capacitor banks at
transformer (1) is equal to transformer (2) related to
HVAC
Total apparent power of project=767.193 KVA
Total active power=767.193*0.8=613.75 KW
Ø old=Cos-1 (0.8)=36.869
Ø new= Cos-1 (0.95) =18.19
Qc = P*(Tan Ø old – Tan Ø new )
Qc =613.75( Tan36.86-Tan18.19)=258.474 KVAR
C = Qc / (w *V^2) =5700.5 F
Page 14
. Second method
By using Schneider table
From this table
The intersection between the row of Cos Ø (before

correction) =0.8
0.95 = Ø (after correction) The row of Cos.&
Indicate the value of 0.42 KVAR of compensation per
KW of load
Page 15
Where P=613.75 KW
Required capacitor=kw * factor from table
Qc=613.75*0.42=257.775 KVAR
.9 Automatic power factor correction:

Most of the commercial and Industrial installations in the
country have large electrical loads which are severely
inductive in nature, such as motors, large machines, air
conditioners, drivers etc. Which results in a severely
lagging power factor. This means loss and wastage of
energy and heavy penalties by electricity boards. In case
of fixed loads this can be taken care by manual switching
of capacitors.
However in case of rapidly varying and scattered loads it

becomes difficult to maintain a high power factor by
manually switching on/off the capacitors in proportion to
variation of load within an installation. This drawback is
overcome by using an APFC panel (Automatic Power
Factor Correction Panel) which not only maintains a high
power factor but also eliminates the eliminates the need
for constant manual intervention.
.10 Location of capacitors:
Global compensation 1)
Where a load is continuous and
stable, global compensation can be
applied
Principle
The capacitor bank is connected to the bus bars of the
main LV distribution board for the installation, and remains
Page 16
in service during the period of normal load.

Advantages
The global type of compensation:
 Reduces the tariff penalties for excessive

consumption of kvars
 Reduces the apparent power kVA demand, on which
standing charges are usually based
 Relieves the supply transformer, which is then able to
accept more load if necessary
Comments
Reactive current still flows in all conductors of cables
leaving (i.e. downstream of) the main LV distribution board
 For the above reason, the sizing of these cables, and

power losses in them, are not improved by the global
mode of compensation.
Fig. L13: Global compensation
Compensation by sector 2)
Compensation by sector is recommended when the
installation is extensive, and where the load/time patterns
differ from one part of
the installation to another
Page 17
Principle
Capacitor banks are connected to bus bars of each local
distribution board, as shown in Figure L14.
A significant part of the installation benefits from this
arrangement, notably the feeder cables from the main
distribution board to each of the local distribution boards at
which the compensation measures are applied.
Advantages
The compensation by sector:

consumption of kvars
 Reduces the apparent power kVA demand, on which
standing charges are usually based
 Relieves the supply transformer, which is then able to
accept more load if necessary
 The size of the cables supplying the local distribution
boards may be reduced, or will have additional capacity
for possible load increases
 Losses in the same cables will be reduced

Comments
 Reactive current still flows in all cables downstream

of the local distribution boards
 For the above reason, the sizing of these cables, and
the power losses in them, are not improved by
compensation by sector
 Where large changes in loads occur, there is always
a risk of overcompensation and consequent
overvoltage problems
Page 18
Fig. L14: Compensation by sector
Individual compensation 3)
Individual compensation should be considered when the
power of motor is significant with respect to power of the
installation
Principle
Capacitors are connected directly to the terminals of
inductive circuit. Individual compensation should be
considered when the power of the motor is significant with
respect to the declared power requirement (kVA) of the
installation.
The KVAR rating of the capacitor bank is in the order of
25% of the kW rating of the motor. Complementary
Page 19
compensation at the origin of the installation (transformer)

may also be beneficial.
Advantages
Individual compensation:

consumption of KVARs
 Reduces the apparent power kVA demand
 Reduces the size of all cables as well as the cable
losses
Comments
 Significant reactive currents no longer exist in the

installation.
Page 20
Chapter 13 Emergency system
1. Introduction:
When install a distribution system for residential or
industrial application the existence of an emergency system
is a basic concept.
2. Types of loads according to its

importance:
a) Non-essential loads:
They are the loads which non necessary to operate for
any Period of time due to utility power failure such as
air conditions, Water heater, hand dryer, ……..
b) Essential loads:
They are the loads which must have a reliable supply

such as Lighting, fire alarm system, fire fighting system,
computers, Elevators, ……..
3. Emergency lighting system:

