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vi Contents

Matching Emotions to Situations: Emotional Scripts 141 / When Emotional Development Goes Wrong 149
Multiple Emotions, Multiple Causes 141 INSIGHTS FROM EXTREMES: When Children Commit
Emotion Regulation 142 Suicide 150
Socialization of Emotion 143 Causes of Childhood Depression 151
INTO ADULTHOOD: Controlling Negative Emotions in Biological Causes 151 / Social Causes 151 / Cognitive
Adulthood 144 Causes 151
Socialization by Parents 144 Treating Childhood Depression 152
Socialization by Other Children 147 LEARNING FROM LIVING LEADERS: Michael Lewis 152
RESEARCH UP CLOSE: Emotional Development in a High Susanne A. Denham 153
School Theater Program 147 Chapter Summary 153
Socialization by Teachers 148 Key Terms 155
REAL-WORLD APPLICATION: Teachers as Promoters of
Emotional Competence 148

Chapter 6 Self and Other: Getting to Know Me, Getting to Know You 156

The Sense of Self 157 BET YOU THOUGHT THAT. . . Babies Are Not Mind
Developmental Origins of Self-Concept 157 Readers 174
CULTURAL CONTEXT: How Culture Shapes
Understanding Psychological Trait Labels 175
Self-Representations 159 Perspective Taking 176
Difficulty Developing a Sense of Self: Autistic Children Advancing Social Understanding 176
160 Children’s Abilities 176 / Parents’ Influences 176 / Siblings
Self-Perceptions 160 and Friends 177 / Experiences Outside the Family 177 /
Cultural Influences 177
Global Self-Esteem 160
Stereotyping and Prejudice 178
Domain-Specific Perceptions 161
Stereotyping 178 / Prejudice 178 / Determinants of
Learning Self-Appraisal 161
Stereotyping and Prejudice 179 / Promoting Stereotypes and
Gender Variations in Global Self-Esteem 162 Prejudice 179 / Can Stereotypes and Prejudice Be Reduced? 180
Social Determinants of Self-Esteem 163 INSIGHTS FROM EXTREMES: The Most Extreme Prejudice:
Family Influences 163 / Influence of Peers and Mentors 163 / Genocide 180
Praising Children and Boosting Self-Esteem 163 Communication Between Me and You: The Role of
Identity Formation 164 Language 181
INTO ADULTHOOD: Identity Formation Continues 166 Components of Language 181
Ethnic Identity 166 Steps Toward Language Fluency 181
Development of Ethnic Identity 166 / Biracial and Bicultural Preverbal Communication 181 / Babbling and Other Early
Children And Youth 169 / Factors that Promote Ethnic Sounds 182
Identity 170 Semantic Development: The Power of Words 182
Religious Identity 170 How and Why Children Acquire Words 182
REAL-WORLD APPLICATION: Sexual Orientation and The Acquisition of Grammar: From Words to Sentences
Identity 171 182
Development of Knowledge about Learning the Social Uses of Language 183
Others 172 The Rules of Pragmatics 183 / Learning to Adjust Speech to
Early Understanding of Intentions and Norms 172 Audience 183 / Learning to Listen Critically 184
Later Understanding of Mental States: Theory of Mind LEARNING FROM LIVING LEADERS: Susan Harter 184
172 Carol S. Dweck 185
RESEARCH UP CLOSE: The Brain Beneath Theory of Chapter Summary 185
Mind 173 Key Terms 187
 Contents vii
Chapter 7 Family: Early and Enduring Influences 188

The Family System 189 Family Variation: Social Class and Culture 208
The Couple System 189 Differences in Family Values and Practices Related to
How Does the Couple’s Relationship Affect Children? 189 / Socioeconomic Status 208
Problems When Parents Fight 189 / Overcoming These Problems Cultural Patterns in Child Rearing 208
191 / And Baby Makes Three: The Impact of a New Baby on the CULTURAL CONTEXT: How Effects of Parenting Vary across
Couple System 191 Cultures 209
INTO ADULTHOOD: Transition to Parenthood 192 The Changing American Family 211
The Parent–Child System 193 Parents’ Employment and Child Development 212
How Parents Socialize Children 193 / Differences in Socialization Working Mothers 212 / Work Stress and Children’s
Approaches 193 / Parenting Styles 194 Adjustment 213
Why Parents Have Different Parenting Styles 196 Parenting after Thirty 213
RESEARCH UP CLOSE: Transmission of Hostile Parenting across New Reproductive Technologies 214
Generations 197 Adoption: Another Route to Parenthood 214
Socialization: From Bidirectional to Transactional 199 / Mothers’ Gay and Lesbian Parents 215
And Fathers’ Parenting 199
Parenting Alone 216
BET YOU THOUGHT THAT. . . Parenting Is a Brain Drain, Not
Divorce and Remarriage 217
a Brain Booster 200
The Coparenting System 201 Effects of Divorce on Children 217
Who Is Affected Most? 218 / Divorce and the Single-Parent
INSIGHTS FROM EXTREMES: When Is a Family Too
Household 219 / Does Custody Matter? 220 /
Large? 202
Remarriage 221
The Sibling System 202
LEARNING FROM LIVING LEADERS: E. Mark Cummings 222
How Are Siblings Affected by Birth Order? 202 / Birth Order
Diana Baumrind 223
and Parent–Child Interactions 203 / Birth Order and Sibling
Vonnie C. McLoyd 223
Interactions 204 Raymond Buriel 224
The Family Unit: Stories, Rituals, and Routines 206 Chapter Summary 224
REAL-WORLD APPLICATION: ‘‘Let’s Have Dinner’’ 207 Key Terms 226

