INORGANIC CHEMISTRY ✔ Discussion always dwells on chemicals.

✔ Crucial role is responding to the needs of society.

M1: IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY
✔ New processes, new materials, new products, new
IMPORTANCE OF CHEMICALS IN OUR DAILY LIFE
sources of energy provide more food to ensure
✔ It creates changes around us caused by chemical
better health.
reactions.
✔ Chemicals are present in everything we can touch,
1. Changing of color
smell, or see.
2. Cooking of food
3. Cleaning materials
STEREOGRAM

USES OF CHEMISTRY IN LIFE AND CIVILIZATION ● a diagram or computer-generated image giving a

✔ It is geared towards the development and growth three-dimensional representation of a solid object or
surface.
of many industries.
● Glass, Paper, Cement, Textile,
“The meeting of two personalities is like the contact of two
Pharmaceuticals, etc. chemical substances; if there is any reaction, both are
BENEFITS OF CHEMISTRY IN LIFE AND transformed.” – Jung
CIVILIZATIOLN
✔ Research deepens understanding of chemistry thus “How we handle the journey, determine the destination.” –
leading to new discoveries. Billy Cox
1. Helps solve future problems including
sustainable energy “Education is the passport to the future, for tomorrow
2. Food production belongs to those who prepare for it today.” – Malcolm X
3. Managing environment
4. Provide safe drinking water
5. Promote human & environmental health

HOW IS CHEMISTRY USED IN MEDICINE?

✔ Drugs modifies chemistry in our bodies.
1. Treats diseases and infections
2. Correct imbalances in electrolytes and
fluids
3. Alters mental status (induce amnesia or
stops hallucination)
4. Supplements health

CHEMISTRY IS THE FOUNDATION FOR MANY

DISCIPLINES
✔ 6 Disciplines
1. Health Sciences
2. Pharmacology
3. Physiology
4. Botany
5. Microbiology
6. Nutrition

WHY CHEMISTRY IS TROUBLE FOR LOTS OF

LEARNERS?
✔ Almost every single problem is a word problem.

✔ People dislike word problems because you have to

read and understand it.
✔ Determine what is ask and what are the given.

CHEMISTRY IS CENTRAL SCIENCE

✔ Serves as foundation for many other scientific
disciplines.
 ● within a compound/molecule, holds the
atom of a molecule together
- Electrostatic force of attraction –
M2: BASIC CONCEPT & PRINCIPLES OF produces the ionic bond that holds the
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY cations and anions together.
Includes chemical bonds…

CHEMISTRY IS DEFINED AS… a) Ionic Bonding > 1.7 (Metal & nonmetal)
- electrons are transferred from one
✔ The study of the composition, properties, and
element to another, involves the
structure of matter and changes (chemical electrostatic attraction between
reactions) that occurs in matter. oppositely charged ions.
o Ex: NaCl, NaBr, NaF, NaI, KF, KCl, KI, KBr
CONCEPTUAL MAP OF MATTERS
b) Metallic Bonding (metal ions)
✔ Refers to atoms that constitute matters. - when the charge is spread over a large
distance. Bond that holds atoms together
Matter known as sea of electrons along the
lattices of atoms
Pure Substance Mixtures c) Covalent Bonding: Electrons are shared
(nonmetals ions)
1. Elements 1. Homogeneous - Involves the sharing of electrons to form
2. Compound 2. Heterogeneous electron pairs between atoms.
- Molecule are identical/behaves
1. Elements – is a substance that consists of identical independently (diatomic)
atoms. i. Polar Covalent Bonds (0.5-1.6)
2. Compound – is a pure substance made up of two or o Electrons are shared unequally
more elements in a fixed ratio by mass. o More positive charge in a nucleus
3. Homogeneous – uniform composition attracts electrons more strongly
4. Heterogeneous – nonuniform composition o Ex. HCl, H2O, NH3
5. Mixture – is a combination of two or more pure ii. Non-Polar Covalent Bonds (0-0.4)
substances. o Electrons are shared equally
between two atoms
o Some do not share equally because
✔ Cation – losing electrons, the atom becomes a
of different level of attraction in
positively charged ion
different atoms.
✔ Anion – gaining electrons, the atom becomes a o Ex. H2, Cl2, O2, N2
negatively charged ion d) Unequal sharing of Electrons
o Molecules, electrons are not shared
FORCE OF ATTRACTION equally, electron charges concentrated
on one end of the molecule than the
other
● Electronegativity – measure of an atom’s attraction
for the electrons it shares in a chemical bond with
another atom.
✔ Full charge makes, strong attractions.
● This also subtracting atomic weight of an elements
✔ Matters bond forming new substances and new to determine their electronegativy if they’re: ionic >
properties. 1.7, covalent non-polar (0-0.4) and polar bonding
(0.5-1.6).
✔ Strong bonds differ due to difference in
electronegativity of the constituent elements.
2. Intermolecular Forces of Attraction (non-bonding
forces)
- within molecules of a compound and a
molecule of another compound, forces
occur between molecules
a) Dipole-dipole attraction
- molecules with dipole moments attract
each other & line up so (+) ends and (-)
1. Intramolecular Forces of Attraction (bonding ends are close.
forces) o Ex: HCl, HF, H2O
 b) Ion-dipole forces ● Consist of two atoms bond (HCl, NaCl,
- occur between ions and polar molecules;
KBr)
understood in terms of Coulomb’s law
3. Polyatomic Compounds/molecules
- Ions is unequal number of protons and
● Contains more than one atom
electrons (Sulfuric Acid HSO)
- Dipole has positive and negative end
o Ex: NaCl
c) Hydrogen bonding
- strong (small atoms); hydrogen bonded to
either F, O, N
d) London Dispersion Force
- molecules without dipoles; exist in non-
polar molecules & noble gases
- strong when more e- and high boiling
point
o Ex are Halogens: Ne, Ar

