Microscopes

0:36

cells with a normal light microscope and maybe the nucleus but the sub cellular structures won't
really be visible using

0:41

an electron microscope however allows us to see far finer details so we can see an image of the
organelles as such these

0:48

microscopes have a better resolving power and a higher resolution we say we can calculate the
actual size of a cell

0:54

by knowing the magnification of the microscope magnification is equal to image so size divided
by object size

1:01

therefore rearranging this we can measure the size of the image then divide by the magnification
and that

Cells

1:07

gives us the actual cell size we put them into two main groups eukaryotic cells have a nucleus in
which their DNA

1:13

is found that's your plant and animal cells for example prokaryotic cells don't have a nucleus and
their DNA is

1:20

found in a ring called a plasmid both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells contain similar organelles
or subcellular

1:26
structures the cell membrane keeps everything inside the cell but they're also semi-permeable
which means they

1:32

allow certain substances to pass through plant cells and most bacteria have an extra cell wall
made of cellulose

1:38

providing a rigid structure for them cytoplasm is the liquid that makes up the cell in which most
chemical

1:44

reactions take place mitochondria is where respiration takes place releasing energy for the cell to
function

1:50

ribosomes are where proteins are assembled or synthesized plant cells also contain chloroplasts
which contain

1:57

chlorophyll with photosynthesis takes place plant cells also contain a permanent vacuole in
which sap is stored

Diffusion, osmosis & active transport

2:03

diffusion is the movement of molecules or particles from an area of high concentration to an area
of low

2:09

concentration we say they move down the concentration gradient like a ball just rolling down a
hill it'll do it by

2:14

itself this doesn't require any energy input so we say it's passive this will happen across a semi-
permeable membrane

2:21
if the holes are large enough for the molecules to move through for example water can pass
through but glucose will

2:27

not at least not by diffusion anyway osmosis is the name specifically given to the diffusion of
water across such a

2:33

membrane for example if there is a higher concentration of glucose outside a cell the glucose
cannot diffuse in to

2:39

balance the concentration so instead the water moves out of the cell resulting in a decrease in its
mass the rate of

2:46

diffusion on osmosis can be increased by increasing the difference in concentrations increasing

the

2:51

temperature or increasing the surface area this is why the Villi in your small intestine are lumpy
as well as alveoli

2:57

in your lungs and Roo hair cells for example to the Practical on osmosis goes as follows cut
equal size cylinders from

3:04

a potato or other vegetable weigh them and place in test tubes with varying concentration of
sugar solution after a

3:10

day or so we remove them damp the excess water off their surface and re-way we

3:16

calculate percentage change in mass by doing final Mass takeaway initial mass divided by the
initial mass times 100 if
3:22

it's lighter than it was before this must be a negative change in mass we plot these percentages
against sugar

3:28

concentration and we draw a liner best fit where this crosses the x-axis is

3:33

what concentration should result in no change in mass so no osmosis so this

3:38

means this must be the same as the concentration inside the potato glucose and other nutrients
and minerals can

3:44

move through a membrane by active transport where carrier proteins use energy to move
substances through the

3:50

membrane as there's energy used this can actually move them against a concentration gradient
for example moving mineral ions into plant root hair

Organisation: cells, tissues and organs

3:58

cells is when cells get organized together that things get interesting though when similar cells are
connected

4:04

we call this a tissue say heart tissue tissues form organs for example your heart and organs work
together in an

4:10

organ system like your circulatory system your digestive system breaks down food you eat into
useful nutrients for

Digestive system
4:17

your body to use acid in your stomach breaks it down bile and enzymes work together in your
small

4:22

intestine to break it down further bile is made in the liver and stored in the gallbladder before
being used what it

4:27

does is neutralize the acid from the stomach and also emulsifies fats to form droplets that
increases their surface

4:34

area exposed to the enzyme so they're broken down faster teeth are used to physically digest food
before it gets to

Teeth

4:40

the stomach where it's chemically digested it's physically digested because it's just broken down
into

4:46

smaller bits the food isn't being changed into anything else this increases the food particle
surface area

4:52

so that means that chemical digestion say with enzymes can happen at a greater rate here's a
cross-section of a tooth

4:59

and the different parts that it consists of we have four main types of teeth in sizes canines for
ripping food apart and

5:07

premolars and molars for chewing enzymes are biological catalysts some of which break down
larger molecules into smaller
Enzymes

5:13

ones that can then be absorbed by the Villi in your small intestine into the bloodstream to be
transferred supported

5:18

to every part of your body for example amylase is the enzyme that breaks down starch into
glucose it's found in your

5:25

small intestine and saliva enzymes are specific that is they only break down certain molecules for
example

5:30

carbohydrates is break down carbohydrates into simple sugars amylase is one of these proteases
break down

