Material for final examination

THE PHYSICAL SELF

“YOU ARE IMPERFECT, PERMANENTLY AND INEVITABLY FLAWED, AND YOU ARE BEATIFUL”
-AMY BLOOM
Why Do I Look Like Myself?
• Gregor Mendel first figured out how genes are passed from parents to offspring in plants,
including humans.
• Genetics has a hand in our physical appearance. Our biology dictates that our looks are a
result of the genes transferred to us by our parents.
WHAT PHYSICAL TRAITS DID YOU GET FROM YOUR PARENTS? DO YOU LOOK MORE
LIKE YOUR FATHER OR YOUR MOTHER?
CULTURAL STANDARD OF BEAUTY
• Defining beauty can be a very daunting task.
• As culture decides the norms of the society, its concept of what is beautiful I similarly invoked
from a cultural perspective.
• Different cultures have different standards of beauty. During the 19th century in the African
country of Tahiti, it was recorded that some men and women were set aside in a special place
for fattening purposes (Pollock, 1995)
• Lackoff and Scherr (1989) – In their book face value: the politics of beauty, explain this
perfectly saying that “beauty was not just a product of wealth, but a commodity in and of itself.
In other words, it was no longer a matter of looking to wealth to find beauty, but of looking to
beauty to find status. Now, beauty could give the illusion of wealth.”

CULTURAL STANDARD OF BEAUTY

• In the Philippines, the construction of local standards of beauty can be traced from our
colonial influences. Skin color signifies the value of the people in society. Lighter skinned
individuals are considered higher in terms of social status, and therefore, in the social rank
compared to those with brown or dark skin (Rondilla, 2012).
Are you happy with how your society defines beauty? Justify

A HEALTHY BODY IMAGE, AND SELF-ESTEEM IN PERIL

• The quest for physical perfection has brought us to an ordeal that will not end unless we got
to the bottom of the problem. Our society has not only placed so much importance on looking
beautiful, but also has done a great job in commercializing the same.
THE FILTERED SELF
• The advent of social media put pressure on us to look even better. On Instagram, the most
famous photo-sharing application known to us to date, we post our most physically appealing
self, and often, we use filter application, where we can hide our imperfections, creating, and
recreating a self that is better approved by our online friends.
CELEBRATING BEAUTY IN DIVERSITY
• Cultural concepts of beauty should be celebrated. However, practices that enhance
attractiveness, yet are severely harmful to our health, should be stopped.
EMBRACING YOUR PHYSICAL SELF
• In society that we worship perfections, embracing our physical selves is not going to be easy.
Still and all, being positive about how we look can work miracles.
SUMMARY
• It would be impossible to live a contented life if we are not happy with our physical selves.
We need to be reminded that our looks are a testament that we are a byproduct of our parents
love for each other.

SEXUAL ASPECT OF SELF

• WHAT IS SEX?
• WAS IT NORMAL IN THE PHILIPPINES TO TALK ABOUT SEX?
• IS IT OKAY TO HAVE SEX BEFORE MARRIAGE?
Sigmund Freud
• Humankind will perish without sex. It is part of sexual health.
• Human behavior is motivated by the desire to feel that pleasure. Organized and controlled by
2 instincts SEXUALITY & AGGRESSION.
• Instinct is driven by a form of internal psychic energy called LIBIDO.
• Human instinct continuously seeks the pleasure of the flesh which can be satisfied through
sex.
Development of Secondary Sex Characteristics and the Human Reproductive System
PUBERTY- an individual becomes physically mature.
Physical changes during adolescence are brought by sex hormones from testes and ovaries.
TESTOSTERONE- sex hormone for male age 12-14 yrs. Growth and changes happens at
16-17 yrs.
ESTROGEN & PROGESTERONE- sex hormone for females 10-12 yrs. Growth and
changes happens at 15-17yrs.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM –THE PRODUCTION OF SPERM FOR THE
FERTILIZATION OF OVUM.

Female REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM- the main function of the female reproductive

system is the production, transportation and fertilization of eggs and the production
of sex hormones.
 Human Sexual Response
-sexual response is the cycle used to describe the changes that occur in the body as men
and women become sexually aroused. (Masters and Johnsons 1966)

Excitement- This is when the body gets ready for sexual activity.

Plateau- During this phase, intensified breathing, high blood pressure, and faster heart rate
may be experienced as well as muscle contraction in the face, feet, and hands.

Orgasm- This is also referred to as the climax of the cycle. During this phase, breathing,
blood pressure, and heart rate are further intensified. contraction of the muscle of the face,
feet, and hands continues. One or both are breathing heavily and there is irrepressible and
powerful release of sexual tension.

Resolution- The body gradually returns to its normal level of functioning. During this phase,
the fatigue begins to be felt but the overall sexual activity is also expected to bring a sense
of biological fulfillment.

UNDERSTANDING THE CHEMISTRY OF LUST, ATTRACTION AND

ATTACHMENT
Helen Fisher (1948) of Rutgers University identified three stages of love. These are lust,
attraction, and attachment.
• Lust (Libido or sex drive) is characterized by the desire for sexual gratification which is
inherent to every living organism. For humans, this is associated with sex hormones,
testosterone(male) and estrogen(female)
• Attraction (passionate or obsessive love, infatuation) an individual with high degree of
attraction towards another person craves for emotional union with that person.
This stage is driven with chemicals and hormones like adrenaline, dopamine, serotonin.
1) Adrenaline- is released by the body for “FIGHT” or “FLIGHT”.
2) Dopamine- ignites an intense rush of pleasure when released. High level of
neurotransmitter like dopamine causes increased energy, less need for food and
sleep, and focused attention to one’s desired partner.
3) Serotonin- is attributed to “falling in love” as this hormone makes a person think of his
or her desired partner at most times.
 • Attachment (companionate love) is characterized by the desire of couples to stay together.
A person who is already attached feels comfort and security from his or her partner. This
phase also includes behavior anchored on long-term companionship.
1. Oxytocin (cuddle hormone)- is released during orgasm. The feeling of attachment becomes
more intense after a couple has sexual intercourse.
2. Vasopressin (anti-diuretic hormone)- is released after sexual intercourse.
WHAT TURNS PEOPLE ON AND OFF
A “turn on” refers to something that someone may find desirable, pleasant, beautiful, likable or any
positive quality. A “turn off,” on the other hand, is the complete opposite.
For teens, turn Ons and offs may focus on physical attributes and personal qualities of someone
from the opposite sex.
For young adults and mature adults, turn Ons and offs may be associated with sexual activities.
Turn Ons may also be the sexual act that one finds pleasurable and desirable and turn offs may be
those acts that are disagreeable.
What turns people on and off are qualities and acts that people observe and experience. It can be
the different things that one meets constantly. An individual’s turn Ons and turn offs can simply
serves as markers of one’s personality and identity.