Atoms (building blocks)

✔ Is the smallest element unit of matter
E.g., Oxygen (O) Nitrogen (N) Carbon (C)
Iron (Fe) Sodium (Na) Chlorine (Cl)
4. Combining any of atoms together loses their
original property as element or an atom that
become now Molecules.

HOW DO THESE COMPOUNDS AND MOLECULES

Molecules
BOND?
✔ combination of two or more atoms that acts as a
✔ Chemical Bond
single unit.
● attraction between atoms, ions, or E.g.
molecules – forming chemical compounds H+O 🡪 H2O
C+O 🡪 CO2 This don’t exist as atom by
● is the result from the electrostatic
C+O 🡪 CO itself, but as a molecule bonded
force of attraction between oppositely
O+O 🡪 O2
charged ions (ionic bonds) or through the
H+H 🡪 H2
sharing of electrons (covalent bonds)
● strength of chemical bonds varies in: 1. Proton – has a positive charge
1) “Strong bonds” or “primary 2. Electron – has a negative charge
bonds” such as covalent, ionic, 3. Neutron – has no charge
and metallic bonds 4. Nucleus – Proton and neutrons are found in a tight
2) “Weak bonds” or “secondary cluster in the center of an atom
bonds” such as dipole–dipole 5. Isotopes - Atoms with the same number of protons
interactions, ion-dipole, hydrogen but different numbers of neutrons
bond, and London dispersion force
CONCEPT OF REACTION
NOMENCLATURE ✔ Matter undergoes a change in composition and/or
structure of its molecules
RULES IN BONDING ✔ When 2 or more elements bonded together this is
✔ The Atomic Theory the time where elements began to share its
electros to form a new substance
✔ PNE - Calculation of the number of Protons,
Neutrons, and Electrons and the net charge Compound – a type of molecule of 2 different elements
✔ The Bonding Rules
1. Monoatomic and polyatomic ions H+O 🡪 H2O Compound
C+O 🡪 CO2 Compound
● Composed of single atoms and
O+O 🡪 O2 Molecule
composed two or more atoms per ion
H+H 🡪 H2 Molecule
2. Diatomic Compounds/molecules
Mixtures – 2 substances mixed together, but no chemical 4 – Tetra
reaction involved. E.g., sand and water
SO2 – Sulfur Dioxide

NOMENCLATURE CCl4 – Carbon

✔ Writing a chemical formula, you need to know the Tetrachloride
elements involved
P2 O5 – Diphosphorous
✔ Number of electrons they gain or lose or share to Pentoxide
become stable (oxidation number)
For 1st atom in the molecule
contain 1 atom only, no
Oxidation number – is a positive or negative number that
need to write mono. But
indicates how many electrons have been gained or lose or
for the 2nd atom it should
shared.
be indicated

Rules in Naming Compounds 3. Between a cation of variable oxidation number and

an anion
Binary Compounds Ternary Compounds
Stock method – the cation Stock Method – the cation
Contains only 2 elements in Contains 3 or more
having the least/most having the least/most
a chemical combination elements in combinations
oxidation takes the English oxidation takes the English
Combination of monoatomic name followed by the name followed by the
cation + a polyatomic anion oxidation number in roman oxidation number in roman
Combination of monoatomic
numeral enclosed in oxidation number in
cation and a monoatomic Combination of a
parentheses followed by parentheses followed by
anion polyatomic cation + a
the -IDE ending of the the -ATE or -ITE ending
monoatomic anion
anion. of the anion having the
Combination of both least/the greatest number
polyatomic cation and anion of oxygen.
E.g.
First Rule in Naming E.g.
FeS – Iron (II) Sulfide
1. Metals (Cation) and Nonmetals (Anion) FeSO4 – Iron (II) Sulfate
CuCl – Copper (I) Chloride
Fe2(SO3)3 – Iron (III)
The 1st atom (cation) bears Just like binary compound,
PbO2 – Lead (IV) Oxide Sulfite
the name of the element the 1st monoatomic or
and the 2nd atom bears the polyatomic ion bears the
Classical Method – the Classical Method – the
-IDE ending of the 2nd name of the ion while the
cation having the cation having the
element (anion) anion bears the name of
least/most oxidation least/most oxidation
the anion
number takes the Latin number takes the Latin
BaCl2 – Barium Cloride CaSO4 – Calcium Sulfate name of the element with name of the element with
an OUS/IC ending followed an OUS/IC ending followed
Mg (PO3)2 – Magnesium by the IDE ending of the by the IDE ending of the
Phosphite 2nd element/atom 2nd element/atom