5:37

proteins into amino acids and lipases break down lipids that's fat into glycerol and fatty acids
they're

5:44

specific because they work on a lock and key principle the substrate for example the starch binds
to the enzyme's active

5:50

site we then call this a complex however this can only happen if the substrate is the right shape in
order to fit the

5:56

active site in reality they're incredibly complex shapes no pun intended these shapes here are just
to

6:02

represent them much like a lock and key it only works if they're the right shape for each other the
rate of enzyme
6:07

activity increases with temperature due to the molecules having more energy that is until the
active site changes shape

6:14

and so the substrate no longer binds we say the enzyme has denatured this maximum rate occurs
at the optimum

6:21

temperature Optimum meaning best this is similar for pH as well except it can denature too high
or too low PH the

6:28

Practical on this involves mixing amylase with stars at different temperatures or with different
pH buffer Solutions once mixed we start timing

6:35

then every 10 seconds we remove a couple of drops and put in a spot in tile dimple with iodine to
begin with the

6:40

iodine will turn black due to the still being starch present but eventually it will stay orange
showing that all of the

6:46

stars has been broken down calculate the time taken to do that then plot these times against pH or
temperature draw a

6:53

curved liner best fit and the lowest point is where the starch would have taken the shortest time
to be broken down that's the optimum temperature or

7:00

pH however in true biology fashion we're technically not allowed to interpolate between points
for some reason so we

7:06
must only say that the optimum pH or temperature is between the two lowest points shrug food
tests allow us to

Food tests

7:13

identify what nutrients are in our grub iodine turns from Orange to Black in the present of stars
like we just saw

7:19

Benedict's solution turns from Blue to Orange in the presence of sugars burouette's reagent turns
from Blue to

7:25

purple with proteins cold ethanol will go cloudy with lipids that is fats you

Diet & nutrition

7:31

need to eat a balanced diet in order to get all of the nutrients needed to keep you healthy
carbohydrates provide energy

7:38

starch for example is found in bread cereal pasta and potatoes fats and oils

7:43

or lipids are also a source of energy found in butter and nuts for example proteins are needed for
growth and

7:49

repair found in meat eggs and nuts vitamins are needed to keep you healthy

7:54

and are found in fruits and vegetables too little vitamin C and you develop scurvy which ruins
your gums and hair

8:01
too little vitamin D can be detrimental to your bones and muscles then you develop rickets
causing your legs to Bow

8:08

minerals or mineral ions are similar for example calcium is needed for healthy bones otherwise
you can develop

8:14

osteoporosis while iron is needed for red blood cells otherwise you you become anemic you
develop anemia fiber also

8:22

called roughage sometimes it's found in bread cereal fruit and vegetables this keeps your
digestive system working

8:28

properly water of course is needed by every cell in your body respiratory system next all to do
with breathing and

Respiratory system

8:35

gas exchange breathing isn't respiration but it does provide the necessary oxygen for respiration
to happen in our cells

8:40

the air moves down the trachea into the bronchite then the bronchioles and ends up in the alveoli
the air sacs where it

8:47

diffuses into the blood vessels around it like we said earlier alveoli are lumpy to have a large
surface area so

8:53

this happens at a fast rate the oxygen then binds to the hemoglobin in your red blood cells they
then transport it to

8:59
every cell in your body to be used for respiration carbon dioxide made from respiration is
dissolved into the plasma

9:04

of the blood which diffuses into the lungs and is exhaled some water is also excreted this way too
as you know when

9:10

you breathe on a cold mirror the heart is at the center of the circulatory or circulatory system the
transport system

Heart

9:16

of your body we call it a double double circulatory system blood enters the heart twice every
time it's pumped

9:22

around the body deoxygenated blood from the body enters in the right side of your heart by the
way you always look at

9:28

the heart as if it's yours and it enters through the vena cava the main vein into the right atrium of
the heart the valve

9:34

between the right atrium and the right ventricle stops backflow just like all valves to stop
deoxygenated blood from

9:41

going back into the body the heart muscles contract and it goes through the pulmonary artery to
the lungs to be

9:47

oxygenated it then comes back to the heart through the pulmonary vein into the left atrium then it
goes into the

9:53
left ventricle then out to the body through the aorta the left side of the heart has thicker walls as
the left

9:58

ventricle has to pump blood to the whole body while the right ventricle only pumps to the lungs
the group of cells

10:04

near the right atrium create electrical pulses that cause the heart muscles to contract the heart to
beat if these

10:10

aren't working properly you can be given an artificial pacemaker to do the same job blood
vessels that go away from the

Circulatory system

10:15

heart are always arteries veins towards that means that arteries carry oxygenated blood apart
from the

10:22

pulmonary artery and vice versa for veins arteries have thicker walls to withstand a higher
pressure so they have

