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 LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT
An Introduction

TENTH EDITION

Robert E. Owens, Jr.

Contents
1 The Territory 1 3 Neurological Bases of Speech
This Text and You 3
and Language 62
Speech, Language, and Communication 4 Central Nervous System 64
Speech 4 Neurons 64
Language 5 Components 65
Communication 10 Brain Functions 67
Hemispheric Asymmetry 68
Properties of Language 14
Brain Maturation 69
Language Is a Social Tool 14
Language Is a Rule-Governed System 15 Language Processing 70
Language Is Generative 16 Language Comprehension 72
Other Properties 17 Language Production 74
Components of Language 17 Models of Linguistic Processing 75
Syntax 18 Information Processing 76
Morphology 20 Other Processing Models 80
Phonology 21 The Role of Executive Function 82
Semantics 22 Conclusion • Discussion • Main Points • Reflections
Pragmatics 24
Relationship of Language Components
Dialects 27
26
4 Cognitive, Perceptual, and
Motor Bases of Early Language
A Changing Demographic 27
Bilingualism 28 and Speech 85
Dialectal Differences 30 Neurological Development 87
Related Factors 31
Neuron Growth 87
American English Dialects 33
Anatomical Specialization in Your Cortex 87
Conclusion • Discussion • Main Points • Reflections
Turning on and Getting Organized 87
Early Cognitive Development 88
2 Describing Language 37 Sensation 88
Perception 90
Linguistic Theory 39
Motor Control 91
Nature Versus Nurture 40 Cognition 92
Generative Approach 41 Learning 95
Language Learning 42
Interactionalist Approach 43 Cognition and Communication Development 96
Conclusion 46 Speech 96
Language 106
Learning Theory 47
Role of the Caregiver 109
Behavioral Learning Theory 47
Conclusion • Discussion • Main Points • Reflections
Cognitivist Learning Theory 48
Social Constructivist Learning Theory 51
Conclusion 52 5 The Social and Communicative Bases
Language Research and Analysis 53 of Early Language and Speech 112
Goals 53
Issues in the Study of Child Language 54 Development of Communication: A Chronology 115
The Newborn 115
Cross-Language Studies 59
Socialization and Early Communication: Birth to
Conclusion • Discussion • Main Points • Reflections 6 Months 118

vii
viii Contents
Development of Intentionality: Age 7 to
12 Months 121
Maternal Communication Behaviors 127
Infant-Elicited Social Behavior 129
Cultural, Socioeconomic, and Gender Differences
Interactions Between Infant and Caregiver
Joint Reference 136
Joint Action 139
Turn Taking 142
Protoconversations 144
Situational Variations 144
Conclusion • Discussion • Main Points • Reflections
6 Language-Learning and Teaching
Processes and Young Children 147
Comprehension, Production, and Cognitive Growth
Cognition and Language 149
Less Is More 152
Child Learning Strategies 153
Toddler Language-Learning Strategies 153
Preschool Language-Learning Strategies 158
Children’s Processes of Language Acquisition 162
Adult Conversational Teaching Techniques 165
Adult Speech to Toddlers 165
Adult Conversations with Preschoolers 173
Importance of Play 177
Development of Play and Language 178
Variations on a Theme 180
Individual Child Differences 181
Cultural and Social Differences 181
Conclusion • Discussion • Main Points • Reflections
7 First Words and Word Combinations
in Toddler Talk 188
Single-Word Utterances 193
Pragmatics 195
Initial Lexicons 200
Meaning of Single-Word Utterances 206
Early Multiword Combinations 210
Transition: Early Word Combinations 210
Multiword Utterances 212
Phonological Learning 214
Auditory Maps 214
Articulatory Maps 216
Single-Word Utterance Patterns 217
Phonological Processes 217
Learning Units and Extension 219
Individual Differences 220
Conclusion • Discussion • Main Points • Reflections
8 Preschool Pragmatic and
Semantic Development 223
Preschool Development 225
134 Development Overall 225
136 Pragmatic Development 226
Semantic Development 248
Lexical Development 249
Relational Terms 253
Conclusion 256
Semantic and Pragmatic Influence
on Syntactic Development 257
Semantics 257
Pragmatics 258
Conclusion 259
Language Development Differences
149 and Delays 259
Language Development Differences 259
Simultaneous Acquisition 260
Language Development Delays 268
Conclusion • Discussion • Main Points • Reflections
9 Preschool Development
of Language Form 272
Syntactic and Morphologic Development 274
The Semantic-Syntactic Connection 274
Language Input 276
Patterns in Preschool
Language Development 277
Bound Morphemes 277
Progressive -ing 279
Regular Plural -s 280
Possessive -’s or -s’ 281
Regular Past -ed 281
Regular Third Person Singular -s 282
Noun and Adjective Suffixes 282
Determinants of Acquisition Order 283
Phrase Development 285
Noun Phrase Development 286
Verb Phrase Development 287
Prepositional Phrase Development 293
Infinitive Phrase Development 294
Gerund Phrase Development 295
Sentence Development 295
Declarative-Sentence Form 297
Interrogative-Sentence Form 297
Imperative-Sentence Form 303
Negative-Sentence Form 304
Subordinate Clause Development 305
Compound Sentence Development 308
Summary 310
 Contents  ix

Phonemic and Phonologic Development 312 Development of Orthographic Knowledge 383

Speech-Sound Acquisition 312 Spelling Development 384
Phonologic Processes 315 Text Generation and Executive Function 386
AAE Dialectal Differences 319 Conclusion • Discussion • Main Points • Reflections

Conclusion • Discussion • Main Points • Reflections

12 Adolescent and Adult Language 390
10 Early School-Age Pragmatics 392
Language Development 322 Narratives 394
Speaking Styles 394
The Early School-Age Child 325 Conversational Abilities 395
Pragmatic Development 326 Gender Differences 397
Narratives 327 Semantics 400
Conversational Abilities 334 Word Definitions 400
Summary 337 Syntax and Morphology 401
Semantic Development 337 Noun Phrases 402
Vocabulary Growth 338 Verb Phrases 402
Conceptual Change 340 Conjuncts and Disjuncts 403
Related Cognitive Processing 341 Phonology 403
Figurative Language 341
Acoustic-Perceptual Knowledge 404
Syntactic and Morphologic Development 344 Articulatory Knowledge 404
Morphologic Development 346 Social-Indexical Knowledge 405
Noun- and Verb-Phrase Development 347 Literacy 405
Sentence Types 350
Summary 355 Bilingualism 406
Phonologic Development 355 Congratulations! 407
Morphophonemic Development 356 Conclusion • Discussion • Main Points • Reflections
Speech Production 357
Summary 357
Appendix A
Metalinguistic Abilities 357
American English Speech Sounds 409
Language Difference 358
Code Switching Development 359 Appendix B
African American English Speakers and Society 360 Major Racial and Ethnic Dialects
Conclusion • Discussion • Main Points • Reflections of American English 413

11 School-Age Appendix C
Development Summary 422
Literacy Development 364
The Process of Reading 366 Appendix D
Phonological Awareness 367 Computing MLU 427
Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processes 368
Reading Fluency 370 Appendix E
Comprehension 371 Background Grammar 429
Reading Development 373
Glossary 434
Emerging Reading 373
Mature Reading 378 References 439
The Process of Writing 379
Author Index 467
Orthographic Knowledge 380
Spelling 381 Subject Index 477
Writing Development 381
Emerging Writing 382
Mature Writing 383
Chapter 1
The Territory

Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock

Objectives
Before we can discuss language development, we need to agree on what language
is and what it is not. Don’t worry; as a user of language, you already know a
great deal about it. This chapter will organize your knowledge and provide some
labels for the many aspects of language you know. Don’t panic—introductory
chapters usually contain a lot of terminology so that we can all “speak the same
language” throughout the text. When you have completed this chapter, you
should be able to:
1.1 Explain the differences among speech, language, and
communication
1.2 List the main properties of language

1.3 Differentiate the five components of language and their

descriptions
1.4 Describe what a dialect is, its relation to its parent language, and
the factors that determine dialects

1
2 Chapter 1

Key Terms
After reading this chapter you should know the following important terms:
antonym phoneme
bilingual phonology
bound morpheme pragmatics
code switch register
communicative competence selection restrictions
deficit approach semantic features
dialects semantics
discourse sociolinguistic approach
free morpheme speech
language style shifting
linguistic competence suprasegmental devices
linguistic performance synonym
metalinguistics syntax
morpheme vernacular
morphology word knowledge
nonlinguistic cues world knowledge
paralinguistic codes

Language and how you learn and process it are incredibly complex. In fact, despite the
struggles you may have had with some academic courses, they were nothing compared
to the task of learning language. Trying to explain language learning and use is the job
of professionals called linguists, or language scientists. These specialists try to deduce
rules and patterns demonstrated when we, as users of a language, communicate with
one another. For example, a linguist may try to explain why some children say, “I eated
a ice cream” or why you occasionally use the wrong word even when you know the
correct one. Some of this is what will explore throughout this text.
You’re already a mature language user, but let’s imagine that you encounter human
language for the first time. Even if you had the most sophisticated computer-based
code-breaking software, it would be nearly impossible to figure out the many ways
in which humans use language. For that task, you would need to decipher each of the
6,000 human languages and gain extensive knowledge of human interactions, emo-
tions, and cultures. Even our best computers when programmed for language sound
wooden or rigid. The nuances and naturalness of language are missing. In other words,
language is more than just the sum of all the parts. There’s a human element. To under-
stand language, we need to consider it in the natural contexts in which it occurs. The
meaning of a simple “Sure, why not” can vary greatly depending on what’s happening
when it’s said.
Language is the premier achievement of humans, and using it is something that
nearly all of us can do. For example, the average adult English speaker produces about
150 words a minute, selecting each from between 30,000 and 60,000 alternatives stored
in the speaker’s brain, choosing from a myriad of English language grammatical
 The Territory 3

structures, and making less than 0.1% errors! That’s impressive! As a college student,
you most likely exceed even this impressive standard.
These feats become all the more amazing when you realize that with very little In Video Example 1.1:
instruction, the typical 4-year-old child has already deciphered much of American Eng- The Most Important
Language You Will Ever
lish and has well-developed speech, language, and communication skills. This is truly
Learn to see a great TED
remarkable given the complexity of the task! Talk by Poet Ali on lan-
You probably don’t recall much about your own language acquisition. One state- guage, languages, and
ment is probably true: Unless you experienced difficulty, there was no formal instruc- communication, espe-
tion. Congratulations, you did most of it on your own. Now, we’re going to attempt cially the universality of
something almost as momentous . . . trying to explain it all! some forms of communi-
cation. In addition, you’ll
To appreciate the task involved in language learning, you need to be familiar with
find it amusing to watch.
some of the terminology that is commonly used in the field. All the terms introduced Source: https://www
in this chapter and throughout the text are summarized for you in the Glossary. The .youtube.com/
remainder of this chapter is devoted to an explanation of these terms. First, we discuss watch?v=488ZBeaGo6s
this text in general. Then we distinguish three often-confused terms—speech, language,
and communication—and look at some special qualities of language itself. Finally, we’ll
examine dialects.

This Text and You

Although the full title of this text is Language Development: An Introduction, it is not a
watered-down or cursory treatment of the topic. For many of you this will be your only
language development course. For this reason, I’ve attempted to cover every timely,
relevant, and important aspect of language development that might be of interest to the
future speech-language pathologist, educator, psychologist, child development special-
ist, or parent. People will look to you for answers and explanations. The information
you’ll need to know is complex and specific.
No doubt you’ve at least thumbed through this book. It may look overwhelming.
It’s not. I tell my own students that things are never as bleak as they seem at the begin-
ning of the semester. In the past 40 years, I have taken more than 5,000 of my own
students through this same material with a nearly 100% success rate. Let me try to help
you find this material as rewarding to learn as it is to teach.
The text is organized into two sections. The few chapters provide a background
that includes terms, theories, and information on the brain and language. I know it’s
difficult to have to read this material when you really want to get to the development
part, but believe me, all this background is necessary. The main topics of development
are contained in the remaining chapters, which are organized sequentially from new-
borns through adults. Yes, adults, even you are still learning language and adapting
to changes.
As with any text, there are a few simple rules that can make the learning experience
more fruitful.

• Note the chapter objectives prior to reading the chapter and be alert for this infor-
mation as you read. That’s the key information to remember.
• Read each chapter in small doses, and then let it sink in for a while. The worst thing
to do is put it off until the night before the test.
• Find the chapter organization described at the end of each chapter’s introduction.
This will help you know where we’re going and follow me through the material.
4 Chapter 1

• Take brief notes as you read. Don’t try to write everything down. Stop at natural
divisions in the content, and ask yourself what was most important. Periodic sum-
marizing is a great learning strategy.
• Review your notes when you stop reading and before you begin again the next
time. This process will provide a review and some continuity.
• Try to read a little every day or every other day. That’s a good long-term learning
strategy. I say long-term because if you are a speech-language pathology student,
you’ll be seeing a lot more about language in your studies.
• Note the key terms in the chapter objectives, and try to define them as you read.
Each one is printed in blue in the body of the chapter. Please don’t just thumb
through or turn to the Glossary for a dictionary definition. The terms are relatively
meaningless out of context. They need the structure of the other information. Con-
text is very important.
• Try to answer the questions throughout each chapter. They’ll help you think more
deeply about the material.
• I have tried to de-emphasize linguists, authors, and researchers by placing all cita-
tions in parentheses. Unless your professor calls your attention to a specific person,
she or he may not wish to emphasize these individuals either. It may be a waste of
time to try to remember who said what about language development. “He said–she
said” memorization can be very tedious. The exceptions, of course, are individuals
mentioned specifically by name in lecture and in the text.
• Make ample use of the weblinks and videos to enhance your understanding. Addi-
tional information is always good.

I hope that these suggestions will help, although none is a guarantee.

Roll up your sleeves, set aside adequate time, and be prepared to be challenged.
Actually, your task is relatively simple when compared to the toddler faced with deci-
phering the language she or he hears, but that will have to wait for a few chapters. Let’s
get started.

Speech, Language, and Communication

We’ll be studying the changes that occur in speech, language, and communication as chil-
dren grow and develop. You might think of these terms as having similar meanings or
as being identical. Actually, they’re very different and denote different aspects of devel-
opment and use.