2. Between a nonmetal and another non-metal-right E.g. E.g.

side of the stair-step
FeO – Ferrous Oxide PbCO3 – Plumbous
The 1st atom takes the Carbonate
name of that atom but the Fe2O3 – Ferric Oxide

2nd atom takes the -IDE Pb(CO3)2 – Plumbic

ending of that atom. Carbonate

However, the names Cr(OH)2 – Chromous

preceded by the number of Hydroxide

atoms in the molecule using Cr(OH)3 – Chromic

the Greek prefixes Hydroxide

1 – Mono 5 – Penta Sn(SO4)2 – Stannic Sulfate

2 – Di 6 – Hexa SnSO3 – Stannous Sulfite

3 – Tri 7 – Hepta
Binary Compounds Ternary Compounds
 (Binary Acids) (Oxy Acids)

4. Containing Hydrogen

With H as the first w/ polyatomic anion

element and a gas
SO4-2 is 1 unit, the charge
E.g., H+1 +S S-2 🡪 H2S(g) from H will be supplied as
subscript to the entire
Hydrogen Sulfide
SO4 ion, thus becomes
(SO4)!

With H as the first Polyatomic anion ending in

element and a liquid ATE is change to OUS

E.g., H+1 +Cl-1 🡪 HCl(I) E.g. H+1 + SO4-2 🡪 H2SO4

Hydrogen Chloric Acid Hydroden + Sulfate 🡪

Sulfuric Acid

Hydrogen + Phosphite 🡪
Phosphorous Acid

Hydrogen + Nitrate 🡪
Nitric Acid

Hydrogen + Nitrate 🡪
Nitrous Acid

5. Compounds that take IDE ending just like the

Binary Compounds

Ammonium (NH41+) Cyanides (CN1-) – the

compounds – the ammonium cyanide ions acts like a
ion acts like a simple metal simple nonmetal anion
ion
E.g.
E.g.
Fe(CN)2 – Ferrous Cyanide
(NH4)2S – Ammonium or Iron (II) Cyanide
Sulfide
Fe(CN)3 – Ferric Cyanide or
NH4Br – Ammonium Iron (III) Cyanide
Bromide

Hydroxide (OH1-) – the

hydroxide ion acts like a
simple non-metal anion.
This type of compound is
also referred to as BASE

e.g.

Fe(OH)2 – Ferrous
Hydroxide or Iron (II)
Hydroxide

Fe(OH)3 – Ferric
Hydroxide or Iron (III)
Hydroxide
 5. For a reaction to occur, the reacting atoms must
collide. The collision of particles moves fast
enough which causes the chemical bonds to break
and new chemical bonds to form
6. With increasing temperature molecules moves at
a certain speed, allowing particles to have enough
kinetic energy to cause the reaction upon
collision.
7. Evidences of reaction includes, formation of
precipitate, evolution of gas, generation of heat
and light, change in color, etc

Chemical Equation
● Described by a chemical equation using formula
as it is cumbersome to use the chemical names
● Shorthand expression, way to describe a chemical
reaction using formulas and symbols.
● must accurately represents the compounds that
react. Fixing the equation requires as process
called BALANCING, though it does not change
what happens in a reaction – it simply changes the
way the reaction is represented.
● involves changing the coefficients in a reaction to
achieve a balanced chemical equation where there
are same number of atoms on both sides of the
arrow.
E.g.,
NiCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) 🡪 Ni(OH)2(s) + 2NaCl

● Symbols used are: (g) for gas, (l) for liquid, (s) for
solid, and (aq) for a substance dissolved in water
(aqueous).