10:29

a thinner Lumen that's the hole in the middle veins have thinner walls due to the lower blood
pressure but have valves

10:35

to stop backflow like we said arteries split and get smaller and smaller until they end up as Tiny
capillaries with one

10:41

cell thick walls to allow the faster Fusion of molecules in and out of cells the heart is a muscle so
it needs its

10:48
own supply of oxygen and therefore blood to keep the muscle pumping this is delivered by the
coronary artery if

10:55

these are blocked by the buildup of fatty deposits a heart attack can occur this is CHD coronary
heart disease

11:01

stents are little tubes that are inserted into blood vessels to keep them open so blood can flow in
this case

11:06

statins are drugs that reduce cholesterol which in turn reduces the fatty deposits faulty heart
valves

11:13

result in backflow occurring these can be replaced with artificial ones along with plasma and red
blood cells Blood

11:19

also carries white blood cells which combat infections more on this later and platelets which
Clump together to clot

11:25

wounds and stop bleeding plants also have organs leaves are where photosynthesis takes place
producing

Plants structure - transpiration & translocation

11:31

food for the plant water also leaves the plant through them allowing transpiration to take place
the

11:36

diffusing of water into roots and up the xylem roots are where water and mineral ions enter the
plant the merry stem is

11:42
where new cells are made like we saw earlier xylem are the long continuous tubes which water
rises up we say it's

11:48

unidirectional only goes in One Direction that's transpiration like we said while phloem are the
conveyor belts

11:54

of cells that transport sugars food and sap up and down the Plant we call this translocation that's
bi-directional the

12:01

rate of transpiration can be increased by the following increasing the temperature decreasing the
humidity and

12:06

increasing the air movement all of these result in water evaporating from the leaves at a faster
rate just for triple

12:12

real quick the lack of nitrate ions means the plant can't synthesize proteins effectively and that
stunts

12:18

growth chlorosis is the scientific term for the yellowing of leaves but this can be due to
magnesium deficiency as it's

12:23

needed to make chlorophyll the cross-section of a leaf looks like this and every layer has its own
specific function at the top we have the

Leaf structure

12:30

waterproof waxy cuticle not to stop water from entering the leaf but to stop it from evaporating
from the top and

12:36
causing the leaf to dry out the upper epidermis epidermis just means outer layer consists of
transparent cells that

12:42

allow light to pass through to the palisade mesophyll layer mesophyll just means a layer in the
middle these are

12:48

chock full of chloroplasts so this is where the majority of photosynthesis takes place under that is
the spongy

12:53

mesophyll layer that has lots of gaps around the cells to increase the surface area through which
gas exchange can

12:59

occur carbon dioxide diffuses into the cells while oxygen and water diffuse out we also have the
vascular bundle that

13:06

includes the xylem and phloem the lower epidermis is the bottom most layer of the leaf and it has
holes in it called

13:12

stomata which is how gases enter and exit the leaf the size of a stoma is controlled by the guard
cells that flank

13:19

the hole they change size to control the rate at which gases enter and leave for example they
close the stomata at night

13:26

to reduce the rate of water loss as less water is needed for photosynthesis cvd

Non-communicable diseases

13:31
cardiovascular disease is an example of a non-communicable disease as the cause

13:36

of it comes from inside your body other examples of such diseases include autoimmune
conditions like allergic

13:43

reactions and cancer a communicable disease must be caused by a pathogen that enters your
body that will cause a

13:49

viral bacterial or fungal infection again more on these in a bit back to non-communicable
diseases obesity and

13:56

too much sugar can cause type 2 diabetes a bad diet smoking and lack of exercise can affect the
risk of heart disease

14:02

alcohol can cause liver diseases smoking lung disease or cancer a carcinogen is

14:08

the name given to anything that increases the risk of cancer for example ionizing radiation cancer
is a result of

14:15

damaged cells dividing uncontrollably leading to tumors benign cancers don't

14:20

spread through the body and they're relatively easy to treat however malignant cancers are when
these

14:25

cancerous cells spread through your body much worse as mentioned just now communicable
diseases are caused by

Communicable diseases: bacteria, viruses & fungi

14:31

pathogens that can be viruses bacteria fungi or protists these are single-celled parasites they all

14:37

reproduce in your body and cause damage but viruses can't reproduce by themselves a virus is in
fact just a

14:43

protein casing that surrounds genetic code that it injects into a cell which causes the cell to
produce more copies

14:50

of the virus the cell explodes and the virus goes on to infect more cells creepy isn't it measles is a
virus that

14:57

causes a rash and it can actually be pretty deadly too it's spread by droplets from sneezes or
coughs HIV is

15:03

an STD or STI sexually transmitted disease or infection that compromises your immune system
this

