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Moisture Transmission
Moisture Transmission
1
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2
Introduction to Clothing Comfort
8
Introduction
Perspiration from human body
transmits through the clothing
to the atmosphere in two forms,
Liquid (sensible)
Vapour (insensible)
10
Sweat Rate
The volume of water lost in sweat daily is highly
variable, ranging from 100 to 8,000 mL/day.
11
Factors Affecting the Moisture
Transmission
Factors affecting the moisture transmission
through textiles are
Moisture content of the fabric
Perspiration rate
12
Principles of Transmission through
Clothing
In normal activity level, the metabolic heat
produced by the body is transferred to the
atmosphere by
Conduction, Convection and Radiation; and
Vapour form of perspiration
13
Metabolic rate and environmental temperature in a fasting dressed human at rest.
The wet and the dry heat loss, as well as the metabolic heat and the basal
metabolic rate (BMR) is measured in Watts. 14
Comfort and Discomfort Sensations
Moisture Accumulation
in microclimate and
Perspiration in Liquid &
Fabric Layer
Vapour Form
Sense of coldness
Cotton
material absorbs moisture and sweat well
material disperses moisture poorly
}
Warmth is lost rapidly
Sense of dampness
Polyester
material absorbs moisture and sweat poorly
sweat and moisture remains in the micro-space
}
between skin and clothing
Humidity is high
16
Clothing results in a bad microclimate (Dampness)
17
Clothing results in a bad microclimate (Coldness)
18
Clothing results in a good microclimate
100 % special shaped Polyester
19
Moisture Transmission
20
Liquid Water Transfer: Wicking and
Water Absorption
Liquid water transmission through clothing
primarily depends on fibre properties
Fibre–Water molecular attraction
Which is decided by the Surface tension
Capillary pore distribution – Structure of
Yarns and fabrics
22
Liquid Water Transfer through Textiles: Wetting
It involves in fluid spreading, where fibre-air interface is replaced
with fibre-liquid interface
Young’s Equation
γSL ↓ ~ θ ↓
Wicking
Liquid wets the fibre
It reaches the interspaces of the fibre
Produces capillary pressure
By this pressure, the liquid is dragged along the capillary
due to the curvature of the meniscus in the narrow confines
of the pores
The magnitude of the pressure (P) is given by Laplace
equation,
So,
P LV cos
Where,
L is the distance travelled in horizontal capillary in time t,
and
η is the viscosity of the liquid.
30
Studies on Wicking of Liquid in
Textile Material
31
Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material
32
Effect of viscose proportion on vertical wicking of fabric (At 1 min)
34
Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material
Number of filament - 32, dpf – 4.72 Number of filament - 200, dpf – 0.85
36
Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material
37
Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material
Fabric Parameters
Cross- Fibre Warp Weft Fabric Fabric
Sample Ends Picks Fabric
sectional fineness count count wt Thickness
Name /dm /dm cover
shape (dtex) (Tex) (Tex) (g/m2) (mm)
Trilobal Trilobal 5.24 36.92 16.84 358 174 0.8317 184.03 1.01
Triangula Triangul
5.24 36.92 16.84 365 181 0.8451 188.47 1.04
r ar
Circular Circular 5.24 36.92 17.11 360 178 0.8361 193.83 1.05
Microden
Irregular 0.93 36.92 18.62 370 186 0.8571 207.33 1.05
ier
38
Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material
30
12
Water uptake (g)
24
12 Microdenier 6
Normal-circular
6
Microdenier
3
0
Normal-circular
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
Time (min) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (min)
10
8 y = 2.505x + 2.6848
6 R2 = 0.827
6 Trilobal 5
y = 2.8715x + 0.2793
4
4 R2 = 0.9492
Triangular
3 3 min
2
1 min
Circular 2
0 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
0 5 10 15
Time (min) Poly. Shape factor
(Trilobal)
Poly.
(Triangula
r)
Poly.
40
(Circular)
Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material
30
23
y = 10.459x + 6.199
20 17
Trilobal
3 min 1 min
y = 3.8175x + 3.7449
10 Triangular 11
R2 = 0.9985
Circular
0 5
0 2 4 6 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Time (min) Poly.
(Trilobal) Shape factor
Poly.
(Triangular
)
Poly.
41 (Circular)
Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material
Conclusions
42
Study on the fabric construction
parameters on Wicking properties of
high activity knitted sportswear
43
Fabric structure
Some of the fabric samples (S3, S4, S5 and T5) are of plaited
constructions which are knitted by using two sets of yarns
with different deniers and shape factors.