∑ When the general artificial lighting fails after power
outage, the emergency lighting system takes over.
Where there is a risk of accident after a power failure
so the safety lighting needs to be activated.
∑ Each emergency lighting unit has an internal battery

where when the source fails, this battery feeds this
emergency lighting unit.
∑ Each internal battery feeds its emergency lighting unit

by about 500 lumens only, where 1 lumen =0.0016
watt.
∑ The minimum value of the degree of illumination (E) of
the emergency lighting system is 1 lux.
∑ The emergency lighting units are usually wall mounted

at height about 2 m from finish floor level.
Page 2
∑ At each exit door.

∑ Near stairs.
∑ Near any change in floor level.
∑ At each intersection of corridors.
∑ At each change in direction.
∑ Near each help call point.
∑ At each manual fire fighting unit.
1) Escape lighting system:
∑ It is the lighting
which necessary
to empty the
building during
the emergencies.
∑ Its units operate

immediately and
automatically for
about two hours
when the
Page 3
general artificial lighting fails.

Its units are placed at stairs, outgoing corridors
and doors.
∑ Its units show carefully words such as (Exit) and
show also the correct directions (→).
2) Safety lighting system:
∑ It is the lighting which necessary to provide the

safety for the persons inside the building during
any works.
∑ It is necessary to provide the safety for the

building from stolen.
∑ Its units operate automatically for a large time
after the general artificial lighting fails by few
minutes.
3) Standby lighting system:
∑ It is necessary to continue the important

works as the repairing processes.
Page 4
A. Uninterruptible power supply.

B. Automatic transfer switch.
C. Diesel generator.
4. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS):

∑ The main function of uninterruptible power
supplies is to ensure continuity of electrical
power to the very high important loads when the
original supply fails.
∑ UPS consists mainly of
ÿ
Rectifier (Ac to Dc converter).
ÿ
Battery.
ÿ
Inverter (Dc to Ac converter).
Standard types of UPS:
1) Passive standby (off-line) UPS:
∑ It does not operate continuously, but only
when the Ac-input supply voltage goes
outside tolerances (utility power problem).
∑ This topology includes a filter which provide

a smoothing of the voltage which input to
the load.
∑ This topology is used for low power range ≤ 2
KVA.
Page 5
a) Normal mode
ÿ
The load is supplied from the Ac-input.
ÿ
The battery is charged through
charger from the Ac-input.
ÿ
The inverter is on passive standby.
b) Stored energy mode
ÿ
The load is supplied from the battery
through the inverter.
ÿ
The UPS continues to operate on
battery power for the duration of the
backup time or until the Ac-input
supply voltage returns to within the
specified tolerance, at which point the
UPS returns to its normal mode.
Advantages:
∑ Simple design.
∑ Low cost.
∑ Small size.
Disadvantages:
∑ No real isolation of the load

from the distribution
system.
∑ Long transferring (switching) time.
2) Double conversion (on-line) UPS:
The inverter is connected continuously in series
between the Ac-input supply voltage and the load
Page 6
An input rectifier/charger that rectifies the

Ac-input supply volttage used to charge a
battery as well as support an inverter.
∑ A battery suppling backup energy in the event of
a utility power outage to the load through the
inverter.
∑ The static bypass capable of transferring the
load to bypass power (utility power)
without a break in the supply of power.
This topology is the most common type of UPS

above 10 KVA.
a) Normal mode
ÿ
The load is continuously supplied via the
rectifier/charger – inverter combination.
b) Stored energy mode

ÿ
When the Ac-input voltage goes outside
UPS preset tolerances or fails, the inverter
and battery continue to support load
power until the end of the stored energy
Page 7
time or the Ac-input return to within UPS

preset tolerances, at which point the UPS
returns to normal mode.
∑ Isolation of the load from the

distribution system.
∑ Instantaneous transfer to
stored energy mode.
Disadvantages:
∑ High cost.
3) Line interactive UPS:

∑ The inverter is connected in parallel acts to
backup utility power.
∑ The battery to inverter is always connected to
the output of the UPS.
Page 8
∑ This topology is used for power range 0.5-5 KVA.