Speech
Speech is a verbal or spoken means of communicating. Other ways of communicating
include but are not limited to writing, drawing, and manual signing. Speech is a process
that requires very precise neuromuscular coordination and results from planning and
executing specific motor sequences. Each spoken language has specific sounds or
­phonemes, such as “s” or /s/, plus sound combinations, such as “sl” of /sl/, that are
characteristic of that language. In addition, speech involves other components, such as
voice quality, intonation, and rate. These components enhance the meaning of the mes-
sage. For example, you probably talk faster when you’re excited.
 The Territory 5

A highly complicated acoustic or sound event, speech is unlike any other environ-
mental noise. Not even music achieves the level of complexity found in speech. Take a
simple word such as toe and say it very, very slowly. The initial sound is an almost
inhuman “tsch.” This is followed by “o . . . w” in which your rounded mouth gradually
tightens. Now say toe at normal speed and note how effortlessly this is done. Say it again
and note how your brain integrates the signal as it comes in, creating the unified toe.
You are a truly amazing being!
Speech is not the only means of face-to-face human communication. We also use
gestures, facial expressions, and body posture to send messages. In face-to-face conver-
sation, these nonspeech means may carry up to 60% of the information exchanged.
Although humans are not the only animals that make sounds, to my knowledge,
no other species can match the variety and complexity of human speech sounds. These
qualities are the result of the unique structures of the human vocal or voice tract, a
mechanism that is functional months before the first words are spoken. As an infant,
you spent much of the first year experimenting with your vocal mechanisms and pro-
ducing a variety of sounds. Gradually, these sounds come to reflect the language of your
environment.

Language
Individual speech sounds are meaningless noises until some regularity is added. The
relationship between individual sounds, meaningful sound units, and the combination
of these units is specified by the rules of a language. Language can be defined as a
socially shared code or system for representing concepts through the use of symbols
and rules that govern how they’re combined. The symbols or words are actually arbi-
trary. If you just heard the word shoe out of context, you’d have no idea of its meaning.
Nothing about the word suggests something to wear on your foot. Fortunately, speakers

Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock

Humans use language to communicate through a number of means, such as reading, writing,
speaking, and listening.
6 Chapter 1

of a language know the meanings of these symbols, which they organized in certain
predictable ways to convey ideas.
English is a language, as is Spanish or Navajo. Each has its own unique symbols
and rules for symbol combinations. Languages are not monolithic. They contain
­dialects, subcategories of the parent language that use similar but not identical rules.
All users of a language follow certain dialectal rules. For example, I sometimes find
myself reverting to my childhood dialectal usage in saying “acrost the street” and “open
your umbrella.”
Languages change and evolve. Interactions between languages naturally occur in
bilingual communities. Under certain circumstances, language mixing may result in a
new form of both languages being used in that community (Backus, 1999). When I was
a child, we said “tidal wave”; now because of the influence of Japanese, we say
“tsunami.”
Some languages flourish while others wither. In 2012, for example, there were fewer
than 50 individuals who fluently spoke Seneca, a western New York Native American
language. It is hoped by the Seneca Nation that this will change with an education and
revitalization program.
The death of languages is not a rare event in the modern world. Languages face
extinction as surely as plants and animals do. When Kuzakura, an aged woman, died
in western Brazil in 1988, the Umutina language died with her. It is estimated that as
many as half the world’s 6,000 languages are no longer learned by children. These lan-
guages will die. Many others are endangered. Most of these have less than a few thou-
sand users. Only strong cultural and religious ties keep languages such as Yiddish and
Pennsylvania Dutch viable. How long they will continue to be secure is anyone’s guess.
This century may see the eradication of most remaining languages. Sadly, it is
doubtful that many of the 270 aboriginal languages of Australia—possibly some of the
Earth’s oldest languages—will survive. The one that gave us koala is already gone. Of
the 154 Native American languages now in use, nearly 120 are each spoken by less than
a thousand individuals. A few years ago, only three people spoke OroWin, an
­Amazonian language, and they were all in their sixties. Gullah, spoken by the descen-
dents of African slaves on islands off the coast of South Carolina and Florida, may
have 10,000 monolingual speakers. Note that some linguists consider Gullah to be a
dialectal variant of African American English. More on dialects later.
The worldwide loss of languages is the result of government policy, dwindling
indigenous populations, the movements of populations to cities, mass media, and lack
of education of the young. The internet is also a culprit in the demise of some languages.
The need to converse in one language is fostering increasing use of English.
Each language is a unique vehicle for thought. For example, in many Native American
languages, the Great Spirit is not a noun as in European notions of god but a verb. As a
speaker of English, can you even imagine god as a verb? It changes the whole concept
of a supreme being and broadens our thoughts.
In the rain forest of northwestern Brazil, a language called Pirahã is so unique that
it almost defies accepted notions of language. Spoken by approximately 350 people and
reflecting their culture, Pirahã consists of only eight consonants and three vowels. Yet
it has such a complex array of tones, stresses, and syllable lengths that speakers dis-
pense with their sounds altogether and hum, sing, or whistle using relatively simple
grammar by linguistic standards. Meaning depends on changes in pitch and tone.
When we lose a language, we lose an essential part of the human fabric with its
own unique perspective. A culture and possibly thousands of years of communication
 The Territory 7

die with that language, the study of which might have unlocked secrets about universal
language features, the origins of language, or the nature of thought. Within oral-only
languages, the very nature of language itself is different. Words that have been passed
on for generations acquire a sacredness, and speech is somehow connected to the Divine
as it is in some indigenous languages.
The death of a language is more than an intellectual or academic curiosity. After a
week’s immersion in Seneca, Mohawk, Onondaga, and other Iroquois languages, one
man concluded:

These languages are the music that breathes life into our dances, the overflowing
vessels that hold our culture and traditions. And most important, these lan-
guages are the conduits that carry our prayers to the Creator. . . . Our languages
are central to who we are as a native people. (Coulson, 1999, p. 8A)

English is a Germanic variation of a much larger family of Indo-European lan-

guages as varied as Italian, Greek, Russian, Hindi, Urdu, Persian, and ancient Sanskrit.
Although the Indo-European family is the largest family, as many as 30 other families
may exist, many much smaller.
Languages can grow as their respective cultures change. English has proven par-
ticularly adaptive, changing slowly through the addition of new words. According to
the Oxford English Dictionary, approximately 8,000 English words predate the 12th cen-
tury, including laugh and friend. Other languages, such as Icelandic, have changed little
in the past thousand years, possibly because of isolation.
Already the language with the largest number of words—approximately 700,000—
English adds an estimated half-dozen words per day. While many of these are scientific
terms, they also include words popular on college campuses, such as photobomb (some-
one you don’t know mugging in your selfie), binge-watch (made possible by view on
demand), and crowdfunding (online small contributions to finance a project). Some
words have new meaning. For example, previously only Moses had tablets; now every-
body does. These words tell us much about our modern world.
Although most languages can be transmitted by speech, speech is not an essential
feature of language. Many languages are spoken and also written. Some older lan-
guages, such as Sanskrit, survive only in written form. To some extent, the means of
transmission influence processing and learning.
Some people are surprised to learn that American Sign Language (ASL) is not a mirror
of American English. Like Swahili ASL is a separate language with its own rules for symbol
combinations. As in spoken languages, individually signed units are combined following
linguistic rules. Approximately 50 sign languages are used worldwide, including one of
the world’s newest languages, Nicaraguan Sign Language, invented by children with deaf-
ness to fill a void in their education. On the other side of the Earth in Al-sayyid, a Bedouin
village in the Negev desert of Israel, another sign language has arisen without the influence
of any other spoken or signed languages to serve the needs of approximately 150 individu-
als with deafness who reside in the community (Boswell, 2006).
Following is the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association definition of
language (Committee on Language, 1983. Used with permission.) The result of a com-
mittee decision, this definition has a little of everything, but it also is very thorough.