44
Details of fabric samples
Sample code. Fibre Fabric Fibre cross Shape Filament Yarn linear
type structure sectional factor linear density
shape density denier
denier
T1 PET Interlock Elliptical 1.087 1.50 85.5
T2 PET Interlock Elliptical 1.096 1.50 82.2
T3 PET Interlock Elliptical 1.083 1.70 81.0
T4 PET Interlock Hexagonal , 1.053, 0.80, 165
Triangular 1.095 4.90 177
S1 PET Interlock Hexagonal 1.054 1.50 96.9
S2 PET Interlock Hexagonal 1.055 1.40 83.5
S3 PET Plain plaited Flat , 1.240, 1.34, 53.3,
Hexagonal 1.047 0.84 166
S4 PET Float plaited 2/1 Flat, 1.240, 1.34, 53.3,
Hexagonal 1.047 0.84 166
S5 PET Float plaited 1/1 Hexagonal, 1.072, 1.50, 61,
near circular 1.021 1.00 170
46
Figure 5. SEM images
filament cross section
ofFibre
tennis t-shirts
cross Shape factor
Fibre cross section
(series T)
sectional
shape
Elliptical 1.087
Elliptical 1.096
Elliptical 1.083
Hexagonal , 1.053,
Triangular 1.095
Hexagonal 1.054
Hexagonal 1.055
Flat , 1.240,
Hexagonal 1.047
Flat, Hexagonal 1.240,
1.047
Hexagonal, 1.072,
near circular 1.021
Hexagonal, 1.065,
Elliptical 1.087
Hexagonal 1.054
47
Hexagonal 1.055
Fibre cross Shape factor
sectional
shape
Elliptical 1.087
Elliptical 1.096
Elliptical 1.083
Hexagonal , 1.053,
Triangular 1.095
Hexagonal 1.054
Hexagonal 1.055
Flat , 1.240,
Hexagonal 1.047
Flat, Hexagonal 1.240,
1.047
Hexagonal, 1.072,
near circular 1.021
Hexagonal, 1.065,
Elliptical 1.087
Hexagonal 1.054
Figure6. SEM images filament cross section of
Hexagonal 1.055
Soccer t-shirts (series S)
48
Table 2. Properties of fabric samples
Sample code Fabric mass Fabric Fabric Porosity Wpi Cpi Vertical wicking height Time for Specific
per unit area Thickn cm horizontal wicking absorbent
g/m2 ess Sec capacity
mm
Walewise Coursewise
49
Vertical wicking
52
In-plane wicking characteristics
of plaited fabrics In-plane wicking
characteristics of 2 layer
53
fabrics
Absorbency
Absorbency characteristics of
interlock fabrics
Absorption capacity of all fabric
samples is high and saturation
completes in a few seconds.
54
Absorbency characteristics of Absorbency characteristics of 2
plaited fabrics layer fabrics
55
OTHER Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material
Warp Weft
57
Studies on Water Absorbency of Liquid in Textile Material
144
Fabric Water
Sample absorbency, 142
% 140
58
Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material
60
Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material
Where,
Q is the rate of flow of liquid
∆P is the pressure head
L0 is the length of sample in the direction of flow
K is the proportionality constant (i.e. hydraulic conductivity of
the porous medium), depends on properties of the fluid
(viscosity) and on the pore structure of the medium
61
Hydraulic conductivity can be given by
Where,
k is the permeability of the porous medium
62
Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material
pores
Liquid retention is achieved by
Large number of pores, and
63
Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material
64
Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material
66
Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material
In micro-denier Polyester,
Presence of higher number of capillaries
results in higher moisture uptake
Dry and comfort feel to wearer.
68
Evaluation of Liquid Water Transfer
Measurement of Wettability:
Wettability
can be measured by
Tensiometry
Goniometry
69
Evaluation of Liquid Water Transfer
73
Evaluation of Liquid Water Transfer
74
Evaluation of Liquid Water Transfer
75
Dynamic Wettability
Skin dynamic wetness is a very important factor
determining the contact comfort feeling of the skin.
Clothing vapour resistance (w) has been related by the
following equation,
E sw
w= + 0.06
Where, E max
Esw is the regulatory sweat evaporation rate,
Emax is the maximum evaporation rate possible in the ambient
climate with a particular temperature for a totally wet skin,
and
0.06 being the minimal skin wetness (or moisture evaporation)
due to diffusion through the skin
76
Wettability
ISO-7730 is used to determine skin temperature,
sweat rates and ambient temperatures for comfort at
various metabolic rates.