Chapter 8 Peers: A World of Their Own 227

Definitions and Distinctions 228 Studying Peer Status: Acceptance and Rejection 235
Developmental Patterns of Peer Interaction 228 Factors that Affect Peer Acceptance 236
First Encounters in Infancy 228 Behaviors that Make a Difference 236 / Biological Predispositions
Social Exchanges between Toddlers 228 237 / Social-Cognitive Skills 237 / Are Children Always
Peer Play in Early Childhood 230 Reflective? 239 / Children’s Goals in Social Interactions 239
Peer Society in the School Years 231 Physical Appearance 239 / Blending In 240
The Importance of the Peer’s Age 232 / The Importance of the Consequences of Peer Rejection 241
Peer’s Gender 232 What Determines How Children React to Rejection? 241
Peer Interactions in Adolescence 232 BET YOU THOUGHT THAT. . . Names Would Never Hurt
Peers as Socializers 233 You 242
Modeling Behavior 233 Short- and Long-Term Consequences of Rejection 242
Reinforcing and Punishing Behavior 233 RESEARCH UP CLOSE: When ‘‘Love Thine Enemy’’ Fails 243
Social Comparison 234 INSIGHTS FROM EXTREMES: From Rejection to
Revenge? 244
CULTURAL CONTEXT: Peer Roles and Relationships in
Different Cultures 234 Can Peer Status Change? 245
Peer Status 235 Promoters of Peer Acceptance 245
viii Contents

Parents as Promoters of Peer Acceptance 245 The Pros and Cons of Friendship 254
Parents as Positive Partners 245 / Parents as Coaches and Romantic Relationships 255
Teachers 246 / Parents as Social Arrangers and Monitors 247 / Teenage Love Affairs Really Do Matter 255 / Changes in
When Parents Fail: Peer Rejection of Abused Children 248 Romantic Dynamics Over Time 256
Researchers as Promoters of Peer Acceptance 248 Interaction in Groups 256
Peers Can Help Too 250 Dominance Hierarchies 256
When Peers Become Friends 250 Cliques, Crowds, and Gangs 257
Age Changes in Friendship 250 INTO ADULTHOOD: What Happens When Jocks, Brains, and
Earliest Friendships 250 / Changing Friendship Goals 251 / Princesses Grow Up 258
Changing Friendship Expectations 251 REAL-WORLD APPLICATION: Youth Gangs 259

Interactions with Friends 252 LEARNING FROM LIVING LEADERS: Steven R. Asher 259
INSIGHTS FROM EXTREMES: When Children Love and Protect Gary W. Ladd 260
Each Other 253 Chapter Summary 261
Friendship Patterns 253 Key Terms 262