• Language is a complex and dynamic system of conventional symbols that is used

in various modes for thought and communication.
• Language evolves within specific historical, social, and cultural contexts.
8 Chapter 1

• Language, as rule-governed behavior, is described by at least five parameters—

phonologic, morphologic, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic.
• Language learning and use are determined by the intervention of biological, cogni-
tive, psychosocial, and environmental factors.
• Effective use of language for communication requires a broad understanding of
human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation,
and sociocultural roles.

Languages exist because users have agreed on the symbols to be used and the rules
to be followed. This agreement is demonstrated through language usage. Thus, lan-
guages exist by virtue of social use. Just as users agree to follow the rules of a language
system, they can agree to change the rules. For example, the eth found as an ending on
English verbs (asketh) in the King James Version of the Bible has disappeared from use.
New words can be added to a language; others fall into disuse. Words such as DVD and
blog were uncommon just a few years ago. Users of one language can borrow words
from another.
English also borrowed heavily from other languages, while they have felt free to
borrow in return. Here are a few English words taken from other languages:

• Raccoon (Powhatan, a Native American language)

• Jaguar (Tupi-Guarani languages of the Amazon)
• Immediate (French)
• Democracy (Greek)
• Tycoon (Japanese)
• Sofa (Arabic)
• Piano (Italian)
• Husband and window (Old Norse)

In the process of adoption, meanings and words are changed slightly to conform to
linguistic and cultural differences. In the 20th century, English incorporated words such
as barrio (Spanish), jihad (Arabic), sushi (Japanese), and schlep (Yiddish).
Even strong, vibrant, firmly entrenched languages struggle against the embrace of
the internet and its accompanying English. Formal Spanish has given way to Cyber-
Spanish with words such as escapar (escape) instead of salir and un emilio or imail (an
e-mail) instead of un correo electrónico.
English has become the language of worldwide commerce and the internet. Pos-
sibly a billion people speak English as a second language, mostly in Asia. As they learn
English, these speakers are making it their own, modifying it slightly with the addition
of words from their languages and incorporating their own intonational and structural
patterns. In the near future, it may be more appropriate to think of English as a family
of similar languages.
Braj Kachru, a professor in India, hypothesizes that English can be as adaptable to
local culture as a musical instrument is to music. More succinctly put, English no longer
belongs to the English. In fact, the number of speakers in traditionally English-speaking
countries is declining. The “Englishes” of the future may be hybrids or even new lan-
guages that may not be mutually understood by users speaking different Englishes.
The socially shared code of English or any language theoretically allows the listener
and speaker or writer and reader of that language to exchange information. The shared
 The Territory 9

Figure 1.1 Symbol–Referent Relationship

The concept is formed from the common elements of past experiences. The common elements of
these experiences form the core of the concept. When a referent is experienced, it is interpreted in
terms of the concept and the appropriate symbol applied.

Past EXPERIENCES
(memories from
interactions with
priests)

Common ELEMENTS Long-Term MEMORY

(male, clergy,
clerical collar)

Referent Concept Symbol

in CONTEXT (“Father”)
(present experience)

code is a device that enables each to represent an object, event, or relationship. Let’s
take a minute to see how this is done.
Close your eyes for a few seconds and concentrate on the word ocean. Then come
back.
While your eyes were closed, you may have had a visual image of surf and sand.
Words, such as ocean, represent concepts stored in our brains. The concept ocean was
transmitted to you and decoded automatically. In a conversation, listener and speaker
switch from encoding to decoding and back again without difficulty. Each user encodes
and decodes according to his or her shared concept of a given object, event, or relation-
ship; the actual object, event, or relationship does not need to be present.
Our concepts may differ. Let’s assume that you encounter a priest. From past expe-
rience, you recognize his social role. As you pass, you draw on the appropriate symbol
and encode, “Good morning, Father.” This representational process is presented in
Figure 1.1. The word may also suggest a very different meaning, depending on the
experiences of each party. Let’s assume for a moment that your biological father is an
Episcopal minister. You see him on the street in clerical garb and offer the same greeting.
A passerby, unaware of your relationship, will assume something very different from
the meaning that you and your father share. Coding is a factor of the speaker’s and
listener’s shared meanings, the linguistic skills of each, and the context in which the
exchange takes place.
Individual linguistic units communicate little in isolation. Most of the meaning What is language and
or information is contained in the way symbols are combined. For example, “Teacher what is not? Watch min-
utes 4:05–11:50 of Video
Jim a is” seems a meaningless jumble of words. By shifting a few words, however,
Example 1.2:
we can create “Jim is a teacher.” Another modification could produce “Is Jim a Steven Pinker: Linguis-
teacher?”—a very different sentence. Language rules specify a system of relation- tics as a Window to
ships among the parts. The rules for these relationships give language order and Understanding the
allow users to predict which units or symbols will be used. In addition, the rules Brain to see Dr. Steven
Pinker of Harvard Uni-
permit language to be used creatively. Symbols and rules governing their use help
versity answering this
us to create utterances. question. Source: https://
Language isn’t merely as a set of static rules. It is a dynamic process of use and www.youtube.com/
modification within the context of communication. Language is a tool for social use. watch?v=Q-B_ONJIEcE
10 Chapter 1

Communication
Both speech and language are parts of a larger process called communication. Com-
munication is the exchange of information and ideas, needs and desires, between two
or more individuals.
Human communication is a complex, systematic, collaborative, context-bound tool
for social action. Complexity can be demonstrated by the multifaceted and multifunc-
tional aspects of the process. In oral communication, these include all aspects of speech
and language plus hearing and additional mental processes, such as memory and plan-
ning. This all occurs within cultural norms, situational variables, and social conventions
of the individual participants. Although complex, communication is systematic not
random. For most communicators, the process is reasonably easy.
The communication process is an active one that involves encoding, transmitting, and
decoding the intended message. Figure 1.2 illustrates this process. It requires a sender and a
receiver, and each must be alert to the informational needs of the other to ensure that messages
are conveyed effectively and that intended meanings are preserved. For example, a speaker
must identify a specific female, as in “Have you seen Catalina?” prior to using the pronoun
she, as in “She was supposed to meet me.” The probability of message distortion is very high,
given the number of ways a message can be formed and the past experiences and perceptions
of each participant. The degree to which a speaker is successful in communicating, measured
by the appropriateness and effectiveness of the message, is called communicative competence.
The competent communicator is able to conceive, formulate, modulate, and issue messages
and to perceive the degree to which intended meanings are successfully conveyed.
As mentioned, communication is collaborative. Partners actively coordinate con-
struction of the dialogue as they try to understand each other. For example, one partici-
pant might say, “Let’s go to Jackie’s,” to which the other replies, “Where?” The first
speaker’s response is “You know, the Cajun restaurant I told you about.” Jointly, the two
participants try to understand and to be understood. Most of the time, we’re successful.
This process occurs within a specific cultural context that influences interpretation
of linguistic units and speaker behaviors. I once introduced myself to a young Korean

Figure 1.2 Process of Communication

F
ee
db

Linguistic Linguistic
ack

Encoder Decoder

“Dog”
Speech

Concept Linguistic Encoding Transmission Linguistic Decoding Concept

 The Territory 11

boy as Bob, unaware that bob means rice in Korean and that being someone’s rice is an
idiom for being his servant. Imagine how thrilled—and misinformed—he was when I,
his supposed servant, subsequently hoisted him upon my shoulders as his mother and
I headed down the street. The context also varies depending on the physical setting,
partners, and topics. All of these can change minute by minute based on what’s said.
Finally, communication is a tool for social action. We accomplish things as we com-
municate. Let’s eavesdrop on a conversation:

Speaker 1: Are you busy?