In ISO-7730, required sweat evaporation at comfort is
given as a function of metabolic rate
E sw Wm 2
0.42 M 58
Where,
M is the metabolic rate and Esw the sweat evaporation
(W/m2)
77
Wettability
78
Wettability
The general terms and units used for measuring
absorption (wettability) of fabrics are
79
Methods of Measurement
80
Measurement of Wicking
Liquids generally used for wicking test,
Should represent close to human sweat
83
Types of Wicking
Transplanar or transverse
wicking
In-plane wicking
84
Types of Wicking
Uptake of Water Uptake of Water along
through the thickness the thickness of the
of the Fabric Fabric
Fabric
Vertical Wicking
Water
85
Test Method for Transverse Wicking
Horizontal sintered glass plate kept moist by a water
supply
It should be adjusted to keep the water level at the
upper surface of the plate
Fabric can be kept over the sintered glass plate to
water
Uptake of water is measured by suitable method
By the movement of meniscus
86
Schematic Diagram of Traverse Wicking
87
Schematic Diagram of In-plane
Wicking
Fabric Siphon
tube
Cover plate Liquid
reservoir
Base
plate
Electronic
balance
Height
adjusting
knob
88
Test Method for In-plane Wicking
89
Test Method for In-plane Wicking
90
Schematic Diagram of In-plane
Wicking
Fabric Siphon
tube
Cover plate Liquid
reservoir
Base
plate
Electronic
balance
Height
adjusting
knob
91
Test Method for Vertical Wicking
(Visual Technique)
Sample is hung vertically into a reservoir filled
with water.
Certain amount of load should be hung at the
lower end of the sample to keep it straight
Vertical wicking of liquid is measured by
Visual observation of movement of the liquid
along the sample (height) is observed
(addition of suitable dye enhances visibility)
Microscopic observation can be made
92
Schematic Diagram of Vertical
Wicking
Scale
Fabric
Clamp
Reservoir
93
Present Techniques
Manual : Simple visual observation of travel of
liquid front and manual recording
- Chances of manual error
Image processing : Becomes difficult in some
cases, e. g. in porous fabrics very accurate video
recording and shooting is required and thus
becoming more complex. Also, imaging the actual
liquid travel is very difficult, particularly for thicker
fabrics
A method and instrument called the moisture
management tester (MMT) is developed by Hong
Kong Polytechnic University to evaluate textile
moisture management properties 94
Test Method for Vertical Wicking
By measuring the electrical resistance of the
fabric (or) yarn
Electrical conductivity of water is 18 times
that of air
The liquid wicks along the sample,
electrical resistance get reduced
Rise of the liquid water in the sample can
trigger an electrical circuit
So, distance of rise as a function of time is
determined
95
Present Techniques…. Cont
Moisture Management Tester (MMT)
PRINCIPLE
Variation of contact electrical
resistance of the fabric with
transport of moisture
Depends on:
and
the water content in the
EXPERIMENT
fabric.
1. The specimen held flat at a certain pressure
2. Top and lower sensors
3. Computer dynamically records the resistance change between
each couple of proximate metal rings individually at the top and
lower sensors 96
Instruments based on Resistance
and Capacitance Principles
97
Underlying Principle of proposed testers
The proposed idea is based on electrical resistance
offered by the fabrics in wet and dry conditions
Dry fabrics are poor conductors of electricity,
whereas wet fabrics are better conductors. Wetted
fabrics conduct some electricity because of the
water ions present which act as carriers of electrons
When the textile fabrics come into contact with
water, it will start wicking and the presence of water
reduces the electrical resistance of the fabrics and
will start conducting electricity.
This principle is exploited in detecting the water
travel front point.
98
Schematic diagram of Vertical
Wicking Tester
Play
99
Principle of Vertical Wicking Tester
oThis instrument taps the fact that when the water level
reaches a particular height, the circuit at that level gets
complete as the electrical resistance offered by the
fabric decreases.