THE DIVERSITY OF SEXUAL BEHAVIORS

Sexual behaviors and/ or activities may come in the form of;
• Masturbation- this is a sexual act of stimulating one’s own genitals done alone by an
individual.
• Premarital Sex- this refers to the sexual activities people engage in outside of marriage. For
certain religions, this considered unacceptable for there is a belief that it is only through
marriage that a man and woman could partake in sexual activities.
• Marital Sex- these are the sexual activities that happen within the bounds of marriage.
• Extramarital Sex- these are sexual activities that married people engage in with people they
are not married to.
• Heterosexuality- it happens between persons of the opposite sex.
• Homosexuality- refers to sexual attractions and activities that happens between two persons
of the same sex.
• Bisexuality- this refers to sexual behavior of one who engage in sexual acts with someone
from the opposite or same sex.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) refer to health condition that are passed on from a person to
another through sexual contact.
• HIV/AIDS- HIV is primarily transmitted through unprotected sex, contaminated needle
exchange and blood transfusion, and during pregnancy. AIDS is the occurrence of specific
diseases due to the contraction of HIV.
• Gonorrhea- a bacterial infection of the mucous membranes including the eye, throat,
genitals, and other organs.

• Syphilis- an infection cause by corkscrew-shaped bacterium called Treponema pallidum that

is transmitted through direct contact with a syphilitic sore on skin.

• Genital herpes- is a viral infection that causes blisters on the genitals.

• Genital warts- are warts caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV) that grows in genital or
anal.
• Chancroid- is a bacterial infection that causes sores or ulcer on the genitals.

• Pubic lice(crabs)- are very small parasites that infest the genital area which are primarily
spread through sexual contact.
• Scabies- is a skin condition that caused by infestation of tiny mites called Sarcoptes scabiei.

• Trichomoniasis- an infection caused by a parasite called Trichomonas vaginalis.

• Molluscum contagiosum- another sexually transmitted infection caused by molluscum

contagiosum virus.
• Pelvic Inflammatory Diseases (PID)- is not a sexually transmitted infection (STI) but a
complication resulting from STIs especially chlamydia and gonorrhea.

• a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacteria Chlamydia trachomatis that do

significant damage to the human reproductive system.
METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION
1. It should be safe enough. There should be no unwanted side-effect for every individual using
the contraceptive.
2. It should be efficient in averting unwanted pregnancy.
3. It should be simple and easy to use.
4. It should be available any time.

Folk method
Postcoital Douche or Douching- is a method used by women to flush out the vagina with a
medicinal solution to remove or destroy the sperm.

a. Prolonged Lactation- this technique used by women is done through breast feeding their
baby for long period.

b. Behavioral Contraceptives- do not need any artificial devices. Pregnancy can be prevented
by altering the natural process of sexual relations, thus impeding the union of the egg and
sperm cell.

c. Rhythm method- is a natural method supported by the Catholic Church. Couples are
enjoined to abstain for a certain period while the woman is fertile.
d. Ovulation method- this practice makes use of the observing mucous discharge from the
vagina at the beginning of a woman’s fertile period.

e. Withdrawal or Coitus interruptus- this is a process where in the man, during sexual
intercourse, withdraws the penis out of the vagina before orgasm.

f. Coitus reservatus- this is a practice in which the man withholds ejaculation and let the
erection subside inside the vagina.

• Mechanical Contraceptives
There are mechanical contraceptives of different forms that acts as barriers to prevent the
sperm from entering the uterus, thereby preventing pregnancy.

a. Condom- the condom is a thin material made of rubber used during sexual activity.

b. Diaphragm- this is a shallow rubber cup inserted into the vagina. The diaphragm is coated
with spermicidal cream or jelly to prevent the entry of sperm into the uterus.

c. Cervical caps- these are fitted over the cervix by a doctor. Usually, cervical caps can be worn
for a month starting after menstruation up to the onset of the next menstruation.
 • Chemical Contraceptives
Better known as spermicides, are used to prevent pregnancy by stopping the sperm from
entering the uterus.
a. Vaginal suppositories and tablets- a suppository is a small, bullet-shape dosage form
containing chemicals used in destroying the sperm cells.

b. b. Contraceptive jellies, creams, and vagina foams- These are applied onto the vagina
shortly before sexual intercourse.

• Intrauterine Devices-
An intrauterine device (IUD) is a small device of polyethylene plastic or thin copper wire inserted
into the uterus by a physician.

• Pills
Taking the pill is completely dissociated from the sexual act. The pill renders the woman infertile.

• Sterilization
Sterilization or surgery is done with comparative ease and in virtually 100% effective. Sterilization
of the male is called Vasectomy and Tubal Ligation for female.

• Injectables
Injectables is one of the latest forms of contraception. This contraceptive is injected in a woman to
inhibit ovulation. An injection usually lasts for 3 months.

Lesson 8
Material Aspect of Self
Material Self is the self that consists of the body, clothes, immediate family, home, and other things
one considers to be his or her own.
—William James (1890)
According to James, people invest themselves in their material possession, thus feeling deeply
connected to them.
Material Possession are objects of instinctive preference that may or may not be related with a
person’s most practical interest in life.
Many people have the impulse to always keep check of their bodies and to deck them with
clothing they find to be most suitable to them.
● Ones family members can be seen as an extension of ones identity.
● Home is a space that one considers as his or her own. It is where an individual’s material
possession can be seen.
● These material things serve as an extension of one’s identity that influence how he or she
is perceived by others.

The Consumer Culture on One’s Sense of Self and Identity

Credit Cards
● In the early 2000s, the use of credit cards became more popular and more people started
patronizing them.
● Credit cards changed People can now buy goods or avail service without cash or checks.
● Transaction is made simply by swiping the cards.
● Credit cards have brought convenience, security, and comfort in the way people engage in
the consumption of goods and services in society.
● consumer culture and its role in how individuals, as consumers, function as part of the
process of production and consumption.
● There are some hidden charges or unauthorized credit transactions and frauds.
● Credit card holders find themselves vulnerable to incurring too much debt.
● Urge people to make unnecessary purchases.
● Lessen one’s opportunity to save money.
Innovations and Development in Advertising
● It changed consumer culture.
● Is influential in shaping how and why people consume goods and services.
● Helps individual to relate to goods and services.