Rules in Balancing equation

1. Write a chemical equation for the reaction
2. Count the atoms in the reactants and the products
3. Choose coefficient that balance the equation.
Never change subscripts of a correct formula to
balance the equation.
4. Write the numbers before a formula and recheck
the number of each atom on each side of the
equation and adjust coefficients if necessary
M3: TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS E.g.,
NiCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Ni(OH)2(s) + 2NaCl
1 Ni 1 Ni
Chemical Formula 2 Cl 2 Cl
1. Ionic compounds, positive and negative ions form 2 Na 2 Na
an ionic crystal, a 3-dimensional array of ions 2O 2O
arranged in a regularly repeating pattern. 2H 2H

2. The chemical formula represents the ratio of

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eNsVaUCzvLA
different elements in the crystal
3. Covalent compounds are bound by covalent bonds
to form molecules
4. Chemical formula represents the number of
atoms of each element in the molecule

Chemical Reaction
 • if you see O2 in reactant and CO2 and
water in the product then it's a
combustion reaction.
• All "Combustion" reactions are "Redox
Reactions".
• Examples:
C8H8(l) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O
C2H5OH + O2 CO2 + H2O
o Heat Reaction - heat given off or gained in a reaction
o Exothermic - chemical reaction gives off heat
(product)
o Endothermic - chemical reaction absorbs heat
(reactant)
2. Synthesis or Combination
• A+B AB
• you simply combine the reactants to make
the product.
• If two pure elements combine to form a
compound then it's a "Redox Reaction".
• If two small compounds combine to form a
large compound then it's probably NOT a
"Redox Reaction".
• Examples:
Mg(s) + O2(g) MgO2(s)
MgO(s) + CO2(g) MgCO3(s)
3. Decomposition
• AB A+B
• the opposite of the Synthesis: simply
breaks down reactants to make the
product.
• heat and electricity cause decomposition
reactions
• If a compound breaks down into pure
elements, then it's a "Redox Reaction".
• If a large compound breaks into two small
compounds, then it's probably NOT a
"Redox Reaction".
• Examples:
MgCO3(s) MgO(s) +CO2(g) (HEAT)
HgO(s) Hg(l) +O2(g) (HEAT)
4. Single replacement reaction
• A + BC AC + B
• a single molecule from the same equation
replaces another.
• For the most part, metals tend to replace
metals and nonmetals tend to replace
nonmetals.
• All "Single Replacement" reactions are
"Redox Reactions".
• Examples:
Zn(s) + CuCl2(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
Br2(l) +NaI(aq) NaBr(aq) + I2(s)
Fe(s) + HCl(aq) FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)

1. Combustion reaction (burning)

• in combustion, something is burning and it
releases a lot of heat energy and light.
 5. Double Displacement or Replacement reaction
• AB + CD = AD + BC
• this one is double, and completely switches
Types of Reactions involving Aqueous Solutions
elements' places up.
1. Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
• This reaction produces a precipitate
a. Consist of solute dissolve in a solvent
• Both of the reactants must be aqueous
b. Water as the solvent
• When a double replacement happens
2. Reactions that involve solutions are
between two aqueous solutions and the
a. Nuetralization
products all remain aqueous then no
b. Precipitation
reaction took place.
c. Reduction-oxidation or redox
• A "Double Replacement" reaction is NEVER
a "Redox reaction"
Predicting Ions in Aqueous Solution Reactions
Double Displacement reaction types: 1. Precipitation of Arsenic (III) Sulfide from
• if a double Displacement of two aqueous solution results to this net ionic equation
aqueous products happens and you 2As3+(aq) + 3S2-(aq) 🡪 As2 S3(s)
find a solid in the product then ● There are 2 As ions in the left side and in the
it's called a "Precipitation
right side. Also, the charge in the left side is the
Reaction".
same as the total charge in the right side = 0
• If a double Displacement happens
between a strong acid and a ● Solutions react with each other only when one of

strong base it will produce water these 4 things can happen:

and salt and will be called "Acid- 1. 2 ions form a solid that is insoluble in
Base or Neutralization water, known as precipitation reaction.
Reaction". 2. 2 ions form a gas that escapes from the
• If a double Displacement of two reaction mixture as bubbles
aqueous products happens and you o Ex: NaHCO3 and HCl
find a gas in the product then it's o HCO3 – (aq) + H3O+ (aq) 🡪 CO2(g) + H2O
called a "Gas Evolution Reaction". (l)
• Examples: 3. An acid neutralizes a base to form water.
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) 🡪 AgCl(s) + 4. One of the ions can oxidize another
NaNO3(aq) (REDOX)
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) 🡪 H2O(l) +NaCl(aq) o Ex: When a solution of Copper (II)
Chloride CuCl2, is added to a
solution of Potassium Sulfide K 2S, a
black precipitate of Copper (II)
Sulfide CuS forms. Write the net
ionic equation for the reaction.
o Ex: Between Cu (NO3)2 and K2SO4.
They will only form mixture
containing ions above that are
merely dissolved in water.
Predicting spectator ion
1. Write the equation (with chemical formulas) for
BALANCING CHEMICAL REACTIONS which spectator ions are to be determined.
2. Express each of the reactants and products in
terms of its cations and anions.
3. Write down those cations and anions whose charge
doesn’t change throughout the equation.
 4. Write down those cations and anions whose state insoluble in water. In acidic media however, it
(aqueous) remains the same throughout the dissolves to a slight extent, yielding Ca2+, PO4 3-
equation. and OH- ions. This loss of enamel creates pits and
cavities in the tooth.
● Acidity in the mouth is produced by fermentation
of food, especially carbohydrates. Once pits and
cavities are formed in the enamel, bacteria can
Example: hide there and cause further damage in the
underlying softer material called dentin. The
fluoridation of water brings the F- ions to the
hydroxyapatite where it replaces the OH- ions
forming the less acid soluble fluorapatite, Ca5
(PO4 )3F. Fluorides are found in toothpaste and
provides protection against tooth decay
Precipitation
Solubility Rules for Ionic Compounds REDOX Reaction
✔ One of the most important and common type of
Usually Soluble
chemical reaction is oxidation-reduction reaction.
Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+, NH+ All group IA (alkali metal) ✔ Oxidation is the loss of electrons (LEO), and
and Ammonium Salt are
soluble ✔ Reduction is the gain of electrons (GER).