15:10

is also called aids for short it can also be spread by people sharing needles bacteria on the other
hand release

15:16

toxins that damage your body's cells like salmonella in undercooked food or gonorrhea another
STD that causes a

15:23

yellow discharge from the genitalia yeah fungi do something similar like

15:28
athlete's foot while protists do all sorts of different things for example malaria is caused by a
protist that

15:34

burrows into red blood cells to multiply then burst out destroying the red blood cell in the
process it's spread by

15:40

mosquitoes so we say mosquitoes are the vector for the disease not only animals though plants
are particularly

15:46

susceptible to fungal infections like rose black spot purple black spots appear on the leaves and
then they fall

15:53

off such infections can be treated with fungicides tobacco mosaic virus affects

15:58

plants by discoloring leaves due to inhibiting chlorophyll production less photosynthesis occurs
and that causes

Defences, immune response & vaccines

16:04

stunted growth our bodies are excellent at protecting us from from these pathogens though thank
goodness skin is

16:10

the first barrier to them entering and if they do enter your nose and trachea they can be trapped
by mucus acid and

16:16

enzymes in your digestive system will destroy them too if they still manage to enter the
bloodstream though white blood

16:22
cells are ready to combat them one type of these are called lymphocytes they produce antitoxins
to neutralize the

16:27

poisons pathogens produce and also they make antibodies which stick to the antigen on a
pathogen and this stops

16:34

them from being able to infect more cells and it makes them Clump together phagocytes are then
able to ingest them

16:40

and Destroy them an antigen on a pathogen will have a specific shape so that means only an
antibody that fits it

16:47

will neutralize it if pathogens are unknown to the immune system lymphocytes will start making
all different shapes

16:53

until one fits miraculously your immune system will then store a copy of this antibody next to a
copy of the antigen

17:00

so it's ready to stop it from causing an infection next time you're exposed to it you now have
immunity a vaccine is a

17:07

dead or an inert version of a pathogen usually a virus that exposes your immune system to the
pathogen so it can produce

17:13

the antibody without it infecting you for example the flu vaccine you're injected with the virus
that has been

17:18
irradiated so the DNA has been damaged inside so we can't do the job incidentally the coverage
of however was

17:25

intended to work differently instead you're injected with the DNA technically mRNA needed to
trick your cells into

17:31

synthesizing parts of the virus including the antigen it was the first widely used jab that used this
mRNA

Drugs & antibiotics

17:38

technology antibiotics kill bacteria they don't kill viruses penicillin was

17:43

the first one there are good bacteria in our bodies so antibiotics are designed to be as specific as
possible because

17:49

you don't want to damage those or your body cells either problem is as bacteria mutate they can
become resistant to them

17:56

so the more you use them the less effective they become drugs used to be extracted from plants
and other organisms for example aspirin comes from

18:03

willow trees penicillin from a mold now synthesizing drugs is one of the biggest industries on the
planet they have to be

18:10

trialed to see how effective they are and to check for side effects first we do lab trials on Cell
tissue then trials

18:17
on animals next human trials we give the drug to a group of people but we also give a placebo to
a control group

18:24

without telling them say a pill that's just sugar not the actual drug this is what we call a blind trial
because the

18:30

test subjects don't know what they're taking a double-blind trial is when even those analyzing the
results from the

18:37

tests aren't aware of which group is which and that's to eliminate any bias photosynthesis
happens in chlorophyll

Photosynthesis

18:43

and chloroplasts in plant cells to provide food for the plant here's the word and balance chemical
equation for

18:48

it and as energy is needed in the form of light to make this reaction happen this is an endothermic
reaction the

18:55

glucose made from photosynthesis is used for respiration or is turned into starch or fat as a store
of energy cellulose is

19:02

used to produce cell walls and amino acids are used for synthesizing proteins the rate of
photosynthesis this is

19:08

increased with higher temperature unless it's so high that enzyme denaturing occurs increase in
light intensity or

19:15
increasing CO2 concentration any one of these can be a limiting factor by the way for example
even if there's lots of

19:21

CO2 and it's warm if there's not enough light the rate will be limited by this in other words it
doesn't matter how

19:27

much you increase the other two it won't get any faster a graph might look like this before the
graph plateaus levels

19:34

out the variable on the x-axis has to be the limiting factor after it isn't it

19:40

must be one of the other two instead if you have two lines for example different temperatures
then temperature must be a

19:45

limiting factor here's the Practical on this we can measure the rate of photosynthesis by
submerging Pond weeds

19:50

in an inverted measuring cylinder we measure the volume of oxygen made over time we can
instead count the bubbles

19:56

but it's less accurate the independent variable could be the light intensity and that's changed by
varying the

20:01

distance from the light source for example a lamp however light intensity follows an inverse
Square relationship