Needs Vs. Wants

 Needs
● Needs is something that a person must have in order to live.
● This includes the foods, clothes, shelter, medicine, and other things necessary for survival.
Wants
● Wants is something that a person desires to have but can live without.
● Examples are the things that are considered as luxuries such as jewels, extravagant bags,
shoes, etc.

● Impulse buyer
● Some may reason that they are working hard in order to buy things.
● Other people work to ensure that they have everything they need.
● Some works to have both needs and wants.
● Do not have self-control in buying behavior.
● Spend more money on luxurious things without savings allotted for needs.

Balance the needs and Wants Prioritize what benefit you in the long run. Allocate earning for
savings. Avoid being impulsive and instead be practical and prudent.

The Spiritual Self

What Are Religion and Spirituality?
Religion is an organized system of ideas about the spiritual or supernatural realm that is
accompanied by rituals. Through rituals, people attempt to influence things that they think are
beyond their control.
Spirituality also concerns an aspect of the divine and supernatural but is oftentimes limited
to the individual, with no need for any formal organization. This is the search for meaning and
direction in life and the ways by which one may preserve these.
RELIGION
Religion – Its Role in Society:
• To explain things
 • To establish order
• To justify things
• To provide support
• Socializes people
• Vehicle for passage into a different domain
Theories on Religion:
• Cognitive – imparts meaning and value to the world
• Psychological – how people adapt to extreme fatigue and tension (stress)
• Social Function – looks at the relationships of people, unity and conformity to the majority.
•
Religion – Organized
• Organized belief in the supernatural.
• Fulfills numerous social and psychological needs.
• In the last 10,000 years, no group of people have gone/existed within religion.
Religion – Symbols
• Religions make use of many symbols
• Norms, words, ideas and objects that point to other objects.
• When put together, these symbols become a system of knowledge. (System of Knowledge)
Religion – Myths
• These are stories that have explanations about the divine and the supernatural. Within a culturally,
myths are considered real. This is accompanied by ideology and a worldview.
Modern “major” religions have their myths.
• Brahma, Krishna, Vishnu, many more (Hinduism)
• Muhammad and the Angel Gabriel (Islam)
• Adam & Eve (Judaism & Christianity)
• The Jade Emperor/Heavenly Grandfather (Taosim)
Myth
• Religious, sacred, stories that provide basis for beliefs/practices.
• Origins of humanity, creation of the universe, nature of death/illness.
• Lay the founding for values/morals.
• Can be passed down verbally or in writing.
• Myths help to shape a culture’s worldview.
What Functions Do Religion and Spirituality Serve?
• All religions serve several important functions:
– They reduce anxiety by explaining the unknown and offer comfort in times of crisis.
– They provide notions of right and wrong, setting precedents for acceptable behavior.
– Through ritual, religion may be used to enhance the learning of oral traditions

Religion – Rituals
• Religions have rituals/ritu. It is whatever is done repeatedly.
Religion –Rites of Passage
• Rites of separation – rites that involve the separation of the individual from society.
• Rites of transition – rites on the temporary separation of an individual before inclusion in a
big group
• Rites of incorporation – in the new state/condition, the individual is returned to the big
group.
• Rites of intensification – rituals used in times of problem or crisis, to unify, reduce fear or to
mobilize people into action.
THERE ARE SEVEN WAYS TO IMPROVE YOUR SPIRITUAL HEALTH
1. Explore your spiritual core- By exploring your spiritual core, you are simply asking yourself
questions about the person you are and you're meaning. Ask yourself: Who am I? What is
my purpose? What do I value most? These questions will lead you down a road where you
will think more in-depth about yourself and allow you to notice things about yourself that will
help you achieve fulfillment.
2. Look for deeper meanings- Looking for deeper meanings in your life and analyzing
occurring patterns will help you see that you have control over your destiny. Being aware of
this can help you achieve a happy and healthy life.
3. Get it out- Expressing what is on your mind will help you to maintain a focused mind. After a
long day or a significant event, you may feel confused and not be able to make sense of your
feelings. By writing down your thoughts, you may be able to think clearer and move forward.
4. Try yoga- Yoga is a physical technique that can help improve your spiritual wellness by
reducing emotional and physical strains on your mind and body. Yoga is taught at all different
levels and can help lower stress, boost the immune system, and lower blood pressure as well
as reduce anxiety, depression, fatigue, and insomnia.
 5. Tavel- It’s true! Taking time for yourself to travel to a comforting place or somewhere new
can-do wonders for your mind. When you are at a place where your mind can keep out
distractions and help you reflect and rest, you will have a better connection with yourself. This
allows you to weed out stressors and set your mind on the right path for overall wellness.
Some activities to take part in when on a trip can be exercising, speaking with a counselor or
advisor, meditation, or taking a temporary vow of silence.
6. Think positively- Once you start viewing things in your life in a positive manner, you will find
yourself thinking differently and refocusing your mind to a happy, healthy place. When you
eliminate negativity and re-frame how you think of certain things and situations, you’ll notice
yourself being more relaxed.
7. Take time to meditate- While managing your time and daily tasks can be hard, it is crucial
to devote time to connecting with yourself. Whether in the morning when you wake up, during
your lunch break, or before you go to sleep, take five to 10 minutes to meditate each day.
Fitting mediation and relaxation into your lifestyle will free your mind and foster a stronger
relationship with your spiritual wellness.

The Digital Self

The Digital Self
The Development and Expression of the Self and Identity in Social Networking Sites
What’s in my Facebook or Instagram account? Are there common themes in your posts? If ever, what are
they? What do they say about you/ your identity?

Adolescence and SNS Adolescence

• It is the period of physical, cognitive and emotional changes the individuals undergo as they
navigate from childhood to adulthood.
• The transition period of individuation for identity construction of an autonomous self
• They need for personal space
• Their Social Networking Sites provide the needed personal space and avenue for identity
construction through anonymity, connectivity, and interactivity
Three (3) Types of Adolescent self-esteem:
1. Self-concept - related to how adolescents perceive and evaluate their abilities, attributes,
and values.
2. Personal Self-esteem - Many people with high self-esteem also have confidence. They
trust in their ability to progress at work, on the dating scene, and spiritually. Self-esteem also
has a social component: the voices of other people in our heads.
3. Collective self-esteem - refers to individual’s subjective assessment of that portion of their
self-concept is based on their membership in social groups.
Adolescents’ self-esteem is affected by their perceived evaluation of other people about them.
They tend to overestimate the extent to which other people evaluate them, as a consequence, they
become preoccupied with how they present themselves. They package themselves by hiding their
undesirable features and by highlighting their pleasant ones. Thus, when given good feedback, they
feel better about themselves. Social affiliation and communication are essential factors in
adolescents’ self-esteem. Adolescents tend to feel good about them when they are happy with their
group membership and when their social support is available. SNS serve as the avenue for these
social needs.