✔ It involves transfer of electrons from one specie

Nitrates, NO3- All nitrates are soluble
to another.
Chlorides, Bromides, All common chlorides, Ex: Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq) 🡪 Zn2+ (aq) + Cu(s)
Iodides (Cl-, Br-, I-) bromides, and iodides are
● When we put a piece of zinc metal into beaker
soluble
containing copper (II) ions in aqueous solution, three
except AgCl, Hg2Cl2, PbCl2, things happen:
AgBr, Hg2Br2, PbBr2, AgI, 1. Some of the zinc metal dissolves and goes
Hg2I2, PbI2 into solution as Zn2+.
2. Copper metal deposits on the surface of
Sulfates, SO4-2 Most Sulfates are solubles
the zinc metal.
except CaSO4, SrSO4, 3. The blue color of the Cu2+ ions gradually
BaSO4, PbSO4 disappear.
● Zinc atoms lose electrons to copper ions and become
Acetates, CH3COO All acetates are soluble
zinc ions:
Usually Insoluble Zn(s) 🡪 Zn2+(aq) + 2e- Therefore, Zn is oxidized
2+
● At the same time, Cu ions gain electrons from the
Phosphates, PO4-3 All Phosphates are
zincs. The copper ions are reduced:
insoluble except of NH4+
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- 🡪 Cu(s) Therefore, Cu2+ is
and Group IA cations
reduced
(alkali metals)

Carbonates, CO3-2 All Carbonates are ✔ no oxidation can occur without an accompanying
insoluble except of NH+ reduction, and vice versa.
and Group IA cations
✔ In the preceding reaction, Cu2+ oxidizes Zn. We call Cu2+
(alkali metals)
an oxidizing agent Similarly, Zn reduces Cu 2+, and we call
Hydroxides, OH- All hydroxides are Zn a reducing agent.
insoluble except of NH4+ o Oxidizing agent - an entity that accepts
and Group IA cations, electrons in an oxidation–reduction
Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2 are only reaction.
slightly insoluble o Reducing agent - an entity that donates
electrons in an oxidation–reduction
Sulfides, S All Sulfides are insoluble
reaction.
except of NH4+ and Group
IA cations and Group 2A
cations, MgS, CaS, and BaS

● The outermost protective layer of a tooth is the

enamel, which is composed primary of 95%
hydroxyapatite, Ca5PO4-3 (OH-) and 5% collagen.
Like Phosphates and Hydroxides, hydroxyapatite is
 Example of Acid-Base reactions

Acid-Base Theories & Neutralization

● Orange | Neutralization

● Lemons |- Acidic foods ● Stomach acid contains a dilute solution of HCl and
water. Too much acid can cause indigestion.
● Vinegar |
ANTACIDS contain bases or other compounds of
● Sulfuric Acid - used in batteries of vehicles sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium or aluminum
that react with stomach acid to lower acid
● Antacid tablets – bases – for heartburn
concentration.
● NH3 – used as cleaning agent o Example: HCl + NaHCO3(s) 🡪 NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) +
H2O(l)
Acid Theories ● Is a special type of Double Decomposition reaction.
Svante Arrhenius (Swedish chemist – 1859-1927)
proposed the definition of acids and bases that: ● Is a chemical reaction between an acid and a base

● ACIDS – are substances that produces H+ in react to form salt and water.

aqueous solutions ● Acid + Base 🡪 Salt + Water (acid-base general

● BASES – are substances that produce OH- in equation)

o HCl + NaOH 🡪 NaCl + H2O
aqueous solutions
o HNO3 + NaOH 🡪 NaNO3 + H2O
Bronsted Theory (Johannes Bronsted) together with
Thomas Lowry made modifications into Arrhenius
theory according to this principle: Predicting Products of Nuetralization

● H+ cannot exist as ion in water but covalently ✔ Water acts both acid and as a base

bonded with water molecules to form H 3O+ (Water ✔ Between their molecules one gives off a proton
provides both electrons to form covalent bond leaving OH ion; the other accepts proton to
become a H3O+
✔ This reaction is called self-ionization or
autoionization of water (amphiprotic nature of
water, which ions exist in equilibrium with the
● Bronsted and Lowry both proposed their theories water molecules)

on acid-base reactions and proposed that acid as a

proton donor and base as proton acceptor.
o H-containing compound releases capable of
releasing H ion is an ACID AT EQUILIBRIUM EXPRESSION:

