Pressure

1. Pressure Sensor Accuracy

Pressure Sensor Accuracy : maximum positive and negative deviation from the specified
characteristic curve observed in testing a device under specified conditions and by a specified
procedure. The more accurate the sensor the more expensive it will be.

Accuracy includes 3 factors :

· Non-Repeatability : The maximum difference in output when the same pressure is applied,
consecutively, under the same conditions and approaching from the same direction.
· Hysteresis : The maximum difference in sensor output at a pressure when that pressure is
first approached with pressure increasing and then approached with pressure decreasing
during a full span pressure cycle.
· Non-Linearity : The maximum positive or negative deviation between the average curve
and the selected straight line, expressed in percent of ideal output span and is independent
of non-repeatability and hysteresis.

To combine 3 factors into a single accuracy, there are multiple ways : Root of the Sum Squared
(RSS), Root of the Mean Squared (RMS), or Summed Factors.

2. Pressure Sensors

There are 3 kinds of pressure sensors : Gauge Pressure (relative to atmospheric pressure), Absolute
Pressure (measured against vacuum), and differential pressure.

How pressure sensors work :

· Diaphragm type pressure gauge : As the pressure builds, it flexes the diaphragm, which
can turn this into a dial measurement through gears and linkages.
· Piezoelectric effect pressure sensors : This is when a material creates an electric charge in
response to stress. The pressure sensor detects the pressure and can determine the amount
of pressure by measuring the electric charge.
· Hall-Cell : Magnet strength determines Hall Current.

There are different types of devices for different purposes :

· Pressure gage : Indicate gas pressures on a plastic face or an LCD display with no output
signal for controlling.
· Pressure switch : Open and close relay switches after the pressure reaches a setpoint.
· Pressure transmitter : Measure pressure and convert it to output signal, usually into current
signal (4-20mA) or volt signal (typically 0-10VDC).
· Pressure controller : a combination of pressure gages, switch and transmitter. Integrate into
a HVAC system using Serial Communication Modbus or RS485

Before using a device, it is necessary to calibrate it. On the actual instrument (the pressure
transmitter), there are two adjustments, which are called “zero” and “span”. We need to adjust
these two for accuracy.
 Temperature
Types of Temperature Sensors :

1. Thermistor : Type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly with temperature

Two types:

o NTC (negative thermal coefficient) – resistance decreases with increasing

temperature
o PTC (positive thermal coefficient) – resistance increases with increasing
temperature
2. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) : Similar to Thermistor but Consist of a fine coiled
wire wrapped around a glass or ceramic core. Typically made of pure material such as
platinum, nickel or copper.
3. Thermocouple : is made of two dissimilar metal wires, which product a voltage as a
function of temperature change. Thermocouples are based on the Seebeck effect, which is
a thermoelectric effect where continuous current is created in a circuit where the junctions
of two dissimilar conductive materials are kept at different temperatures.

There are different types of devices for different purposes :

· Thermometers : Measure and display the temperature.

· Temperature Switches : Open and close relays when reaching setpoint temperature, if
using limit control can also provide audible alarms.
· Temperature Transmitters : Convert temperature to current signal (4-20mA).
· Temperature Controllers : Measure, display temperature and control output using On/Off,
PID, Fuzzy or manually.
 Gases
1. 𝐶𝑂 2

To measure the 𝐶𝑂 2 concentration, the transmitter uses a single beam dual wavelength non-
dispersive infrared (NDIR) sensor. The sensor is not directly in contact with the air so this method
is the most reliable way to detect 𝐶𝑂 2.

A basic NDIR sensor consists of an IR source, a sample chamber, an IR filter and an IR detector.
Infrared light from IR source go through the sample chamber with air to the IR detector. When
passing through the air, the infrared light with a specific wavelength will be absorbed by the 𝐶𝑂 2.
The difference between the IR source and the light detected from IR detector will be calculated
and output the 𝐶𝑂 2 concentration in the air.

2. 𝐶𝑂

The most common type of detector gets the job done through electrochemical sensors composed
of electrodes submerged in an electrically conductive solution called an electrolyte. When carbon
monoxide enters the gas-permeable compartment that houses the sensor, a chemical reaction
occurs that causes the electrical current passing through the electrolyte to surge. The specific
amount by which the current increases tells the detector the concentration of the carbon monoxide
molecules.