20:07

and in other words if you double the distance the light intensity quarters three times further one-
ninth of the
Respiration

20:13

intensity every cell bar red blood cells has a mitochondria which is where respiration takes place
to provide

20:19

energy for every organism for other chemical reactions to take place for movement and warmth
aerobic respiration

20:26

means with oxygen here's the word and balanced chemical equation as you can see it's just the
opposite of

20:31

photosynthesis during exercise your breathing rate and heart rate increase to increase the rate of
oxygen delivered

20:36

to cells for respiration anaerobic respiration occurs when there's a lack of oxygen glucose is
instead converted

20:42

straight into lactic acid which releases less energy this is what you feel when your muscles ache
during intense

20:48

exercise this poison can't stay in your body so there is an oxygen debt built up

20:53

that means more oxygen is needed afterward to break it down in the liver whereas turned back
into glucose hence

20:59

why you're breathing rate and heart rate take some time to return to normal after exercise plants
and yeast cells respire
21:05

anaerobically but slightly different instead glucose is turned into ethanol and carbon dioxide
that's why yeast is

21:12

added when baking the CO2 bubbles made cause the bread or the cake to rise this can also be
called fermentation it's

21:18

also used to make alcoholic drinks as ethanol is produced grouping all of these together
Metabolism is defined as

21:25

the sum of all reactions in a cell or organism these can include respiration conversion of glucose
and starch

21:32

glycogen and cellulose glucose can also be built into cellulose which is used to make cell walls
glucose and nitrates are

21:38

used to make amino acids for protein synthesis fatty acids and glycerol are built up into lipids
and also the

21:45

breakdown of excess proteins this is turned into urea more about that in paper too homeostasis is
the term given

Homeostasis

21:52

to an organism's ability to regulate internal conditions even when external conditions change this
is important so

21:59

that crucial chemical reactions involving enzymes can happen at an Optimum rate amongst other
things our
22:04

bodies work hard to regulate blood glucose concentration temperature and water levels for
example one way that

Nervous system

22:11

our body achieves this is with our nervous system it consists of the CNS that's central nervous
system that's the

22:17

brain and spinal cord and the pns peripheral nervous system the nerves that go through the rest of
the body a

22:23

receptor for example skin detects a change due to a stimulus like a hot hob an electrical signal
travels to the

22:30

spine through sensory and relay neurons nerve cells the signal travels across the gap between
these neurons called the

22:36

synapse by a neurotransmitter chemical once at the spine the signal can go to the brain where
you can make the

22:42

conscious decision to act the signal then goes back to an effector like the muscle in your arm via
relay and motor

22:49

neurons so that you move your arm a reflex is when the signal bypasses the brain and goes
straight through the

22:55

spine to the effector this is a reflex arc this of course is much faster than a conscious decision
glands can also be
23:02

effectors which produce specific chemicals your body needs depending on the situation for
example your salivary

23:07

glands in your mouth making saliva when you eat food you can investigate into reaction Times
by holding the bottom of

23:13

a ruler between a person's finger and thumb and drop it without warning then you measure the
distance it falls before

23:19

they catch it do this multiple times and take a mean average not too too many times though as
their nervous systems

23:24

will start to get a bit better at reacting to this you can introduce an independent variable like a
stimulant

23:29

for example coffee or a sugary drink or a depressant which will have the opposite effect although
I can't think of any ones that are legal for you at

23:36

the minute to see how they decrease or increase Reaction Time respectively you could calculate
the reaction time from

23:42

the distance using suvat S equals half 80 squared but you'll never be expected to do that in this
paper but it's

23:48

something you could mention if you were asked a six marker on this quite a bit that's just for
triple biology now

Brain
23:53

that's the brain eye and thermoregulation Skip to hormones if you're doing combined Trilogy that
is

23:59

double science there are three parts of the brain you need to know the cerebral cortex is
responsible for higher level

24:04

functions like memory speech and problem solving the cerebellum is responsible for your motor
skills movement balancing

24:10

coordination the medulla oblongata controls unconscious actions your body takes you don't think
about them like

24:16

your heart and breathing rates it's also what controls the release of adrenaline MRI scans Mega
resonance imaging are a

24:24

way of seeing the activity in your brain safely if something goes wrong with your brain though it
can be very difficult or

24:29

impossible to treat without damaging important parts of it your eyes are the most mind-
bogglingly designed cameras

Eye

24:35

ever conceived of accommodation is the eye's ability to change the shape of the lens in order to
focus light that comes

24:42

from objects that are different distances away on the retina to focus light that comes from objects
that are far away the ciliary muscles relax and
24:49

the suspensory ligaments tighten they're both connected to the lens this results in the lens
becoming thin and that means