Speaker 2: No, not really.
Speaker 1: Well, if you could, please take a look at my presentation for class.
Speaker 2: Okay.

Speaker 1 used politeness to accomplish her goals. By prefacing her request with a
question, she invited speaker 2 to respond in a positive way. That’s why gran’ma told
you that you could catch more flies with honey than with vinegar.

PARALINGUISTIC CUES Speech and language are only a portion of communication.

Other components of communication that affect the message can be classified as paralin-
guistic, nonlinguistic, and metalinguistic. These relationships are illustrated in Figure 1.3.
Paralinguistic codes, including intonation, stress or emphasis, speed or rate of
delivery, and pause or hesitation, are superimposed on speech to signal attitude or
emotion. All components of the signal are integrated to produce the meaning. Intonation
or the use of pitch is the most complex of all paralinguistic codes and is used to signal
the mood of an utterance. For example, falling or rising pitch alone can signal the pur-
pose of an utterance. For example, a rising pitch—signaled in the following by an
arrow—can change a statement into a question.

You’re coming, aren’t you.T (Insistent statement)

You’re coming, aren’t you?c (Question seeking agreement)

Figure 1.3 Components of Communication

Communication is accomplished through linguistic and paralinguistic codes and many means of
transmission, such as speech, intonation, gestures, and body language.
SOURCE: Information from Hogan, Catts, & Little (2005); Sutherland & Gillon (2005).

COMMUNICATION
EXTRALINGUISTIC LINGUISTIC
MODES
PARALINGUISTIC
Speaking and
Listening
METALINGUISTIC Writing and
Reading

NONLINGUISTIC Signing
12 Chapter 1

Pitch can also signal emphasis, asides, emotions, importance of the information con-
veyed, and the role and status of the speaker.
Stress is also employed for emphasis. Each of us remembers hearing, “You will
clean your room!” to which you may have responded, “I did clean my room!” The will
and did are emphasized to convey each speaker’s attitude.
Speaking rate varies with our state of excitement, familiarity with the content, and
perceived comprehension of our listener. In general, we tend to talk faster if we are more
excited, more familiar with the information being conveyed, or more assured that our
listener understands our message.
Pauses may be used to emphasize a portion of the message or to replace the mes-
sage. Even young children recognize that a short maternal pause after a child’s request
usually signals a negative reply. Remember asking, “Can Chris sleep over tonight?” A
long silence meant that your plans were doomed.
In addition, pitch, rhythm, and pauses may be used to mark divisions between
phrases and clauses. Combined with loudness and duration, pitch is used to give prom-
inence to certain syllables and to new information. In text messages, we often signal
spoken emphasis by writing

I. SAID. NO.

Paralinguistic mechanisms are called suprasegmental devices. Think of “super” or

above segments or units of language. In other words, paralinguistics can change the
form and meaning of a sentence by acting across these elements. As mentioned, a rising
pitch can change a statement into a question without altering the arrangement of words.
Similarly, “I did my homework” and “I did my homework” convey different emotions
and meanings.

NONLINGUISTIC CUES Gestures, body posture, facial expression, eye contact, head
and body movement, and physical distance or proxemics convey information without
the use of language and are called nonlinguistic cues. The effectiveness of these devices
varies with users and between users. We all know someone who seems to gesture too
much or to stand too close while communicating. Some nonlinguistic messages, such
as a wink, a grimace, a pout, or folded arms, can convey the entire message.
As with aspects of language, nonlinguistic cues vary with the culture. Perfectly
acceptable gestures in one culture may be considered offensive in another. Table 1.1
presents a list of common American gestures considered rude, offensive, or insulting
in other cultures. Luckily, a smile is one universal nonlinguistic signal for friendli-
ness. People from other cultures often comment on how often Americans smile.
That’s good.

METALINGUISTIC SKILLS The ability to talk about language, analyze it, think about
it, judge it, and see it as an entity separate from its content or context is termed
­metalinguistics. Metalinguistic skills help us judge the correctness or appropriateness
of the language we produce and receive. Remember that crafting a communication is
done jointly, and paralinguistics signal the status of the transmission or the success of
communication. When you say “Huh?” you’re signaling that you missed something.
In addition, learning to read and write depends on metalinguistic awareness because
the entire context, unlike in speech, is on the page, constructed from words, phrases,
and sentences found there. For example, saying “I want that” may be easy to under-
stand when accompanied by a point but would be meaningless in written form without
being accompanied by a written explanation.
 The Territory 13

Table 1.1 Nonlinguistic Cues

Countries in which
Gesture Other interpretations unacceptable
Thumbs-up Australia, Nigeria, Islamic
­countries, such as Bangladesh
A-OK Japan: money Latin American countries
France: zero, worthless
Victory or peace sign England (if palm toward body)
Hailing a waiter (one finger raised) Germany: two Japan
Beckoning curled finger Yugoslavia, Malaysia, Indonesia,
Australia
Tapping forehead to signify Netherlands: crazy
“smart”
Stop Greece, West Africa
Hands in the pockets Belgium, Indonesia, France,
­Finland, Japan, Sweden
Strong handshake Middle East: aggression
Good-bye Europe and Latin America: no
Crossing legs and exposing sole Southeast Asia
of the foot
Nodding head for agreement Greece, Yugoslavia, Turkey, Iran,
Bengal: No
Source: Information from Axtell, R. E. (1991). Gestures: The do’s and taboos of body language around the
world. Baltimore, MD: Wiley.

Let’s be honest. Communicating effectively is truly tough. Language can be ambig-

uous, so each partner in a conversation must monitor the other partner’s linguistic cues
and the paralinguistic and nonlinguistic signals that accompany them (Sperber et al.,
2010). Failure to process all this information can lead to miscommunication.

THE BEGINNINGS OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION Even though communication

is complex, it’s almost impossible not to communicate. If you turn away and try not to
communicate, your behavior will communicate that information.
When and how did human communication diverge from other primate communica-
tion? It’s difficult to say because speech doesn’t leave any tangible evidence. Our best
guess is that spoken language appeared around 50,000 to 100,000 years ago. The first
“words” may have been imitations of animal sounds or may have accompanied emotion,
such as crying, and actions, such as a grunt when attempting to move something heavy.
Although we can’t answer the question more precisely, language itself may offer a
place to begin an explanation. If we look back at our characterization of language, we
said that language is a social tool. We can conclude that language is a means for achiev-
ing social ends based on shared understanding and purpose (Tomasello, 2008). Thus,
human communication is fundamentally cooperative in nature. Herein may be our
answer.
The cooperative nature of human communication and the cooperative structure of
human social interaction and culture are closely related. Early forms of communication
were most likely gestural in nature, including pointing and pantomiming (Tomasello,
2008). The cooperative nature of these gesture differs qualitatively from other primate
communication, which is primarily requesting to fill immediate needs. In contrast,
cooperative communication requires socio-cognitive skills of shared intentionality.
14 Chapter 1