● Like Arrhenius & Bronsted defined BASE as a

compound that accepts a proton
● ACID-BASE Reaction – involves transfer of a
proton from an acid to a base
o ACID – becomes a conjugate base after
releasing H+
o BASE – becomes a conjugate acid when it
accepts a proton
Legends to determine if solution is acidic or basic and ● Has the ability to react with (and dissolve) certain
neutral:
metals to yield Hydrogen gas (a REDOX reaction)
● When there is more [H3O+ ] than [OH- ], the as evidenced by their oxidation numbers
solution is said to be acidic. When [OH- ] is
greater, it is basic

● Reaction can also be written as total ionic

equation or net ionic equation

Properties of Bases
● Taste bitter

● Bases are compounds that ionize to create

hydroxide ions (OH-) in solution
● Bases are hydrogen-ion acceptors

● Solutions-containing bases feels soapy or slippery

● With red litmus paper, it turns to blue

● Reacts readily with acids

● A complete reaction with the (ACID-BASE

REACTIONS) produce a neutral solution – thus
called neutral solution
● Many neutralization reactions do not produce
neutral solutions (though the name is still used)
● With acid, it forms salt and water.

Strength of Acid and Bases

● The strength of acids also depends upon the
solvent. Acetic acid is not receptive to take up
protons and has to be forced.
Properties of Acids
● All strong acid and bases are equally ionized and
● It tastes sour and
water is amphoteric. So, they have the same acidic
● Produces hydronium ions when dissolved in water or basic strength in water. This is known as the
● Acids are hydrogen containing compounds that levelling effect.

ionize to create hydrogen ions (H+) in solution

● Hydrochloric acid releases one Hydrogen ion called
monoprotic, releases two Hydrogen called diprotic,
and releases three hydrogen ions called triprotic.
● Acids are hydrogen-ion donors

● All acids undergo characteristic double

decomposition reaction with solid OXIDES,
HYDROXIDES, CARBONATES AND
BICARBONATES
a. 2HCl(aq) + CuO(s) 🡪 CuCl2(s) + H2O(l)
b. 2HCl(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) 🡪 CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) ● STRONG ELECTROLYTES the strong acids and bases
c. 2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s) 🡪 CaCl2(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
are completely ionized and water is amphoteric.
d. 2HCl(aq) + Sr(HCO)3(s) 🡪 SrCl2(s) + CO2(g) +
● WEAK ELECTROLYTES the weak acids and bases are
H2O(l)
partly ionized
● NON-ELECTROLYTES resulting to weak current
 o Types of Electrolytes
▪ Ionization – molecules are broken
apart so that atom take a charge
▪ Dissociation – electrolytes in
solution (ionic compound) form
separates its ions
M4: Solutions Stoichiometry
- Ions in the ionic compound
are pulled apart into
individual ions ● Stiochiomerty is the study of mass relationships in
- The (+) and (-) ions of an chemical reactions
ionic solid mix with solvent
● Mole - amount of unit like pair, dozen, gross
to form solution
● Avogadro’s number (NA ) or the Avogadro constant
(Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro).
a) Strong acid - is one that reacts completely or o 6.022×1023
almost completely with water to form H3O+ ions. o 6.022×1023/mol
They are strong acids because, when they dissolve
in water, they dissociate completely to give H 3O+ Qualitative description of Solutions
ions. - A homogeneous substance of a solute or solutes
b) Weak acids - produce a much smaller and solvent or solvents
concentration of H3O+ ions. E.g., Acetic Acid - Intermolecular forces cause the ions, atoms or
c) Strong bases - all of which are metal hydroxides. molecules in the solute to be evenly distributed
They are strong bases because, when they dissolve throughout the molecules of the solvent.
in water, they ionize completely to give OH+ ions. - Ex; when salt dissolves in water, the water
d) Weak bases - because the equilibrium for its molecules exert attractive electrical forces on the
reaction with water lies far to the left. ions in the salt crystals.

How solution formed:

- Forms when a solute or solutes and solvent or
solvents are evenly mixed
o Solution of gases (air)
o Ocean is a solution of saltwater
- Solute is the substance dissolved in a solution
- Solvent is a substance in which a solute is dissolved
o Solid or gas (solute) dissolves in a liquid
(solvent)
▪ Salt water – salt (solute), water
(solvent)
▪ Carbonated soft drink – CO2
(Solute), water (solvent)
o Liquid-liquid – substance present in larger
amount is the solvent
o Non-liquid solutions
▪ Gaseous solutions

● Air – 78% N and 21 % O

● CO2

● H2O
o Solid solutions
▪ Sterling silver – 92.5% Ag and
7.5%Cu
▪ Brass – alloy of copper and Zn
metals made by melting the solute
and solvent together
▪ Bronze
 ▪ Stainless steel

Quantitative description of Solutions

- The relationships between formula mass, the mole,
and Avogadro’s number can be applied to calculate
quantities that describe the composition of
substances and compounds.