24:56

that light is only refracted a little bit and that focuses the light on the retina to focus on near
objects the

25:02

opposite is true the ciliary muscles contract the suspensory ligaments slacken and the lens
becomes fatter or

25:09

thicker and so that means that it becomes more powerful actually so light is refracted more which
means that the light coming from the object still

25:15

converges meets focuses on the retina so you can see a clear image the pupil the

25:21

hole in the iris can change range size depending on the light intensity hitting the eye the cornea is
the transparent

25:27

outer layer where light enters the eye it has a slight lensing effect itself while the White surface
that covers the

25:32

rest is called the sclera the light is focused then on the retina at the back of the eye which consists
of Rod and

25:38

Cone cells which respond to light rods can only detect light intensity so no color while there are
three different

25:44
types of cones which detect green blue or red wavelengths of light a mix of which will produce
the colors we then

25:51

perceive when the signal reaches our brain via the optic nerve myopia is the medical term for
short-sightedness you

25:58

can't focus on Far objects hyperopia is long-sightedness glasses or contact

26:03

lenses are usually used to mitigate this by slightly converging or diverging the light before it
enters the eye laser eye

26:09

surgery aims to change the shape of the cornea to achieve the same effect thermoregulation is
your body

Thermoregulation

26:15

controlling its internal temperature by the brain sensing blood temperature then sending nervous
and hormonal signals to

26:22

various effectors around your body in order that your body loses heat to its surroundings more
slowly or quickly for

26:28

example if you're too hot sweat glands in your skin cause water to cover the surface this
evaporates taking heat away

26:34

from your body quickly blood vessels also dilate widen we call this vasodilation to increase
blood flow to

26:41
the skin to increase the rate of heat loss too cold we have vasoconstriction instead hence why you
go pale you also

26:47

shiver which causes your muscles to produce more heat okay back to double size goodness
which is for everyone the

Hormones & endocrine system

26:53

endocrine system is a system of glands that produce or secrete hormones that travel to effectors
Via the blood this

27:00

is of course slower than any signal carried by the nervous system the pituitary gland in your
brain can be

27:05

considered the main or Master gland as it produces hormones in response to stimuli that travel to
other glands in

27:12

your body in order that they start then producing certain chemicals examples are the pancreas
which produces insulin

27:18

we'll talk more about that in a bit the thyroid controls all sorts of things like like growth heart
muscle and

27:23

digestive function and more the adrenal glands produce adrenaline and the ovaries and testes
release eggs or

27:30

produce sperm depending on which you have speaking of the pancreas then it's involved in
making sure that your blood

Controlling blood sugar - insulin & diabetes

27:35

glucose levels aren't too high or too low too high and the pancreas secretes insulin which causes
glucose to move

27:41

from the blood into your cells to be used for respiration any excess glucose

27:46

can be converted into glycogen to store energy and that's done by the liver too

27:52

low on the other hand and the pancreas produces another hormone called glucagon which causes
the liver and muscles to

27:57

turn glycogen back into glucose ready to be used type 1 diabetes is what you have when your
pancreas can't produce enough

28:03

insulin and you have to take insulin injections to do the job instead type 2 is when your cells no
longer absorb the

28:09

glucose as they should so you have to be careful with your diet and if you're overweight or obese
you have a much

28:15

higher risk of developing this water and nitrogen balance are triple only so skip to the next topic
reproduction if you

Excreting water & nitrogen

28:21

adjust double your body loses water when you exhale sweat or urinate if your body has too much
water let's say for example

28:27
you drink too much your kidneys remove it from your blood at a faster rate where it's mixed with
urea to become

28:33

urine urea is made from ammonia which is produced from excess proteins broken down into
amino acids by the liver if

28:40

that wasn't the case too much water builds up in your body and too much water would go into
your cells by osmosis and then they'd become turgid

28:47

and burst too little water however and they become flaccid and stop working kidneys do a good
job of keeping the

28:53

water balance just right kidneys also filter your blood to absorb useful substances like glucose
and some ions a

Kidneys

29:00

bit more detail about how the kidneys work then anti-diuretic hormone or ADH is produced in
the pituitary gland which

29:06

travels to the kidneys and it causes the tubules in the kidney to reabsorb more water into the
bloodstream so less then

29:12

goes to the bladder the water level is too high less ADH is produced so the kidneys cause more
water to be lost in

29:18

urine in both cases the water level returns to normal we call this negative feedback the term
negative feedback

29:24
might sound like it's bad but all it means is that the body responds in such a way as to return
things to normal if

29:31

your kidneys aren't working properly dialysis is required essentially your blood is sent through a
machine that does the same job as your kidneys this

29:37

doesn't happen the buildup of urea will poison you okay reproduction is for everybody well you
know what I mean