While chimpanzees, with whom we share a common ancestor, do have and understand
individual intentionality, most do not have the skills of shared intentionality, such as
joint goals and shared attention that are necessary for cooperative communication.
Early humans were probably driven to cooperate because of fear of hunger or the
high risk of being eaten by predators (Bickerton, 2003). After all, we’re not very formi-
dable individually. Thus, human cooperative communication probably resulted from a
biological adaptation for collaborative activities to ensure our survival.
Vocal communication or meaningful sound making probably emerged after con-
ventionalized gestures. Most likely the earliest vocal accompaniments to gestures were
emotional or added sound effects to some already meaningful gestures or other actions.
Some vocalizations may have accompanied specific acts such as mourning or imitated
animal sounds. At some point, the vocalizations took on meaning of their own. Although
pointing works in context, our ancestors had to rely on some other signal to communi-
cate about something that is not present. In addition, vocal communication freed the
hands for other purposes (Goldin-Meadow, 2005).
When we compare a gorilla skull to a Neanderthal skull from approximately 60,000
years ago, one striking difference can be noted in the vocal tract of the early humanoid.
The reconfigured vocal tract suggests that some consonant-like sounds were possible
back then. More modern vocal tracts appear about 35,000 years ago. When compared
to other primates, humans have more vertical teeth, more intricately muscled lips, a
relatively smaller mouth, a greater closure of the oral cavity from the nasal, and a lower
larynx or “voice box.” All of these adaptations make speech as we know it possible.
Most importantly, humans possess a large and highly specialized brain compared to
their overall size.
It is the rules of language that enable humans to communicate precise messages.
Sounds can be combined, recombined, broken down, and combined another way to
convey different meanings. A dog’s bark cannot be manipulated in this way and is a
relatively fixed form.
Grammar arose to express more complex relationships. This was especially impor-
tant as communication moved from requesting to informing and information sharing
(Tomasello, 2008).

Properties of Language
As we’ve seen, language is a social interactive tool that is both rule governed and gen-
erative, or creative. Let’s explore these traits more.

Language Is a Social Tool

It does little good to discuss language outside the framework provided by communica-
tion. While language is not essential for communication, communication is certainly an
essential and defining element of language. Without communication, language has no
purpose.
As a code shared by users, language enables those same users to transmit ideas and
desires to one another. In fact, language has but one purpose, which is to serve as the
code for transmissions between people.
Overall, language reflects the collective thinking of its culture and, in turn, influ-
ences that thinking. In the United States, for example, certain words, such as democracy,
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 2. That extra needles should be placed under chimney breasts,
should there be any in the wall which is to be supported. The same
applies where corbels, piers, &c. occur.
3. Sleepers and shores should be so placed that they do not
interfere with the proper construction of the new foundations or
portions of the building.
4. The inside shores should be carried freely through the floors
until a solid foundation is reached.
5. The removal of the shores after the alterations have been made
is one requiring great care. It should be remembered, that while the
work is new it cannot offer its greatest resistance to its intended load.
Time should therefore be given for the work to well set, and then the
timbers, eased gradually by the wedges being loosened, should be
finally taken out.
6. The raking shores, if used in conjunction with underpinning,
should be left to the last.
 CHAPTER IV

TIMBER

Classification and Structure.—A short study of the classification

and structure of wood will be useful, as it will enable the scaffolder to
use material free from the inherent defects of its growth.
The trees used by the scaffolder are known as the exogens or
outward-growing trees.
The cross section of an exogenous tree shows, upon examination,
that the wood can be divided into several parts. Near the centre will
be seen the pith or medulla, from which radiate what are known as
the medullary rays. These in the pine woods are often found full of
resinous matter.
Next will be noted the annual rings forming concentric circles
round the pith. They are so called because in temperate climates a
new ring is added every year by the rising and falling of the sap. As
the tree ages, the first-laid rings harden and become what is known
as duramen or heartwood. The later rings are known as alburnum or
sapwood. The distinction between the two is in most trees easily
recognised, the sapwood being lighter and softer than the
heartwood, which is the stronger and more lasting. The bark forms
the outer covering of the tree.

Defects in the living tree.—Shakes or splits in the interior of the

wood are the most common defects in the living tree, and are known
as star or radial and cup or ring shakes. The cause of these defects
is imperfectly understood. They are rarely found in small trees, say
those of under 10 inches diameter. Stevenson, in his book on wood,
puts forward the following reason, which, up to now, has not been
refuted by any practical writer. ‘In the spring, when the sap rises, the
sapwood expands under its influence and describes a larger circle
than in winter. The heartwood, being dead to this influence, resists,
and the two eventually part company, a cup or ring shake being the
result’ (see fig. 55, where the cup shake is shown in its commonest
form).

Fig. 55
 Fig. 56
The star or radial shake is a variant of the same defect. In this
case the cohesion between the sapwood and the heartwood is
greater than the expansive forces can overcome, the result being
that the heartwood breaks up into sections as shown in fig. 56.
The star shake may have two or more arms. More than one cup
shake, and sometimes both cup and star shakes are found in a
single tree. The radial shake is probably the most common.
The branches suffer in this respect in like manner as the trunk, the
same shakes being noticeable throughout
The development of these defects is the forerunner of further
decay in the tree, giving, as they do, special facilities for the
introduction of various fungi, more especially that form of disease
known as the rot. Wet rot is found in the living tree and occurs where
the timber has become saturated by rain.
Other authorities believe that these defects are caused by severe
frost, and their idea receives support from the fact that in timber from
warmer climates this fault is less often seen. This may be so for the
reason that it would not pay traders to ship inferior timber from a
great distance.
 Loose hearts: in the less resinous woods, as those from the White
Sea, the pith or medulla gradually dries and detaches itself,
becoming what is known as a loose heart. In the more resinous
woods, such as the Baltic and Memel, this defect is rare.
Rind galls are caused by the imperfect lopping of the branches,
and show as curved swellings under the bark.
Upsets are the result of a well-defined injury to the fibres caused
by crushing during the growth. This defect is most noticeable in hard
woods.
It will be of no practical use to follow the living tree further in its
steady progress towards decay, but take it when in its prime, and
study the processes which fit it for the purpose of scaffolding.

Felling.—The best time to fell timber, according to Tredgold, is

mid-winter, as the vegetative powers of the tree are then at rest, the
result being that the sapwood is harder and more durable; the
fermentable matters which tend to decay having been used up in the
yearly vegetation. Evelyn, in his ‘Silva,’ states that: ‘To make
excellent boards and planks it is the advice of some, that you should
bark your trees in a fit season, and so let them stand naked a full
year before felling.’ It is questionable if this is true of all trees, but it is
often done in the case of the oak. The consensus of opinion is that
trees should be felled in the winter, during the months of December,
January and February, or if in summer, during July. Winter felling is
probably the better, as the timber, drying more slowly, seasons
better.
The spruce from Norway and the northern fir are generally cut
when between 70 and 100 years old. When required for poles,
spruce is cut earlier, it having the advantage of being equally durable
at all ages. Ash, larch and elm are cut when between 50 and 100
years old.