Operating principle:
a) Normal mode
ÿ
The load is supplied from the Ac-input
power via a parallel connection of the UPS
inverter with the Ac main.
ÿ
The inverter charges the battery
(reversible operation).
b)Stored energy mode

ÿ
When the input power fails, the transfer
switch opens and the power flows from
the battery to the UPS output.
The inverter and battery continue to support load power

until the end of the stored energy time or the Ac-input
return to within UPS preset tolerances, at which point the
UPS returns to normal mode.
.
Advantages:
low cost.
Disadvantages:
∑ No real isolation of the load

from the distribution
system.
∑ Low efficiency.
∑ Poor protection against overvoltage.
Page 9
1) VA rating.
2) Efficiency.
3) Cost.
4) Operating time.
The used UPS in this project:
We use separated standby UPS unit (40 KVA)
Page 10
Automatic transfer switch (ATS):

Automatic Transfer Switches are an integral part of the
power generation process, allowing smooth and immediate
transfer of electrical current between multiple sources and
the load .
Theory of operation:
The transfer switches senses the interruption of the utility
power by means of sensors and relays and transfers
electrical loads from a normal source to an emergency
source (generator set). When a normal power is restored,
the switch automatically retransfers to the normal source by
the same way.
Types of ATS:
1) Open transition transfer device:
Open the connected source before closing the new
source, causing a total power interruption for a short
period of time.
Page 11
2) Fast closed-transition transfer devices:

Operates like an open-transition transfer switch when
a source has failed,
But will parallel the two sources for 100 milliseconds
or less and then disconnect when both sources are
available, so a total interruption of power is avoided.
Basic Components of ATS:
∑ Time Delay Relay.

∑ Test Switch.
The operational states of ATS:

ATS operates when the original Ac-input voltage supply fails
or recovers or when Loss of voltage on bus bar occurs.
Page 12
Importance of Using ATS:
∑ To keep continuity of supplying the loads.

∑ To keep outages time to minimum value as the load
automatically switched to an alternative stand by source, if the
original preferred source is lost for any reason.
∑ It also ensures that different power sources are fully
synchronized before their power is combined or loads are
transferred, which is imperative for safe operation.
How can a selector work ?

the ATS contains a selector switch which has 4 position
1_ off position
∑ In this case the contactors of the main and
generator are off
∑
2_ main supply position
In this case the contactor off main supply is close and
the contactor of generator is open
3_ generator position
In this case if the output power from the generator is
regular for 4 sec the contactor of the main supply close
and the contactor of generator is open
4_ automatic position
It is the important position which always used when
the electric current is off from the main supply there is
a signal sent to open the generator if the current come
back from the main supply after 10 sec the contactor of
generator is off and the contactor of main supply is on
Page 13
1. Diesel generator:
Electric generator:
In electricity generation, an electric generator is a device that
converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.
A generator forces electrons in the windings to flow through
the external electrical circuit. It is somewhat analogous to a
water pump, which creates a flow of water but does not create
the water inside. The source of mechanical energy may be a
reciprocating or turbine steam
engine, water falling through a
turbine or waterwheel, an internal
combustion engine, a wind turbine,
a hand crank, compressed air or
any other source of mechanical
energy.
The reverse conversion of electrical
energy into mechanical energy is
done by an electric motor, and motors and generators have
many similarities. In fact many motors can be mechanically
driven to generate electricity, and very frequently make
acceptable generators
Terminology:
The two main parts of a generator or motor can be described
in either mechanical or electrical terms
a) Mechanical:
Rotor: The rotating part of an electrical machine

Stator: The stationary part of an electrical machine
Page 14
b) Electrical:
Armature: The power-producing component of an electrical

machine. In a generator, alternator, or dynamo the armature
windings generate the electric current. The armature can be
on either the rotor or the stator.
Field: The magnetic field component of an electrical
machine. The magnetic field of the dynamo or alternator can
be provided by either electromagnets or permanent magnets
mounted on either the rotor or the stator.
Because power transferred into the field circuit is much less than in
the armature circuit, AC generators nearly always have the field
winding on the rotor and the stator as the armature winding. Only a
small amount of field current must be transferred to the moving
rotor, using slip rings. Direct current machines (dynamos) require a
commutator on the rotating shaft to convert the alternating current
produced by the armature to direct current, so the armature
winding is on the rotor of the machine.
11.2.3 Types of diesel generator:

1. engine-driven
2. tractor-driven.
Basic Components of Standby Generator Set:

1) Diesel generator (engine & generator).
2) Transformer switch.
3) Over current protective devices.
Page 15
Factors of diesel generator selection:
1) The required kilowatts or kilo-volt-ampere.