102
Consistency testing of vertical wicking tester 103
Vertical wicking tester
105
Principle of In-plane Wicking Tester
oIt consists of a circular block of insulating material
oTime Vs. water front flow point was plotted in real time
106
Liquid flow : In-plane wicking tester
107
Liquid flow : In-plane wicking tester
108
In plane wicking measurement system
(Capacitance Principle)
109
Flow of liquid through porous material
Reason - Capillary action
110
Flow of liquid through porous material
Reason - Capillary action
111
Flow of liquid through porous material
Reason - Capillary action
112
Basic body of the instrument
Top plate
113
Basic body of the instrument
Lower plate
114
Principle
• In general the capacitance(C) depends upon 3
main parameters:
• Hence in general,
C = KAƐo/d ,
116
Capacitance in Parallel
117
Calculations
118
Design
119
Signal Amplification
120
Moisture Transmission
121
Moisture Vapour Transmission
through Textile Materials
122
Moisture Vapour Transmission
123
Different Layers Through which
Moisture Vapor Transports
Fabric layer
Human skin
124
Mechanisms
Moisture in vapour form transmits through textile
materials by the following four mechanisms
1. Diffusion of the water vapour through the
125
Diffusion
Vapour pressure gradient acts as the driving force
Occurs on a molecular level at lower speed
Moisture vapour is transported from the higher
concentration zone to the lower concentration zone
As per Fick’s Law, the relation between the flux of the
diffusing substance and the concentration gradient
(dCA/dx)
Where,
JAx is the rate of moisture flux (g/m 2.s)
dx is length (m)
127
Diffusion: Non-fickian Diffusion
128
Diffusion: Non-fickian Diffusion
WVT = D.S. (p1-p2)/l
where,
(p1-p2) = Partial pressure gradient between the two
surfaces
l = Thickness of the material
Fickian diffusion)
130
Diffusion Along the Fibre (Non-Fickian )
Surface of fibre
132
Diffusion Along the Textile Materials
The moisture diffusion through the air portion of the
fabric is almost instantaneous,
section
With an increase in fabric thickness (the
135
Diffusion Coefficient
The diffusion coefficient of moisture vapour in air
can be given as a function of temperature and pressure
by the following equation
Where,
D is the diffusion co-efficient of water vapour in air (m2/sec)
to the atmosphere
Release absorbed moisture in dry air
137
Sorption-Transmission-Desorption
Reduce the moisture built up in the microclimate
This process enhances the transmission of
moisture vapour from the human skin to the
environment.
140
Factors Affecting Adsorption
Environmental humidity
Sorption hysteresis
Temperature
Dimensional changes
141
Factors Affecting Adsorption
With the increase in fibre swelling the capillary
channels between the fibres get reduced which
results lower vapour transmission
The distortion caused by the fibre swelling
142
Forced Convection
The transmission of moisture vapour that takes place
while air is flowing over a moisture layer
145
Rel. water vapour permeability%
3.2
82.58 3
61 y=62.97-
x
R2=0.8666 2.9 y=3.57-0.098x0.5
60 R2=0.8781
2.8
2.7
59
2.6
20 40 60 80 100 0 25 50 75 100
Viscose% Viscose%
With
146
So the difference in the water vapour
permeability of the fabric occurs because of
something else rather than the openness of the
material.
147
At a specific concentration gradient the
diffusion rate along the textile material depends
on the porosity of the material and also on the
water vapour diffusivity of the fibre.
148
So as the fabric sett and structure of all the
fabrics are almost same, diffusion through air
should not differs for the fabrics.
149
A hygroscopic fabric absorbs water vapour from
the humid air close to the sweating skin and
releases it in dry air.
Air permeability
y = -13.787x + 59.643
(cm3/cm2/min)
46
permeability%
R2 = 0.9769 2
24 R = 0.9998
44
23.4
42
22.8 40
0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 0.9 1.1 1.3
Shape factor Shape factor
30
25 25.5
20 24
y = 0.132x + 17.92
R² = 0.962
15 22.5
10 21
25 30 35 40 45 50
5
Air permeability
0
Trilobal Triangular Circular Microdenier
151
The results indicate that the fabric with circular filament
has the highest water vapour permeability and it reduces with
the increase in fibre shape factor.