Conversion.—By this is meant cutting the log to form balks,

planks, deals, &c. It is generally carried out before shipment. A log is
the trunk (sometimes called the stem or bole) of a tree with the
branches cut off.
 A balk is a log squared. Masts are the straight trunks of trees with
a circumference of more than 24 inches. When of less circumference
they are called poles.
According to size, timbers are classed as follow:—
Balks 12 in. by 12 inches to 18 in. by 18 inches
Whole timber 9 in. by 9 inches to 15 in. by 15 inches
Half timber 9 in. by 41⁄2 inches to 18 in. by 9 inches
Quartering 2 in. by 2 inches to 6 in. by 6 inches
Planks 11 in. to 18 inches by 3 in. to 6 inches
Deals 9 inches by 2 in. to 41⁄2 inches
Battens 41⁄2 in. to 7 inches by 3⁄4 in. to 3 inches
When of equal sides they are termed die square. In conversion the
pith should be avoided, as it is liable to dry rot.
When the logs are to be converted to whole timbers for use in that
size, consideration has to be given as to whether the stiffest or the
strongest balk is required. The stiffest beam is that which gives most
resistance to deflection or bending. The strongest beam is that which
resists the greatest breaking strain. The determination of either can
be made by graphic methods.
 Fig. 57
To cut the stiffest rectangular beam out of a log, divide the
diameter of the cross section into four parts (see fig. 57). From each
outside point, a and b, at right angles to and on different sides of the
diameter, draw a line to the outer edge of the log. The four points
thus gained on the circumferential edge, c, d, e, f, if joined together,
will give the stiffest possible rectangular beam that can be gained
from the log.
 Fig. 58
To cut the strongest beam:—In this case the diameter is divided
into three parts. From the two points a and b thus marked again
carry the lines to the outer edge as before. Join the four points c, d,
e, f, together, and the outline of the strongest possible rectangular
beam will result (see fig. 58).
Boards—a term which embraces planks, deals, and battens—
should be cut out of the log in such a manner that the annual rings
run parallel to the width of the board. This method of conversion
allows the knots, which are a source of weakness, to pass directly
through the board, as a, fig. 59, and not run transversely across as
other sections (b) allow.
 Fig. 59

Seasoning.—Poles and scantlings, after conversion, are next

prepared for seasoning.
The drying yard, where the timbers are seasoned, should give
protection from the sun and high winds, although a free current of air
should be allowed. It should be remembered that rapid drying tends
to warping and twisting of the timbers.
The ground on which the timbers are stacked should be drained
and kept dry.
The method of stacking is as follows: The timbers are laid upon
supports a few inches above the ground at sufficient intervals to
allow of a free circulation of air between them, and on these others
are laid at right angles. It is usual to put long strips of wood about 3⁄4
inch square between each row to prevent the timbers touching, as,
after a shower, the timbers cannot dry for a long time if one is resting
on the other.
Planks, deals, &c. can be stacked by laying them in one direction
throughout, provided that the space which is left between the boards
occurs in one layer immediately over the centre of the boards
beneath (see fig. 60).
In many cases very little drying takes place before shipment, but
the same methods of stacking should be observed whenever it takes
place.
 Stacking poles by placing them on end is not recommended, as
they may warp from insufficient support. This point is more important
when the poles are required for ladder sides.

Fig. 60
Timber may be considered to be sufficiently seasoned for rough
work when it has lost one-fifth of its weight by evaporation.

Fig. 61
The poles from St. Petersburg have a narrow strip of bark
removed in four equidistant longitudinal lines throughout their entire
length. This treatment assists drying, and tends to prevent dry rot.
Weather shakes sometimes form on the outside of the wood while
seasoning (see fig. 61).
They arise owing to the sapwood contracting more when drying
than the heartwood. Unless they extend to a considerable depth they
do not affect the quality of the wood. Balk timbers, where the
sapwood is uncut, and whole timbers principally suffer in this
manner.
 Water seasoning—that is, having the timbers completely
immersed in water for a short time before drying. This is a common
practice. It is frequently carried out at the docks, where the balks
may be seen floating about on the surface of the water. This is a bad
method, as the wood is at the same time under the influence of
water, sun and air.
Water seasoning may make the wood more suitable for some
purposes, but Duhamel, while admitting its merits, says: ‘Where
strength is required it ought not to be put in water.’

Description.—Pine or northern fir (Pinus sylvestris) is light and

stiff, and is good for poles and scaffolding purposes, but only the
commonest of the Swedish growths are used for this purpose. The
hardest comes from the coldest districts. It has large red knots fairly
regularly placed, inclined to be soft, and starting at acute angles. It
grows chiefly in Northern Europe.
White spruce or white fir (Abies excelsa).—The knots are small
and irregularly placed, are dark in colour, and start at an obtuse
angle, showing an absence of clean wood. It is used principally for
scaffold poles and ladder sides. It will snap under live loads, and is
not so strong as pine. It also chiefly grows in Northern Europe.
Larch (genus Larix) is imported from Northern Europe and
America. It is yellow in colour, tough, and is suitable for poles, very
durable, free from knots, but warps easily.
Elm (genus Ulmus) grows in the British Isles. The colour varies
from the reddish-brown of the heartwood to yellowish white of the
sapwood. It bears considerable pressure across the grain, and is
most useful in balks, as it is liable to warp when in smaller sizes. Is
suitable where bolts and nails have to be used.
Birch (Betula alba).—Light brown in colour, hard, even grain,
which enables it to be easily and readily split in the direction of its
length. It is not considered durable. It is used chiefly for putlogs. Is
exported from Europe and America.
Ash (Fraxinus excelsior).—Very light brown in colour, extremely
tough, and makes excellent rungs for ladders. It is found in Europe.
Oak (genus Quercus), also known as the common British oak, is a
native of all parts of Europe, from Sweden to the Mediterranean. The
wood has often a reddish tinge; and the grain is fairly straight, and
splits easily. It is generally free from knots, and is most suitable
where a stiff, straight-grained wood is desirable. It also offers
considerable resistance to pressure across the grain.

Selection.—The importation of scaffolding timber commences in

March. In June the Russian timbers are on the market, and the
arrivals continue until October.
Poles are selected from spruce, pine, and larch trees. Balk timbers
are of elm and fir and spruce. The putlogs are from the birch.
Poles are known in two qualities—‘prime’ and ‘brack.’ These terms
refer to their straightness of grain, freedom from knots, regularity of
taper, which should be slight, and condition as to seasoning.
Buyers take them usually unbarked, as they rise from the stack,
and sort them afterwards for their different purposes.
As soon as possible the bark should be removed, as it holds the
water and insects, and encourages the growth of a white fungus
which is the precursor of dry rot.
The St. Petersburg poles are the most generally used for
scaffolding. They are weaker than the Christiania poles, breaking
shorter under cross strains, are whiter in colour, have a smoother
bark, are straighter in grain, and therefore make better ladder sides.
Christiania poles are more yellow in colour, and break longer
under a cross strain than other poles. They are only to be obtained
early in the year, and are soon bought up when on the market.
To test a pole remove the bark, then prise across the grain with a
penknife. If the fibres break up short and brown, the pole is decayed
and useless.
To test a pole for any local weakness lift one end, leaving the other
on the ground. Two or three sharp jerks will cause undue bending at
any spot that may be seriously defective.
Balk timbers ring, if in a sound condition, when struck with a
hammer. A fresh-cut surface should be firm, shining, and somewhat
translucent. A dull, chalky, or woolly appearance is a sign of bad
timber.
Poles, unlike most converted timbers, are not branded. Those
known as prime should certainly be used for scaffolding purposes.
The brack are rough and irregular in growth.
Balk timbers and smaller scantlings are, in the finest qualities,
branded, the different countries from which they are exported being
Russia, Norway and Sweden.
Russian woods are generally hammer branded, no colour being
used.
Norwegian woods are marked a blue colour, and Swedish wood a
red colour.
Straight-grained timber should be chosen. Twisting, which may
occur to the extent of 45°, is not so apparent in young trees. The
beam is thereby weakened as regards tension and compression.
Large knots should be avoided. They weaken the beam for tension
and cross strains, but serve good purpose when in compression.
Sap in the wood is denoted by a blue stain, and betokens
inferiority as to strength and lasting qualities. This blueness is more
noticeable when the wood is wet. It must not be confounded with
dark weather stains.