Menstrual cycle

29:44

menstruation occurs in females after puberty eggs start to mature first FSH

29:49

that's follicle stimulating hormone made by the pituitary gland causes the neck to mature in the
ovary this also causes

29:55

the ovaries to produce estrogen which causes the uterus lining to thicken it also inhibits or stops
the production of

30:02

FSH so that no more eggs mature in that cycle very clever it also causes the

30:07

pituitary gland to produce LH luteinizing hormone which causes the egg to be released and it
starts to travel

30:13

towards the uterus via the oviduct over several days finally progesterone is

30:19

also produced by the ovaries which maintains the uterus lining this is great news if you're
looking to get
30:25

pregnant if not you need to find some way of stopping a sperm cell meeting in Excel I've already
mentioned it

Adrenaline

30:30

adrenaline is the hormone that increases heart and breathing rate in stressful situations to prepare
the body for fight

Plant hormones & tropism

30:36

or flight plants also have their own hormones which we can utilize when growing plants Deborah
alins cause seed

30:42

germination to occur which we can add to seeds to give them a wake-up call it also promotes
flowering and increases

30:48

the size of fruits ethene induces ripening of fruits so we can add them to bananas for example
when they're in

30:54

transit auxins control shoot and root growth it's destroyed by sunlight so it

31:00

gathers on the Shaded side of a chute causing more growth and elongation of cells on the Shaded
side so the Chute

31:06

bends toward the Sun or light source this is what we call phototropism in Roots however auxins
inhibit growth the

31:14
hormone gathers on the bottom of a root and so that means the top side grows more quickly
causing the root to grow

31:19

downwards this is called geotropism we can also use auxins as we Killers

31:25

rooting powders and for promoting growth in tissue cultures we can do a mini investigation we
can put some seeds on

31:31

damp cotton wool in a Petri dish for example stand the petri dish on its side leave for a few days
then turn 90

31:37

degrees and you should see that the roots have bent in that time proving that geotropism is true
for roots in

Meiosis

31:45

order to reproduce sexually gametes sex cells must be made this happens by meiosis for example
in the testes to

31:52

make sperm the chromosomes in a diploid cell that is 23 pairs for us are copied

31:57

similar chromosomes then pair up and the genes are swapped between them the cell then devised
to make two diploid cells

32:04

which then divide again along with the chromosomes themselves to make four haploid cells
ready to fuse with another

32:10
gamete which in this case would be an egg this is one way that variation occurs in Offspring the
resulting

32:16

diploid cell then starts to divide via mitosis which is covered in paper one plants do this with
pollen and egg cells

Sexual & asexual reproduction

32:22

but they can also reproduce asexually but as it doesn't involve gametes the daughter cells will be
genetically

32:28

identical so a clone of the parent is made by mitosis an advantage of sexual reproduction is that
variation occurs

32:34

which can result in organisms becoming better suited to their environment more on this in a bit
so more likely to

32:39

survive an advantage for asexual is that only one parent is needed so for example a plant on its
Lonesome can still

32:45

reproduce in order for the species to survive another thing that can do both is the parasite that
causes malaria as

32:51

can some fungi genome is the term given to all the genetic material in an organism this code is
stored in DNA of

DNA & protein synthesis

32:58

course which is a two-stranded polymer in a double helix shape a gene is a

33:04

section of DNA that codes for a specific protein the Human Genome Project completed its initial
goal in 2003 when

33:11

scientists mapped out what every Gene is responsible for coding this is powerful because it can
help us identify what

33:17

genes cause diseases or inherited disorders G phenotype is the term given to what code is stored
in your DNA

33:24

specifically while phenotype is how that code is expressed in your

33:29

characteristics what proteins are made it affects your physiology you need to

33:34

know that the monomers between the two strands are called nucleotides and they're made from a
sugar and phosphate

33:40

group of which there are four types A T C and G you don't need to know what the

33:45

names are but a and t always match to each other in the sequence as do C and G

33:51

every three of these bases we can call them are a code for an amino acid the

33:56

sequence is copied by mRNA this copy is then taken out of the nucleus to a ribosome in the cell
where amino acids

34:03
are connected in the order needed which makes a protein the shape of which affects its function
they need to be

34:10

folded as well first harmful mutations can change a gene so much that it results in a protein being
synthesized

34:15

that doesn't do the job it's supposed to we now know that some DNA however doesn't directly
code for proteins but

34:22

it influences how other genes are expressed this is the realm of epigenetics and it's changing the
way

34:27

that we view DNA quite drastically back to double some characteristics are controlled by just
one gene like color

Inheritance

34:34

blindness these different types of the same gene are called alleles usually characteristics are
dependent on two or

34:40

more genes though and them interacting dominant alleles are those that result in a characteristic
being expressed even