2) The required reserve capacity of the generator
for future expansion in the load.
3) The system voltage level.
4) The required operation mechanism
∑ Manual.
∑ Semi-automatic.
∑ Automatic.
5) The generator size and cost.
Page 16
Installation Conditions of standby generator:

1) The room should be great enough to contain the
machine with its accessories with the existing of
spaces, which allow safe, right maintenance and the
ability of removing any part outside the room if any
external maintenance is needed.
2) Good ventilation for this room is a must due to the

large radiated heat from the generating unit.
3) The location of fuel tank and the feeding type are

affected by the room height, usually large tanks are
located in the ground level, and pump is needed to feed
the machine with fuel.
4) We should care about exhaust path, it must be as short

as possible. Also we must increase the cross section
area of exhaust pipe.
5) The connection between the machine and exhaust pipe

must be flexible to prevent the vibration transfer to
exhaust pipe, which may damage it.
6) In case of using two-generating units, we must design

the exhaust system of each generator separate than the
other.
Page 17
7) The temperature of exhaust pipe should not reaches 500

degree C beside the machine otherwise the heat
reradiating from exhaust pipe to machine room.
8) The cables exiting from the generator terminal box

must be flexible and withstand mechanical and thermal
stresses.
A diesel generator is used for supplying the following

1) 10-20 % from total loads of lighting and power Total
KVA for Lighting & Sockets = 62 KVA
2) elevators
Total KVA = 8.8KVA
3) Firefighting pump = 100 KVA
4) Water pump = 10 KVA
TOTAL KVA =62+8.8+90+10 = 180.8 KVA
Take 20-25 % reserve capacity to allow for motor starting
and for some future expansion in load.
∴ Generator rating required = 275 KVA
Page 18
Page 19
Chapter 14 Calculations
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Benha University

First of all we would like to give our great thanks to

Dr. Abd Elsalam Hafez Hamza.

For helping, encouraging us to work hard.

Electricity and electric power is most important field in

1. About the project:

To get a general idea about the size and the amount of

The IMC consists of:

2.1. Designing steps:

The design must go through the following

Step 1: Load Estimation

Step 2: Light Distribution

Step 3: Sockets Distribution

Step 4: Power Load Distribution

Step 5: Load Balance

All of the previous steps are done taking in

After performing load balance on each board we

Step 7: Cable C.S.A

Step 8: Transformer Rating

Based on the final total load at the main distributions

Step 9: Voltage Drop Calculation

Step 10: CB Breaking Capacity

From the available information about cables and

Step 11: Riser Diagram Of The Hospital

Now we got all the information we need about

2.2 Good system requirements:

Electrical Load Estimation

At the beginning of the project,in the draft design (early

 Make Analysis of load characteristics,

 Review The available voltage system types/classes

 Review the utility’s rate structure,

 Make roughly a key single-line diagram and a set of

 Develop Demand factor relationship between

Importance of Electrical Load Estimation ( preliminary

Electrical Load Estimation is very important in the draft

 Plan the connection to upstream network and MV

 Plan the transformers substation(s) (if any) and the

 Apply to Power Company for supply.

 Calculate initial budget for the electrical works.

Definition of Important terms in Load Estimation:

there are many Important terms which must be

It is the Sum of all the loads connected to the electrical

It is The electric load at the receiving terminals averaged

It is The period over which the load is averaged, usually

It is The greatest of all demands that have occurred

5- Demand factor (in IEC , Factor of maximum

In normal operating conditions the power consumption of

The demand factor is the ratio of the maximum demand

Demand factor = Maximum demand load / Total load

 This factor must be applied to each individual load,

 Demand factors for buildings typically range

higher demand factors, even approaching 100

6- Coincidence factor (in IEC, Factor of simultaneity

It is a matter of common experience that the

The coincidence factor is the ratio of the maximum

Coincidence factor = Maximum system demand / Sum

 The factor ks is applied to each group of loads (e.g.

The diversity factor is the reciprocal of the coincidence

 The Diversity Factor is applied to each group of

Difference between demand and diversity factor:

most of the electrical engineers confuse between the

 The Demand factor must be applied to each

 The Diversity Factor is applied to each group of

The load factor is the ratio of the average load over a

Lamps : (128W+114W) TL-5 Fluorescent lamp