153
Moisture Evaporation
(Evaporative Heat Transfer)
and
Condensation
154
Moisture Evaporative and Condensation
156
Moisture transmission & Evaporative Heat Transfer
When a negative temperature gradient (i.e. in a very hot
climate) exists between the skin and the environment,
evaporative heat transfer becomes the only way to cool
down the body temperature
157
Condensation of Moisture Vapour
Condensation of moisture vapour is a direct result of a
fabric being saturated by liquid perspiration and it generally
occurs within the fabric whenever the local vapour
pressure increases to saturation vapour pressure at
certain temperature
159
Three Stages of Condensation
Condensation of moisture vapour in an initially
dry porous fibrous material takes place in three
stages
First stage: Velocity, temperature and vapour
concentration fields are developed within the
material and condensation begins
Second stage: Liquid content increases
gradually, but it is still too low to move
Third stage: Liquid content increases further
and goes beyond certain threshold value, the
pendulum like drops of condensate coalesce
and begin to move under surface tension and
gravity 160
Condensation of Moisture Vapour
If the vapour concentrations in both the surfaces of the
fabric are at the saturation level,
condensation of moisture vapour occurs in the entire
thickness of the fabric
In case of below saturation level, at a specific
atmospheric temperature, condensation occurs only over
certain region within the fabric
In this case, condensation of moisture vapour occurs in the
fabric, which forms a wet zone separated by two dry zones
The proportion of the wet region increases with the increase
in condensation of moisture vapour
The progress of condensation process of moisture
vapour takes place mainly in the direction of the warmer
side rather than that of the cooler side [study report]
161
Evaluation of Moisture Vapour
Transmission
162
Evaluation
Different standard methods
Evaporative dish method or control dish method
(BS 7209)
Upright cup method or Gore cup method (ASTM E
96-66)
Inverted cup method and the desiccant inverted
cup method (ASTM F 2298)
Desiccant Inverted Cup Method
Moisture Vapour Transmission Cell
The dynamic moisture permeable cell (ASTM F
2298)
The sweating guarded hot plate method, skin
model (ISO 11092)
163
Evaluation: Parameters
Methods Parameters
Evaporative Disc The percentage water vapour
Method permeability index
164
Evaluation: Evaporative Dish Method
Procedure
Known weight of water is kept in a dish
Open mouth is covered with the fabric to be tested
After certain time system reaches equilibrium
Water vapour permeability (WVP) is measured by
successive weighting of the dish
Relative WVP is calculated by comparing with reference
fabric
Where,
M is the loss in mass (g) of water vapour through the
fabric specimen
t is the time between weighing (h)
A is the internal area of the dish (m2)
(WVP)f and (WVP)r are the water vapour permeability of
the test fabric and reference fabric respectively
24 G
WVT 2
; g / m / 24hr
Where, AT
WVT = water vapor transmission rate (g/m2/day)
G = change in mass (g)
T = testing time (hr)
A = test area (m2).
WVT = (w2-w1)/(a×t)
Where,
WVT is water vapor transmission rate
a = test area
Pure convection
176
Microclimate simulator cum moisture vapour
transmission tester:
177
Microclimate simulator cum moisture vapour
transmission tester:
178
Microclimate simulator cum moisture vapour
transmission tester:
179
Microclimate simulator cum moisture vapour
transmission tester:
180
Evaluation: Holographic Bench Technique
182
Evaluation: SGHP
It measures the evaporative heat loss in the steady state
condition
Temperature of the guarded hot plate: 350C
Water vapour resistance (Ret) (m2 Pa/W) is calculated by
APm Pa
Ret Ret 0
Where, H H c
A is the test area
Pm is the saturation water vapour partial pressure at the
surface of the measuring unit
Pa is the water vapour partial pressure of the air in the test
chamber
H is the amount of heat supplied to the measuring unit
ΔHc is a correction factor and Ret0 is the apparatus constant
Standard: ISO 11092 183
Evaporative Resistance by SGHP
184
Evaporative Resistance by SGHP
The resistance to water vapour (evaporative resistance) is
given by the following equation
( Ps Pa )
Ret
(Ts Ta )
Q A
Rt
Where,
Ret is the evaporative resistance of the fabric provided by the
liquid barrier along with air layer (m2 Pa / W)
Ps is the saturated vapour pressure at skin temperature (Pa)
Pa is the ambient vapour pressure at ambient temperature
(Pa)
Rt is the thermal resistance (m2 °C / W)
Therefore, [(Ts-Ta)/Rt] is Dry heat loss (W / m2)
185
Evaporative Resistance by SGHP
The Intrinsic evaporative resistance (m2 Pa /
W) of fabric is given by
Ref = Ret – Ret0
Where,
Ret0 is the bare plate resistance (m2 Pa / W)
T
Wire mesh Copper
Temp Heat flow plate
Specimen Heater
sensor sensor
Water
film
Plastic ring
189
Permetest…
Relative water vapour permeability pwv (%), is given by,
us
Where, p wv (%) 100
u0
us is heat loss from the measuring head with fabric
1 1 1 1
Ret ( p wsat p wo ) C 100
Su o Su s us u o
Where,
pwsat is partial water vapour pressure in saturated air in Pascal;
and
pwo partial water vapour pressure in the laboratory air in
Pascal
φ is the humidity
191
Moisture Sensation & Clothing Comfort
Moisture accumulation on the skin and within the
clothing layers is the primary reason for discomfort
This problem is intensified further particularly in
functional clothing because this sort of clothing is
frequently used under stressful environmental
conditions in which moisture accumulates on the skin
and within the clothing layers and contributes to
wearer discomfort
Moisture sensation of clothing can be expressed either
in terms of
Absolute threshold
Difference threshold
192
Moisture Sensation & Clothing Comfort
193
194