The Decay of Timber.—Timber exposed to the constant changes

of weather tends to decay early. It has been noticed that wood when
dried after being exposed to dampness not only lost the moisture it
had absorbed, but also part of its substance. This loss occurs in a
greater degree when these changes take place a second time. It is
therefore apparent that scaffolding timber, exposed as it is to the
vicissitudes of the weather, without any protection such as would be
gained by painting, will soon from this cause show signs of decay.
Quicklime, when wet, has also a most destructive effect upon
timber; the lime, by abstracting carbon, helping the decomposition
materially. Scaffold boards suffer most in this respect from contact
with fresh mortar, the lime in which has not had time to become mild.
From a similar cause, the ends of putlogs which are inserted in a
newly built wall, as when used in a bricklayer’s scaffold, tend to
decay rapidly.
Scaffolding poles, when used as standards, have an increased
tendency to decay at their butt ends, owing to their being imbedded
in the ground to a distance of two or three feet.
 The presence of sap in improperly seasoned wood is also
conducive to early decay.

Preservation of Timber.—Scaffolding timber being comparatively

cheap has little attention paid to it in regard to preservation.
When out of use the poles should be stacked, and a free current of
air around each ensured, not laid carelessly on the ground, which is
too frequently the case. The same remarks apply to the care of
boards. Nails which have been driven into the timber should, after
use, be carefully drawn. When left in the wood they rust, and set up
a new source of decay.
As before noted, the butt ends of standards tend to decay early. A
fairly effective method of preventing this is to bore the butt end
upwards to a distance of about 2 feet. The bore, which should be
about 1⁄2 inch in diameter, should then be filled with pitch and
plugged. The pitch will find its way by capillarity into the pores of the
wood and tend to keep the dampness out. Coating the outsides of
the butts with pitch is also useful, and a combination of the two
would no doubt be effectual; this is especially recommended where
the standards have to remain in one place for a long time.
Ladders and fittings that are expensive are generally painted.

The Durability of Wood.—In Young’s ‘Annals of Agriculture’ it is

stated that experiments were made on some 11⁄2-inch planks of 30 to
45 years’ growth. They were placed in the weather for ten years, and
then examined, with the following result:
Larch—heart sound, sapwood decayed.
Spruce fir—sound.
Scotch fir—much decayed.
Birch—quite rotten.
This experiment, while useful to show the natural resistance of the
wood to the weather, does not take into account the effect of wear
and tear.
It is almost impossible, in fact, to arrive at any data from which the
life of scaffolding timbers can be gauged; but, roughly speaking,
poles may be expected to last from six to ten years according to the
care exercised. Balk timbers, being usually cut up after a time for
other purposes, have only a short life on a scaffold, and therefore
seldom decay while in use.

Fig. 62

The Use of Scaffolding Timber.—Poles vary up to 40 and 50 feet

in length and up to 8 inches in diameter at the butt end. As decay,
which usually commences at this end, sets in, the poles can be
shortened and made into sound puncheons or splicing pieces for the
ledgers. Balks are used up to 50 or 60 feet in length; and their period
of service on a scaffold is often an interval during which they become
well seasoned and suitable for other requirements. Putlogs are about
6 feet in length and 4 inches square in cross section, tapering
sharply to 21⁄2 by 31⁄2 inches at the ends where required for insertion
in the wall. Being of square section they are not liable to roll on the
ledgers. They should be split, not sawn, in the direction of their
length. The fibres are thus uncut and absorb moisture less easily.
This procedure it is found increases their durability. When treated in
this manner they are also stronger, as the fibres, being continuous,
give greater resistance to a load, the strength not depending wholly
on the lateral adhesion, but also upon the longitudinal cohesion.
When partly decayed they can be shortened and make good struts
for timbering excavations.
The boards are usually from 7 in. to 9 in. wide and 11⁄2 in. to 2 in.
thick. Their length averages up to 14 feet. The ends are sawn as fig.
62 and strapped with iron to prevent splitting. When decayed they
are a source of danger for which there is only one remedy—smash
them up.
 CHAPTER V

CORDAGE AND KNOTS

The fibres used for the ropes and cords for scaffolding purposes are
of jute and hemp. The strongest rope is made of the latter variety,
and the best quality is termed the Manilla.
The cords are generally tarred for preservation, but this process
has a bad effect upon the strength of the fibre, more especially if the
tar is impure. The process of tarring is as follows:—
The fibres before they are formed into strands are passed through
a bath of hot tar. Immediately afterwards, and while still hot, the
material is squeezed through nippers, by which means any surplus
tar is removed.
The ropes, as used in scaffolding, are known as shroud laid or
three strand.
A shroud-laid rope consists of three strands wound round a core,
each containing a sufficient number of fibres to make an equal
thickness. A three-strand rope is similar, but has no core.
The following gives the breaking weights of scaffold cords and falls
according to circumference2:—

Size Cwts. qrs. lbs.

Tarred hemp scaffold 2 inches in circumference 20 0 0
21⁄4 inches in
Cords 25 0 0
circumference

Tarred jute scaffold 2 inches in circumference 14 0 0

21⁄4 inches in
Cords 18 0 0
circumference

White Manilla scaffold 2 inches in circumference 32 0 0

Cord 21⁄4 inches in 39 0 0
circumference

21⁄2 inches in
44 0 0
circumference
White Manilla rope for 3 inches in circumference 70 0 0
pulleys and block 31⁄2 inches in
98 0 0
ropes circumference
4 inches in circumference 126 0 0
41⁄2 inches in
158 0 0
circumference

It should be noted that all these weights are the actual breaking
strains of the ropes tested to destruction. In practice, one sixth of the
breaking weights only should be allowed, in order to leave a
sufficient margin for safety.
The strength of a rope is the combined strength of each separate
yarn. Therefore, if the fibres are not carefully twisted together, so that
each bears an equal strain, the rope is unsafe. Care should be taken
when choosing a rope that the strands are closely, evenly and
smoothly laid.
The rope is strongest when the fibres are at an angle of 45
degrees to the run of the rope. When at a greater angle than this, the
fibres are apt to break, and when at a less angle, the friction
between the parts—upon which the strength of a rope greatly
depends—is lessened.
The durability of tarred ropes is greater than when untarred, but
not to such an extent if kept dry.
A splice weakens a rope about one eighth.
Ropes are adulterated by the admixture of rubbish fibre termed
‘batch.’ To test a rope as to condition, untwist it and notice whether
any short ends break upwards. If so, or if the tarring has decayed
internally, the rope must be viewed with suspicion.
 Hemp ropes, after four to six months’ wear, are often one fourth
weaker than new ones.
Scaffold cords are from 15 to 18 feet in length.
Moisture will cause a shrinkage of 6 inches in an 18-foot cord.
A good hemp rope is more reliable than an iron chain, as the latter
sometimes snaps on surgeing.
The following diagrams show the various knots used in
scaffolding, both in the erection of the scaffold and for attaching
materials to a hoist. They are shown in a loose condition as being
more useful for study by a pupil. Several knots are, however, too
intricate to explain by diagram, and in these cases an attempt has
been made, with but scant success, to instruct as to their method of
creation in the notes. It will, however, be found by the student that
half an hour with an expert scaffolder, preferably an old sailor, will
afford more instruction than hours spent in studying diagrams.
The art of knot making is governed by three principles. First, a
knot must be made quickly. Secondly, it must not jam, as this
prevents it being undone easily. Lastly, under strain, it should break
before slipping.