Identity Construction in Facebook

• Personal online identity construction
• Social online identity construction

According to theory the results from the study of Brillantes-Evangelista, Baybay, & Dingcong
(2013) adolescent identity construction is a process of forming an autonomous self who is presented
to an audience: Personal Identity refers personality attributes of an individual which are not shared
with other people, and Social Identity this aspect of individuals’ self-concept that stems from their
knowledge of their membership with a certain social group.
Facebook Use
Mark Zuckerberg, the founder of Facebook in the year 2004, originally designed Facebook only for
Harvard University students. As the demand and popularity for social media networks grew throughout the
world. Facebook creators expended their networks to include everyone. This change started a massive
following of individuals and made Facebook one of the most popular social media networks in the world.
Facebook, as a controlled setting, becomes a venue for the college students to engage in their identity
construction. It presented themselves through wall posts, photos, and profiles in such a way that convey an
image of themselves that they want their audience to see. Space for the individuals to explore and create
their personal and social identities.
Facebook as a platform to:
• It creates a space for self-revelation and assertion
• Project needs and preferences
• Create virtual surrogate group
• Experiment on different identity
• Manage impressions through positive self-presentation
Creating a space for self-revelation and assertion
• Disclosure of their personal information and their assertion of who they are or what they want others to see
about them. “When I was still in 1st year and very active on Facebook, I would post pictures of myself going
out with my friends, and many people would see it.
 • Facebook provides them their online personal space, which is an essential aspect in exploring their
identities. They would point out that I had become different from who I was back in High School, someone
who didn’t have much of a social life but would rather go home straight from school.”
Projecting Needs and Preferences
• “It can be seen in Facebook, like what I’m doing can be seen more, like my normal self when I’m with my
friends.”
• Usually, it can’t be seen who I really am when I’m with my family compared to when I’m with my friends.
• My posts are usually about activities with my friends and with my boyfriend…”
`• Facebook is a space for the participants to project their emotional needs and preferences.
• They are able to verbalize or at least depict through their photos and other posts their thoughts and feelings.
• This process of projection and airing out of needs and preferences serve as an externalization of their
thoughts and feelings which can help them reflect and reconstruct aspects of them.
• “…I just wanted to give voice to the thoughts of teenagers who might not be able to say it.”
Creating a virtual surrogate group
• The individual’s relationships somehow shape their identity construction by allowing their online social
groups define how they present themselves
• This social construction of the self will be further facilitated by the gratification they received from their online
group and by their dissatisfaction with their onground affiliations
Experimenting on a different identity
• The individuals explore and experiment on their identities by trying out different aspects of themselves and
new roles.
• By creating multiple accounts, these adolescents are able to create their different selves co-existing in a
virtual world.
Managing impressions: positive self-presentation
• Individuals depict happy and pleasant dispositions in their Facebook accounts.
• Showing only their socially desirable features--they construct their ideal selves in front of their audience.
• Their self-presentation via Facebook is more strategic compared to their onground self-projection.
• They have more time to think of which aspects of their personalities or profile should be presented or which
photos depict their best image.
• “I like pictures where I look good and decent. It’s not much about who I’m within the photos, but more of
how okay I look.”
• Adolescents tend to overestimate the extent to which other people watch and evaluate them.
• They think they are always on the look-out, thus, they present their image as ideal as they can be
• The feedback that they get from other people becomes their basis for changing aspects of themselves or
for hiding information.
• The SNS (e.g., facebook) can be a viable venue for identity construction.
• They could shift from one identity according to who they chose to be at a given time.
• With multiple Facebook accounts depicting different persona, the “self” is no longer deemed as a unitary
construct but fluid and plural identities
So, what’s wrong with using social networking sites?
• It’s not the use per se, but how it is used.
• It becomes unhealthy when it replaces REALITY.
• When it replaces on-ground social interaction. When virtual reality becomes the basis of social gratification,
self-esteem, and identity.
• When the person is in constant monitoring of the self (e.g., likes, photos, status, activity posts, etc.) and
how one fares in comparison to others.
• When personal identity becomes dependent on virtual social identity.
• When these happen, one can have very weak or diffused identity, can be very insecure, and/or self-
absorbed, and with very poor socio-emotional skills.

The Social Self

This part discusses the social and environmental factors that shape oneself. This included
environmental systems, cultural orientations, and other social factors that play a crucial role to oneself.

The Self and Its Social Agency

• Human development is largely influenced by membership in crucial social groups that shape various
aspects of the self; from belief systems, values orientation, and behavior.

• At the beginning of life, one already belongs to a social group: his/her family. It is the most pervading
influential social group that impacts the self in its entire course of development. The views one holds about
the world, values upheld in making choices and decisions, and the habits and persistent behavior one
carries have been formed in the context of one’s family and home environment.

• Next to family, schools and the general academic environment form a significant part of the social self.
Worldviews expand as one gets exposed to more people in different social learning environment.
Knowledge and social skills gained from mentors, relatives, and peers contribute to how the social self is
harnessed.

• Aside from one’s family and school environments, communities also shape one’s social self to a large
extent.

• The social self inevitably changes as one accommodates and eventually assimilates beliefs promoted by
the society as he/she thinks, appreciates, and behaves according to standards set by micro and
macrosystems.
Culture

• “Culture is the complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, law, art moral, custom, and other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.” (Tylor, 1871)

• To further understand the nature of culture and its influences on oneself, the following models illustrate
how culture functions in relation to one’s social self.
Biological Systems Theory
Urie Bronfenbenner’s (1935) Biological Systems of Development explains an individual’s social
development, using biological, environmental, and ecological lenses.
Individualism-Collectivism Model
Another model that highlights the impact of culture to the self is the Individualism Collectivism model
proposed by Hazel Markus and Shinobu Kitayama (1991).
According to the model, individualism as an orientation focuses on one’s individual attributes and
personal distinctiveness. People who are individualistic are observed to be competitive and self-reliant. On
the other hand, the collectivist orientation values relationships and harmony. People who are collectivistic
prioritize interests to maintain healthy relationships.

I vs. Me

• One’s behavior when he or she is alone differing from his or her behavior when he or she is with others.