Stoichiometry

● The formula weight (FW) - of a compound is the

sum of the atomic weights in atomic mass units
(amu) of all the atoms in the compound’s formula.
● Molecular weight (MW) or Molar mass - The sum
of the atomic weights of all atoms in a molecular
compound expressed in atomic mass units (amu).
● Mole (mol) - The formula weight of a substance
expressed in grams

Methods expressing concentration:

a. Percent Concentration
- The number of grams of solute in 100. mL of
solution.
1) Mass of solute per volume of solution (% w/v)
 2) Weight of solute per weight of solution (% w/w)

3) Volume of solute per volume of solution (% v/v)

b. Mole fraction
- a component of a solution is equal to the
number of moles of that component divided by
the total number of moles of all components
present. The sum of the mass fraction of all
components will always be equal to 1.
- moles can be obtained using the mass (m) and
molar mass (MM) of a substance

d. Molality (m)
- a solution is the number of moles of solute per kg
of the solvent. A solution containing a mole of
solute A in one kg of solvent is 1 molal of A
c. Molarity (M)
- the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 L
of solution.

e. Parts per Million (ppm) to express for low

concentration.
- E.g, 4mg of NaCl is dissolved in 8kg of solution.
What is concentration of NaCl in ppm?
o Ppm = g solute/ g solution x 106
Ppm = 4 mg/1 x 1g/ 1000 mg
Ppm = 0.004g/8000g x 106 = 0.5 ppm
Convert 8kg to mg by 1000g, so, 8 kg/1 x 1000g/1 kg
 Parts per Billion (ppb) solutions are so dilute to
express concentration

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gR_3Z_02mi0

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

M5: CARBON AND ITS PROPERTIES

Introduction: What is Organic Chemistry

Organic Chemistry is the study of the structure,
properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of
carbon-containing compounds.
● C as the writing stick in the pencil

● Carbon in graphite form

● Charcoal briquettes for barbeque

● Diamonds in a ring or necklace

● about 18% of human body (by weight) is

carbon
● Organic compounds are 85% while
Inorganic compounds are 15%
- Involves the chemistry of carbon and a few other
elements – H, O and N.
- Some contain S, F2, Cl2, Br2, or I2 and
Phosphorous

History: Study Organic Compounds

● Historical – wherein early scientist believed that
organic compounds are thought as produced by
living organisms
 NH4Cl + AgCNO 🡪 H2N-CO-NH2 + AgCl Molar mass Possesses the Does Not
(urea) molar mass of possess the
hydrogen and molar mass of
● Sheer number of organic compounds – 85% of all
oxygen hydrogen and
known compounds is organic compounds. 10,000 new oxygen
compounds discovered each year Volatility More volatile Non-volatile
● Important chemicals in living systems are organic Boiling Point/ Both Boiling and Both Boiling and
Melting Point melting point of melting point of
compounds this is essential for understanding
an organic an inorganic
biochemistry.
compound is compound is
o biochemicals LOW HIGH
o carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, enzymes, Shelf-life Nutritional 2-4yrs Shelf-
nucleic acids (DNA/RNA) quality, life, others
o Hormones Antioxidant exceed a decade
o Vitamins activity of shelf-life

Where to obtain Organic Compounds

Carbon Atoms
Isolation from nature Synthesis in the laboratory ✔ Carbon atoms make up the backbone of many
important molecules in the body, including proteins,
DNA, RNA, sugars, and fats.
Living organisms are Development and
✔ They are complex biological molecules called
basically chemical synthesize compounds and
macromolecules (few exceptions to this rule. For
factories their derivatives which is
example, CO2 and CO)
almost identical in
Terrestrial | biosynthesis Carbon is popular for making molecular backbones because;
properties in as those
a. C-C bonds are unusually strong to form a stable,
Marine | found in nature.
sturdy backbone for a large molecule; and
Flora | Extract b. Carbon’s capacity for covalent bonding, is well
suited to form the basic skeleton, or “backbone,”
Fauna | Isolate
of a macromolecule.
Bacteria | Purify c. Carbon’s ability to form bonds with four other
atoms goes back to its number and configuration of
electrons;
E.g., Natural gas, d. To be stable, C needs four more electrons to fill
petroleum, coal its outer shell, giving a total of eight to satisfy the
octet rule;
e. Carbon atoms may thus form bonds to as many as
four other atoms.
f. Carbon forms covalent bonds with four hydrogen
atoms. Each bond corresponds to a pair of shared
electrons (one from carbon and one from
hydrogen), giving carbon the eight electrons, it
PROPERTIES ORGANIC INORGANIC
needs for a full outer shell.
COMPOUNDS COMPOUNDS
Elements Hydrogen, All elements on
involved carbon, oxygen, The Periodic Carbon has 4 valence electrons. The Lewis structure of
nitrogen, and Table except Carbon with the charges
their other carbon-bonded
derivatives. elements.
Abundance 85% 15%
Solubility in Low High
water Soluble are
diethyl ether or
toluene Species containing positively charged C atom is called
Combustibility Combustible Non-
carbocation, a negatively charged C atom is carbanion. A
Combustible
specie containing a single unpaired electron is called a
Type of bond Non-polar Ionic bonds
Covalent bonds radical (free radical)