34:47

if there is another allele present a recessive allele for example if you have the alleles Big B little
B for eye color

34:53

Big B being brown little B being blue you will have brown eyes it's only when

34:58
there's no dominant allele in this case that the recessive allele is expressed so me having blue
eyes I must have the

35:06

gene little B little B Big B Big B or little B little B are called homozygous

35:11

as they only have one type of allele whereas Big B little B is what we call heterozygous we can
use a Punnett Square

35:17

to predict the probability of a certain phenotype my parents have brown eyes but they both have
heterozygous alleles for

35:25

eye color there are three different outcomes of these combining with a 25 chance of making me
those little B

35:32

little B so I'm not so much one in a million more one in four my sister has brown eyes but her
son has blue eyes so

35:38

she must be Big B little B that was a 50 50 chance of her being that looking at

35:43

the square eye color is by the by but some alleles can result in disorders being inherited for
example polydactly

35:50

extra fingers or toes which is caused by a dominant allele or cystic fibrosis which is caused by a
recessive earlier

35:58

even if two parents don't have cystic fibrosis they could still be carrying the recessive allele so
their child
36:04

could have the disorder human DNA is contained in 23 pairs of chromosomes but only one pair
determine sex if you have

36:11

XX chromosomes you are female X Y you're male the expression of these genes affects every
cell in your body every

36:18

aspect of your physiology we can also make a planet Square for these as you can see there's a 50
50 chance of a

Variation, adaptation & evolution

36:24

child being male or female variation is a result of the genes inherited from an organism's parents
and also

36:30

environmental factors Charles Darwin's theory of evolution states that random variation in
Offspring will result in

36:35

some being better suited to the environment than others and so are more likely to survive and
reproduce but like

36:40

we've seen we know that our DNA is able to respond to the environment in order to turn genes
on and off depending on whether they're needed or not for

36:47

example there were some blind translucent skin mackerel that were found in a dark cave when
they were bred with normal mackerel in sunlight they

36:53

regained fully working eyes and opaque skin within a few Generations jean-baptiste's Lamarck's
theory
36:59

asserted that adaptation of variation is Guided by DNA in response to a changing

37:04

environment this was scoffed at but we now know that there is some truth to this thanks to the
discoveries made in

37:10

epigenetics bacterial resistance is largely considered to be evidence of darwinian evolution

bacteria divide

37:16

mutations occur and inevitably a bacterium with an increased resistance to anti the politics will
be produced

37:22

that's why we only want to use them when absolutely necessary it also means you have to
complete the whole course of antibiotics if you don't weaker bacteria

37:30

will have been killed off but more resistant ones will still be there and then they'll reproduce and
make you even

37:36

more ill if organisms are able to produce fertile offspring we say they're of the same species
tigers and lions

37:42

have been known to make liger Offspring but as they're infertile we don't consider tigers and lies
to be the same

37:48

species we can selectively breed living things with desired characteristics to enhance these for
example breeding dogs

37:55
to produce breeds like labradors Collies and if you're into undesirable characteristics pugs too

Genetic engineering

38:02

advancements in biology over the last few decades mean that we can also genetically modify
organisms if we don't

38:07

want to wait for selective breeding to do the job or when it can't actually achieve what we want it
to for good or

38:13

ill for example scientists have genetically modified bacteria to produce insulin which can be
harvested and used

38:19

to treat people with diabetes genetically modifying crops is one way of boosting their yields or
nutritional

38:25

value for example golden rice has a gene inserted into it that produces vitamin A

38:30

it was developed to combat diets in certain areas that were lacking in this other GM crops have
been modified to be

38:37

more resistant to diseases for example the process of genetic engineering goes as follows a gene
is chemically cut from

38:44

the organism that has the desired characteristic this is done using enzymes for example the gene
from a

38:50
jellyfish that causes it to glow in the dark this is then inserted into a vector like a bacterioplasmid
or virus that in

38:57

turn inserts the gene into another organism say a bunny rabbit but it must be done in the early
stage of its

39:03

development say just after the egg has been fertilized as this is the only way you can be sure that
the gene will be

39:09

present in every cell of the bunny as it grows by the way I didn't make up this example this has
actually been done

Classification

39:17

called Linnaeus classified organisms into kingdom phylum class order family genus and
species a good mnemonic for

39:24

this is King Philip came over for good soup the binomial a Latin name for an organism is just the
genus and species

39:30

combined the final it turned out that another level above kingdom was needed domain the three
domains are archaea

39:37

that's primitive bacteria normal or true bacteria and eukaryotic that's everything else of course
with DNA and

39:43

nucleus of the cells you should know about eukaryotic cells from paper one archaea by the way
are often found in

39:49
extreme environments on the earth they can therefore be called extremophiles organisms
generally compete for food