• This is what Herbert Mead (1934) posited in his theory of the social self. He posited that the self is divided
into 2 parts: the I which is known as the unsocialized self, and the Me which is known as the socialized self.

• The I is manifested when one acts naturally for his/her own motivations and not because of others. On
the other hand, the Me is the awareness of how others expect one to behave. This is also known as the
social self.
These different models present ideas on the process of the self’s social development. Studying
these models helps in understanding oneself and other people. It is not ideal, however, to generalize a
certain culture based on these models.

Managing The Self

Intended Learning Outcomes:

1. Understanding the theoretical underpinnings for how to manage and care for different aspects of the self.

2. Acquire and hone new skills and learnings for better managing of one’s self and behaviors.

3. Apply these new skills to one’s self and functioning a better quality of life.
 Learning to be Better Student

Study Techniques

Many students are being left behind by an educational system that some people believe is in crisis. Improving
educational outcomes will require efforts on many fronts, but there are solutions involve in helping students to
better regulate their learning through the use of effective learning techniques. Fortunately, cognitive and educational
psychologists have been developing and evaluating easy-to-use learning techniques that could help students achieve
their learning goals.

Ten (10) Techniques:

1. Elaborative Interrogation – Generating an explanation for why an explicitly stated fact or

concept is true. Anyone who has spent time around young children knows that one of their
most frequent utterances in “Why?” (Perhaps coming in a close second behind “No!”). Humans
are inquisitive creatures by nature, attuned to seeking explanations for states, actions, and
events in the world around us. Fortunately, a sizable body of evidence suggests that the power
of explanatory questioning can be harnessed to promote learning.

2. Self-explanation – Explaining how new information is related to known information, or

explaining steps taken during problem solving. Self-explanation may enhance learning by
supporting the integration of new information with existing prior knowledge. The key
continuum along which self-explanation prompts differ concerns the degree to which they are
content-free versus content specific.

3. Summarization – Writing summaries (various lengths) of to-be-learned texts. Students often

have to learn large amounts of information, which requires them to identify what is important
and how different ideas connect to one another. One popular technique for accomplishing
these goals involves having students write summaries of to-be-learned texts. Successful
summaries identify the main points of a text and capture the gist of it while excluding
unimportant or repetitive material. Although learning to construct accurate summaries is often
an instructional goal in its own right, our interest here concerns whether doing so will boost
students’ performance on later criterion tests that cover the target materials.

4. Highlighting/ Underlining – Marking potentially important portions of to-belearned materials

while reading. More systematic evaluations of actual textbooks and other student materials
have supported the claim that highlighting and underlining are common behaviors. When
students themselves are asked about what they do when studying, they commonly report
underlining, highlighting are common, or otherwise marking material as they try to learn it. We
treat these techniques as equivalent, given that, conceptually, they should work the same way
(and at least one study found no differences between them).

5. Keyword mnemonic –Using keywords and mental imagery of text materials while reading or
listening. Develop a mental image of students hundred over textbooks, struggling with a science
unit on the solar system, trying to learn the planets’ names and their order in distance from the
sun. To facilitate learning, the student uses the keyword mnemonic, which is a technique based
on interactive imagery. The potential benefits of the keyword mnemonic have been extensively
explored, and its power partly resides in the use of interactive images.

6. Imagery for text – Attempting to form mental images of text materials while reading or
listening. Investigations of imagery use for learning text materials have focused on single
sentence and longer text materials. Evidence concerning the impact of imagery on sentence
 learning largely comes from investigations of other mnemonic techniques in which imagery
instructions have been included in a comparison condition.

7. Rereading – Restudying text material again after an initial reading. Rereading is one of the
techniques that students most frequently report using during selfregulated study. Rereading
simply increases the total amount of information encoded regardless of the kind or level of
information within the text.

8. Practice testing – self-testing or taking practice tests over to-be-learned material. Practice
testing are use as (a) to distinguish testing that is completed as lowstakes or no-stakes practice
or learning activity outside of class from summative assessments that are administered by an
instructor in class, and (b) to encompass any form of practice testing that students would be
able to engage in on their own. For example, practice testing could involve practicing recall of
target information via the use of actual or virtual flashcards, completing practice problems or
questions included at the end of textbook chapters, or completing practice problems or
questions included at the end of textbook chapters, or completing practice tests included in the
electronic supplemental materials that increasingly accompany textbooks.

9. Distributed practice – Implementing a schedule of practice that spreads out study activities
over time. To-be-learned material is often encountered on more than one occasion, such as
when students review their note and then later use flashcards to restudy the materials, or
when a topic is covered in class and then later studied in a textbook.

10. Interleaved practice – Implementing a schedule of practice that mixes different kinds of
problems, or a schedule of study that mixes different kinds of material, within a single study
session. In virtually every kind of class at every grade level, students are expected to learn
content from many different subtopics or problems of many different kinds. For example,
students in a neuroanatomy course would learn about several different divisions of the nervous
system, and students in a geometry course would learn various formulas for computing
properties of objects such as surface area and volume. Given that the goal is to learn all of the
material, how should a student schedule his or her studying of the different materials? An
intuitive approach, and one we suspect is adopted by most students, involves blocking study or
practice, such that all content from one subtopic is studied or all problems of one type are
practiced before the student moves on to the next set of material. In contrast, recent research
has begun to explore interleaved practice, in which students alternate their practice of different
kinds of items or problems.

c. Goal-Setting
Goal-Setting

Many people pursue goals that they expect will make them happy, but happiness isn’t always the end result. There
are people who will put everything they have into one aspect of their life, such as their careers (at the expense of
their personal lives) only to wonder years later why they are successful and still unhappy. It is all too common for
people to be surrounded by beautiful homes, expensive cars, and designer clothes, have hundreds of Facebook
friends and still have less personal satisfaction with in their life than if they did not have all that extra “stuff”.

Now think back to when you were last unhappy. In each case you may have either:
1. had no goal,
 2. were trying to reach an undesirable goal,
3. you were making no or little progress towards a goal or
4. due to circumstances you were not able to accomplish a desired goal.

Goal Guidelines

Goals should be challenging but realistic and attainable: If you set goals that are too easy, you will reach
them without much difficulty, which will not provide you with a real sense of accomplishment. It is best to set goals
that can be realistically reached, but only with a sufficient amount of time and effort put in. Goals should be specific
and concrete: The goal should target an area to be worked on, and you should be able to measure the improvement
or changes that have been aimed for, and have a time frame in which to achieve the goal.