Electrical Bad conductors Good conductors The Carbon Atom Configuration (1s2 2s2 2p2)
conductivity
● The electron configuration of carbon allows it to
Rate of reaction Slow Fast
bind to itself to form chains and rings and
 covalently with other elements in different
arrangements.
● Carbon has 4 valence electrons occupying 2s and 2p
orbitals. These orbitals can undergo hybridization
into either sp3 (tetrahedral: alkanes), sp2
(trigonal) or sp (linear) arrangements depending on
the orientation of each orbital hybrid.
● If atoms do not bear a formal charge or an
unpaired electron, H and halogen atoms always have
one covalent bond

ORBITAL HYBRIDIZATION – concept of mixing atomic

orbitals into new hybrid orbitals suitable for the pairing of
electrons to form chemical bonds in valence bond theory.

Sp3 Hybridization:
a. (s orbital with 3p of x, y and z or 4sp3)
b. forms a single bond and is tetrahedral
oriented at bond angle of 109.5 o from
each other.
c. This hybrid orbital forming a tetrahedral
geometry are compounds that are stable
with single bonds called ALKANES.
Sp2 Hybridization:
a. The 2s orbital is hybridized with 2p
orbital to form 3 sp orbitals, each
consisting of 67%p and 33%s character
b. S orbital with 2p orbital (px, py) = 3 sp2
oriented at bond angle of 120o which has a
molecular geometry of trigonal planar.
c. This hybrid orbital forming a triangular
planar are compounds with double bonds
called ALKENES.
Sp Hybridization:
a. One s- and one p-orbital are combined
together to generate two sp
b. hybrid orbitals with a linear structure and
a bond angle of 180 degrees.
M6: INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTIONAL
c. Each sp hybridised orbital has the same
proportion of s and p characters – 50 GROUPS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
percent s character and 50 percent p
character.
d. This hybrid orbital forming a linear are
compounds with triple bonds.
Functional Group
● Atom or group of atoms of an organic molecule
undergoing predictable chemical reactions.
● Compounds in same functional group of different
molecule undergoes same type of reactions.
● Units which organic compounds are classified or
divided into families of compounds
● Basis for naming compounds

Nomenclature of Alkyl Substituents

● 1 H from an alkane result to formation of alkyl
substituent (an alkyl group).
● Named by replacing the “ane” with “yl”

● Designated “R” to indicate any alkyl group

a) R- Alkyl group

In common system all isomeric alkanes have the same

parent name. For example, two isomeric C4H10 alkanes are
b) Alkyl group with OH substituent – R-OH, an alcohol
known as butanes. The names of various isomers are
group
distinguished by prefixes. The prefix indicates the types of
branching present in the molecule.
(1) Prefix n- is used for those alkanes in which all
carbons are in one continuous chain. Prefix n-
stands for normal.
a. CH3CH2CH2CH3 = n-Butane
c) Alkyl group with Amine substituent – R-NH2 an amine b. CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 = n-Pentane
group (2) Prefix iso- used for those alkanes which have a
methyl group (CH3--) attached to the second
last carbon atom of the continuous chain.

a.

b.
(3) Prefix neo- used for those alkanes which have
two methyl groups (CH3--) attached to the
second last carbon atom of the continuous
chain.
 a.
M7: HYDROCARBON GROUP

Types of Carbon Atom

a. Location/Position
2. Primary (1o) carbon – a carbon atom attached
to only 1 other c atom
3. Secondary (2o) carbon – a carbon atom
attached to 2 other c atom
4. Tertiary (3o) carbon – a carbon atom
attached to 3 other c atom
5. Quaternary (4o) carbon – a carbon atom
attached to 4 other c atom

Write formula of Organic Compounds

1. Molecular Formula – gives the actual number of
atoms of the constituent elements in th1e molecule
a) Alkanes, n=2, MF = C2H6 ------ CnH2n+2
b) Alkenes, n = 2, MF = C2H4 ----- CnH2n
c) Alkynes, n=2, MF = C2H2 ----- CnH2n-2
2. Structural Formula – show the arrangement of
the atoms or group of atoms in the molecule
a) Graphical or expanded form = shows all
the bonds of the atom in the molecule
b) Condensed form
c) Line angle