Avoid focusing on goal attainment: It is not possible to judge whether every goal made will ultimately be
attainable. It is more than likely that you will not reach every goal that you set for yourself. Therefore, it is more
advisable to focus on the journey you have taken (degree of attainment) rather than whether or not you fully
reached your goal (absolute attainment).

Continuous goal setting: Goal setting is a process that never ends. Once one goal is achieved, another goal
with a different direction should be created to take its place. As you evolve as a person, your goals will change. You
should review your goals on a regular basis and adjust them as needed.

Feedback: You should get regular feedback on how you are doing in pursuing your goals from those around
you. Having consistent feedback contributes to the effectiveness of goal-setting.

The Darker Side of Goal-Setting

Instant gratification predominates in today’s society. Situations arise where specific goals may lead to
temporary happiness. Often this brief happiness is associated with the lesser good which promises immediate
pleasure and is more tempting in comparison to the greater good which may require more sacrifice and effort. For
example, while it may be more enjoyable to spend the night watching TV or out at a bar, but you know you will be
better off is you spend the time working on an assignment.

Locke’s Goal Setting Theory

Locke’s primary revelation was around the power of setting specific and measurable goals, rather than
keeping outcomes general. With his theory he demonstrated how targets like “increase sales by 20%” or “reach a
customer NPS of 50” are much more effective than vague direction such as “complete your work to a higher
standard”. This might seem obvious to those of us who have sat down to work out our KPIs, but this really was
Locke’s brainchild. He gave us the foundation for modern goal-setting which had momentous practical implications
for managers.

Locke also demonstrated that the best way to feel motivated is to push yourself to do something that you’re
not 100% certain you can achieve. Tackling challenging goals headfirst allows you to work hard, develop your skills
and reap the rewards in terms of positive feedback and a sense of personal achievement. Speaking directly to Locke
ourselves, he noted that managers can also use “impossible” goals to promote creativity – employees just need to be
assured that there’s no punishment for not meeting ambitious targets.

Locke and Latham’s five principles of effective goal setting

Clarity. A goal must be specific and clear.

Challenge. An easy or tedious goal is demotivating. But keep a realistic balance: don’t expect anyone on your
team to spin straw into gold.

Commitment. Your employees have to understand and buy in to the goal from the outset.
 Feedback. Provide regular feedback throughout the whole process. This helps to keep the goal on track.

Task complexity. Think about realistic timescales, and break down the process into sub-goals with regular
reviews.

Happiness
Happiness is a mental state of well-being that is characterized by a range of
positive emotions. Positive psychology experts have endeavored to find the answer to
questions focusing on what “happiness” is, and how we might attain it.

Self-Compassion?
Drawing on the writings of various Buddhist teachers, self-compassion can be defined as being
composed of three main components: self-kindness, a sense of common humanity, and mindfulness (Neff,
2003b).
Self-kindness. Its self-compassion entails being warm and understanding toward ourselves when we suffer,
fail, or feel inadequate, rather than flagellating ourselves with self-criticism. It recognizes that being imperfect and
experiencing life difficulties is inevitable, so we soothe and nurture ourselves when confronting our pain rather than
getting angry when life falls short of our ideals. We clearly acknowledge our problems and shortcomings without
judgment, so we can do what’s necessary to help ourselves. We can’t always get what we want. We can’t always be
who we want to be. When this reality is denied or resisted, suffering arises in the form of stress, frustration, and self-
criticism. When this reality is accepted with benevolence, however, we generate positive emotions of kindness and
care that help us cope.
Common Humanity. One of the biggest problems with harsh self-judgment is that it tends to make us feel
isolated. When we notice something about ourselves, we don’t like, we irrationally feel like everyone else is perfect
and it’s only me who is inadequate. This isn’t a logical process, but a kind of distorted self-centeredness: focusing on
our inadequacies gives us tunnel vision so that we can’t see anything else but our own feeble, worthless self.
Similarly, when things go wrong in our external lives, we feel that somehow other people are having an easier time of
it, that our own situation is abnormal or unfair. When our experiences are interpreted from the perspective of a
separate self, we have trouble remembering the similar experiences of our fellow humans (like the dying 84 year-old
man whose final words were “why me?”) Self compassion recognizes that life challenges and personal failures are
part of being human, an experience we all share. In this way, it helps us to feel less desolate and isolated when we
are in pain.
Mindfulness. Mindfulness is a non-judgmental, receptive mind-state in which thoughts and feelings are
observed as they are, without suppressing or denying them. You can’t ignore your pain and feel compassion for it at
the same time. Of course, you may think that suffering is blindingly obvious. But how many of us, when we look in a
mirror and don’t like what see, remember that this a moment of suffering worthy of a compassionate response?
Similarly, when life goes awry, we often go into problemsolving mode immediately without recognizing the need to
comfort ourselves for the difficulties we’re facing. Conversely, mindfulness requires that we not be overly identified
with negative thoughts or feelings, so that we are caught up and swept away by our aversive reactions. This type of
rumination narrows our focus and exaggerates implications for self-worth. The mental space provided by taking a
mindful approach to our difficult feelings, however, allows for greater clarity, perspective, and emotional equanimity.
Self-Compassion Phrases. When you’re feeling stress or emotional pain— perhaps you are caught in a traffic
jam, are arguing with a loved one, or are feeling inadequate in some way— it’s helpful to have a set of phrases
memorized to help you remember to be more compassionate to yourself in the moment. You can take a deep breath,
put your hand over your heart, or gently hug yourself (if you feel comfortable doing so), and repeat the following
phrases:
This is a moment of suffering.
Suffering is a part of life.
May I be kind to my self
May I give myself the compassion I need
 The Science of Happiness: A Personal Application of Positive Psychology
(Creating and Enhancing Joyful Habits among Educators)
by Ronaldo A. Motilla, Ph.D.
While studies have shown that, to a certain extent, a person’s enduring level of happiness is hereditary;
happiness or also known as “heartfelt positivity” (Frederickson, 2015) can still be a product of an individual’s choice.
Educators can learn habits and strategies to keep themselves joyful. Studies have revealed that when one is generally
happy with his life, it broadens his thinking, expands the scope of his attention, and prompts him into a wide range of
positive action. (e.g., Garland, Fredrickson, Kring, Johnson, Meyer et al., 2010; Cohn & Fredrickson, 2009; Suzuki,
2005; as cited in Compton & Hoffman, 2013). In other words, a happy educator becomes more open-minded,
creative, and flexible thinker, capable of envisioning the big picture of his life. Seligman’s (2011) New Theory of
Wellbeing provides the answer to being happy and how to flourish as a person. This theory includes (1) positive
emotions, (2) engagement, (3) relationships which are positive, (4) meaning in life, and (5) accomplishments. A handy
mnemonic is PERMA.. Seligman said, “I now think that the topic of positive psychology is wellbeing, that the gold
standard for measuring well-being is flourishing, and that the goals of positive psychology is to increase flourishing”
(Seligman, 2011, p. 13). He likewise mentioned that this framework can also be applied to various groups and
organizations to create programs and services that will assist individuals develop new cognitive and emotional tools.
Let us discuss each one.
i. P – Positive Emotion.
1. This component of the new wellbeing theory is one of the most recognizable connections to happiness.
However, having positive emotion does not only entail smiling, but rather acquiring an ability to be optimistic and
looking at the past, present, and future from a positive standpoint. This optimistic view in life can assist individuals in
their relationships, careers as well as in their daily routines. This can also encourage them to be more creative and
take more chances or moderate risks in life that promote personal growth and development. (Carver et al., 2009;
Rand & Cheavens, 2009, as cited in Compton & Hoffman, 2013)
2. Everyone experiences both highs and lows in life. However, focusing on the unpleasant experiences can
increase the chances of developing depression. Thus it is essential to focus on the pleasant and the brighter side of
life. In fact, one needs to be more optimistic and hopeful in order to flourish. There are also many health benefits to
optimism and positivity. (Carr, 2004)
3. Distinguishing between pleasure and enjoyment is essential in this element of the framework. Pleasure is
related to sustaining bodily needs for survival; such as thirst, hunger, and sleep. (Eid & Larsen, 2008) Whereas
enjoyment comes from intellectual stimulation and creativity. For instance, when a student completes a
mathematical problem that requires full concentration, he exudes joy, enthusiasm, and fulfillment from his work. This
type of positive emotion is necessary, because when individuals enjoy the tasks in their lives, they are more likely to
persist and confront challenges through creative and meaningful solutions.
4. This idea is well supported by the theory of “Broaden and Build of Positive Emotions” developed by Dr.
Barbara Fredrickson (2009). She believes that individuals who experience many positive emotions (e.g., gratitude,
enjoyment, interest, awe) are more open-minded, creative, and flexible thinker, capable of envisioning the big picture
of their life. Dr. Frederickson also mentioned that, on the average, those individuals who posted higher wellbeing and
who are also flourishing in their life experience at least 3 more positive emotions than negative emotions.
5.There are many ways to experience positive emotions. Some of these methods are the following (Joseph &
Linley, 2006; Joseph, 2015):
a. Mindfulness
b. Physical exercise
c. Savoring the moment
d. Gratitude Journal
e. Laughter
f. Being with nature
g. Prayer
h. Sport Activities
i. Meditation
j. Positive Visualization
k. Music
l. Dance
 ii. E – Engagement
1. “Love what you do and do what you love”, so goes an adage. In order to experience heartfelt positivity or
happiness, it is very essential to look for activities that require our full engagement. Doing what one dislikes or
abhors is exactly the opposite of this. As each one is unique and different, let alone having different preferences and
choices, it is best to engage in activities that one finds enjoyable and meaningful such as choice of sports, hobbies, or
any other interesting projects. (Snyder & Lopez, 2007). This is also very true in terms of work and career. One’s
occupation must be in line with one’s strengths and natural talents. Otherwise, it would be toil and taxing for the
individual. For instance, a highly introverted person cannot take a PR job because his natural inclination does not
provide him with the personality. If he however pursues this, it might lead to his unhappiness.
2. Being in a flow of engagements can expand our intelligence, skills, and emotional capabilities.
iii. R – Relationships
As one of lines of a famous Barbara Streisand song goes, “People who need people are the luckiest people in
the world.” Relationships and social connections are one of the most significant dimensions of life. Human persons
are social animals that flourish through connection, love, intimacy, and a strong emotional and physical bond with
other humans. Building positive relationships with your parents, siblings, peers, and friends are essential to spread
love and joy. Having strong relationships gives you support in most trying times.
iv. M – Meaning
According to Friedrich Nietzche, “He who has a “why” to live for can bear with anyhow.” This means that a
person who has a reason to live for can tolerate any kind of atrocities or challenges in his life. This goes also for those
who are experiencing a flourishing and a happy life. They have causes and reasons, let alone meaningful purposes in
life that sustain their happiness. In other words, a purpose-driven life results in happiness and fulfillment.
v. A – Accomplishments
Having ambitions and goals in life are essential to a flourishing and fulfilling life. It provides individuals with
increased self-image, self-confidence, better self-esteem, and self-esteem. Thus, goals make persons happier;
especially they have successfully completed them. For instance, a student who works so hard to earn a degree and
graduates with latin honors feels so happy with her accomplishments.

d. Managing Stress
Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine
1. Because of the inevitable nature of stress, understanding the factors involved in managing the factors involved in
managing stress is critical to maintaining healthy bodies and healthy minds.
2. Health psychology emphasizes psychology’s role in promoting and maintaining health and preventing and treating
illness.
3. Behavioral medicine is an interdisciplinary field that focuses on developing and integrating behavioral and
biomedical knowledge to promote health and reduce illness.
4. Because 7 of the 10 leading causes of death in the United States are due to the absence of healthy behaviors,
health psychology is emerging as a viable and vital field within psychology.

Stress and Its Sources

1. Type A behavior, thought by scientists to be related to heart disease, is a cluster of behavioral characteristics
including competitiveness, impatience, and hostility. Recent studies indicate that the component of hostility is the
most critical to health.
2. Hardiness refers to a personality style characterized by a sense of commitment, control, and a perception of
problems as challenges.
3. When coupled with social support, hardy individuals’ incidences of illness drop off dramatically.
4. The perception of problems as challenges is related to cognitive appraisal: Persons who view events as harmful or
threatening experience more difficulty managing stress, while those viewing problems as challenges manage their
stress more effectively.
5. A sense of personal control can help buffer the effects of stress and lead to more adaptive problem solving,
whether the stress comes from major events of from daily hassles.
6. Feeling overwhelmed with stressors can lead to burnout: hopeless, helpless feeling that leaves one in a state of
mental and physical exhaustion. Having to make difficult choices can result in conflict, which creates stress.
7. Stress is also produced by acculturation: the continuous and firsthand contact between two distinct cultural
groups.
8. Acculturation can result in assimilation, integration, segregation, and marginalization.
9. Poverty is generally associated with threatening and uncontrolled life events. In addition, poverty undermines
sources of social support, which reinforces a sense of powerlessness.

Stress Response
A. General Adaptation Syndrome
1. Stress is worn and tear on the body because of demands.
2. All stimuli produce the same stress response in the body.
3. The GAS consists of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
4. In the alarm stage, the body experiences a temporary shock that causes the release of hormones.
5. Many scientists today agree that there are two biological pathways connecting the brain and endocrine system in
response to stress.
6. The neuroendocrine-immune pathway extends through the hypothalamus and pituitary glands to the adrenal
glands, where cortisol is released.
7. The sympathetic nervous system pathway extends through the hypothalamus to the sympathetic nervous system
and the adrenal glands, where epinephrine is released.
8. The sympathetic nervous system pathway extends through the hypothalamus to the sympathetic nervous system
and the adrenal glands, where epinephrine is released that protect individuals by stimulating the immune system and
reducing inflammation.
9. In the exhaustion stage, different hormones are released that protect individuals by stimulating the immune
system and reducing inflammation.
10.In the exhaustion stage, the body has exhausted its protective resources and the wear and tear on the body leads
to exhaustion and vulnerability to disease, or even death.

B. Fight or Flight, Tend and Befriend

1. Selye’s concept of the alarm stage of the GAS is essentially the same as “fight or flight”.
2. Shelley Taylor proposed that females are more likely to protect their young (tend and befriend) than to flee.
3. Male responses of fight or flight may be mediated by androgens, including testosterone.

C. Cognitive Appraisal
1. According the Lazarus, cognitive appraisal involves interpreting events as harmful and threatening, or a
challenging.
2. Primary appraisal: events are interpreted in terms of harm, threat, challenge.
3. Secondary appraisal: individuals evaluate their resources and determine coping strategies.
4. Viewing stress as a challenge during primary appraisal paved the way for finding effective coping resources during
secondary appraisal.

Stress, Disease, and Health

Stress can affect the immune system, which serves to defend the body against infection. (1) B cells, which
mature in the bone barrow, and (2) T cells, which mature in the thymus, an organ located in the chest. One type of T
cell is the natural killer (NK) cell, which detects and destroys damaged or altered cells before they become tumors.

Cancer
Although stress can’t cause cancer, there is evidence that it can affect the growth of some cancerous tumors.

a. If the immune system is suppressed, NK cells do not work as well to prevent the spread of tumor cells.
b. Stress can facilitate the growth of capillaries feeding into the tumor. When stress has physical cause, the body
produces more capillaries to supply blood to that area.
1. When the stressor is an injury or infection, capillary growth is beneficial because the vessels carry more
white blood cells to the part of the body that needs them.
 2. When a tumor is already present in the body, the stress response will cause more blood to be supplied to
the tumor.

Heart Disease
The increased blood pressure created by stress, in combination with the hormonally induced narrowing of
the arteries, promotes plaque buildup, or atherosclerosis.
1. As plaque, or fatty deposits on the insides of the artery walls, accumulates, the arteries narrow – which
makes the heart work harder to meet the body’s need for blood and oxygen.
2. Working harder creates more damage to the arteries.
3. The chronic wear and tear on the cardiovascular system can lead to heart damage, which can lead to
sudden death from
2. Inadequate blood supply to the heart muscle
3. Irregular electrical firing of the muscle, preventing coordinated heartbeats.

The course of heart disease can be affected by a change in lifestyle. Intensive changes in diet, exercise, stress
management, and social support make a difference in:
1. Halting the narrowing of the arteries.
2. Reversing the atherosclerosis.
3. Minimizing further damage to the heart.

Depression appears to be a stressor that increase the likelihood of heart disease.

1. Depressed people have a faster heartbeat when at rest.
2. Depressed people tend to have high blood pressure.
3. Those who have an episode of depression have a higher risk of developing heart problems.
4. Once having had a heart attack, depressed people are more likely to have further health problems.
5. If depression is treated:
a. These stress-related responses subside.
b. Heart rate and blood pressure decrease.
Anxiety is also with heart disease, possibly because it can lead to high blood pressure and changes in cardiac
functioning.

Coping Strategies
Problem-Focused and Emotion-Focused Coping
1. Problem-Focused involves the cognitive strategy of facing the problem and trying to actively solve the
problem
2. Emotion-Focused coping involves responding to the stress in an emotional manner especially by using
defense mechanisms.
3. Emotion-focused coping can be adaptive or maladaptive 4. Many individuals successfully use both types of
coping when adjusting to a stressful circumstance.
5. Over the long term, problem-focused coping is what usually works best.

Optimism and Positive Thinking

1. A positive mood allows us to process information more effectively, increase altruism, and raises self-
esteem.
2. An optimistic attitude is better overall because it gives us a sense that we are controlling our environment.
3. Cognitive Restructuring involves modifying

Cognitive Restructuring and Positive Self-Talk

1. Cognitive restructuring involves modifying maladaptive thought, ideas, and beliefs that maintain an
individual’s problem.
2. Negative self-talk can become self-fulfilling and can destroy self-confidence.
3. Positive Self-illusion is the ability to maintain some positive illusions about oneself and the world.
 4. Happy people have mildly inflated opinions of themselves and exaggerated beliefs about their ability to
control the world.
5. Sometimes, imagining a negative outcome (defensive pessimism) is important because it allows person to
prepare for an anticipated stressful event.

Self-efficacy
1. Self-efficacy is the belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes.
2. Self-efficacy can improve an individual’s ability to cope and be mentally healthy.
3. Self-efficacy is one of the best predictors of positive therapy outcomes.

Social Support
1. Social support is information and feedback from others that one is loved and valued.
1. Tangible assistance is the giving of actual goods or services in stressful circumstances.
2. Information is the giving of specific actions and plans to help individuals cope effectively
3. Emotional support is the giving of reassurance and love during a stressful experience.
4. A lack of social support has been associated with higher rates of depression, suicide, cancer, mental illness,
and death following the death of a spouse.

Assertive Behavior
1. Strategies for increasing assertiveness include: setting up a time for discussion, stating your problem,
expressing your feelings, and making your request.
2. Acting aggressively results in hostility and poor relationships. Aggressive people are often insensitive to
the rights of others.
3. Acting manipulatively results in a lack of self-responsibility and poor relationships. Manipulative people
work indirectly to get their needs met.
4. Acting passively results in avoidance of feelings and an inability to get needs met. Passive people don’t let
others know what they want or need.
5. Acting assertively results in empowerment, control, and positive relationships. Assertiveness builds equal
relationships.

Psychology and Life Dealing with Conflict – This scale helps students differentiate between assertive,
aggressive, manipulative, and passive behavior