Chapter 9 Schools, Mentors, Media: Connections with Society 263

The Role of the School in Social Development 263 Do Children Understand What They See? 279
Schools as Social Communities 264 Television’s Positive Effects 280
School Size and Organization 264 Negative Effects of Television and Video Games 280
Big School; Small School 265 / Age Groupings in Schools Television Biases Perceptions 280 / Television and Video Games
265 / Coeducational versus Same-Sex Schools 266 Displace Other Activities 280 / Television Stereotypes Minority
Class Size and Organization 267 Groups 281 / Television Demeans Women 281 / Television
Advantages of Small Classes 267 / Benefits of Open Classrooms and Video Game Violence Leads to Aggression 282 / Television
267 / Cooperative Learning 267 / Peer Tutors 268 and Video Game Violence Leads to Desensitization 282 /
Television and Sexuality 282 / Television and
BET YOU THOUGHT THAT. . . Homeschooled Children Were Sexualization 282
Socially Disadvantaged 268
REAL-WORLD APPLICATION: Advertising Influences Children’s
The Teachers’ Impact 269 Choices 283
Keeping Control: Classroom Discipline and Management 269 / How Can Parents and Siblings Modify TV’s Negative
Teacher Expectations and Children’s Success 269 / Effects? 284
Teacher–Student Relationships 270
INTO ADULTHOOD: Still Playing Games? 285
School–Family Links 270
School Culture; Home Culture 270 Internet Connectivity 286
Effects of Internet Involvement 287
CULTURAL CONTEXT: Matching Classroom Organization to
Cultural Values and Practices 271 Internet Identity 287 / Effects on Social Relationships 287
Parents’ Involvement in Schools 272 / School as a Buffer for RESEARCH UP CLOSE: Role-Playing Games and Social
Children 272 Life 288
School Integration 273 Effects of Internet Sex 289 / Effects on Mental Health 289
After-School Programs 273 Cell Phone Connections 290
Mentors Supporting Social Development 274 INSIGHTS FROM EXTREMES: The Risks of Sexting 291
Natural Mentors 275 LEARNING FROM LIVING LEADERS: Nancy E. Hill 291
Mentor Programs 275 Deborah Lowe Vandell 292
Patricia M. Greenfield 292
Electronic Media and Children’s Social Lives 276
Chapter Summary 293
Watching Television and Playing Video Games 276
Key Terms 295
Hours of Involvement 276 / Content of Television Shows and
Video Games 278
 Contents ix
Chapter 10 Sex and Gender: Vive La Diff érence? 296

Getting Started: Defining Sex and Gender 296 Comparison of Cognitive Developmental and
Gender Stereotypes 297 Gender-Schema Theories 311
CULTURAL CONTEXT: Cultural Differences in Gender Social Influences on Gender Typing 311
Stereotypes 298 Theories of Social Influence 311
Gender Differences in Behavior, Interests, and Parents’ Influence on Children’s Gender-Typed
Activities 299 Choices 312
Behavior Differences in Childhood 299 Parents’ Behavior toward Girls and Boys 312
Interests and Activities in Childhood 300 Behavior with Infants and Toddlers 312 / Behavior with Older
Changes in Adolescence and Adulthood 301 Children 313
Stability of Gender Typing 301 Modeling Parents’ Characteristics 314
INTO ADULTHOOD: Occupations for Men and Women 302 RESEARCH UP CLOSE: Gender Roles in Counterculture
Families 315
Sex Differences in Gender Typing 303
When Father Is Absent 316
Biological Factors in Gender Differences 303
Siblings as Agents of Gender Socialization 317
BET YOU THOUGHT THAT. . . Gender Identity was Role Models in Books, Games, and Television 317
Determined by Biological Sex 304
Peers, Gender Roles, and Gender Segregation 318
Evolutionary Theory and Gender Development 305
REAL-WORLD APPLICATION: Do Computers Widen the
INSIGHTS FROM EXTREMES: The First American Gender Gap? 319
Transsexual 305
Hormones and Social Behavior 306 Schools and Teachers 321
The School Culture 321 / Teachers’ Attitudes and Behavior 321
Gender and the Brain 306
Androgyny 323
Genetics of Gender 308
Biology and Cultural Expectations 308 LEARNING FROM LIVING LEADERS: Carol Lynn Martin 325
Charlotte J. Patterson 325
Cognitive Factors in Gender Typing 309
Chapter Summary 326
Cognitive Developmental Theory 309
Key Terms 328
Gender-Schema Theory: An Information-Processing
Approach 310

Chapter 11 Morality: Knowing Right, Doing Good 329

Moral Judgment 330 How Children Learn the Rules and Distinguish between
Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of Moral Judgment 330 Social Domains 339
Stages of Moral Reasoning 330 / Evaluation of Piaget’s Parents’ and Teachers’ Roles in Moral and Social Conventional
Theory 331 Reasoning 339 / Sibling and Peer Influences on Moral and
Kohlberg’s Cognitive Theory of Moral Judgment Conventional Judgments 341 / The Role of Culture 341
331 Moral Behavior 341
Levels and Stages of Moral Judgment 331 BET YOU THOUGHT THAT. . . Moral Judgment Leads to Moral
INSIGHTS FROM EXTREMES: Moral Heroes 333 Action 342
Self-Regulation of Behavior 342
Limitations of Kohlberg’s Theory 334 / New Aspects Of Moral
Individual Differences in Moral Behavior 343
Development 335
Consistency of Moral Behavior across Situations and Time
CULTURAL CONTEXT: Justice versus Interpersonal Obligations
343
in India and the United States 336
INTO ADULTHOOD: The Love of Money Is the Root of All
Turiel’s Social Domain Theory 337 Evil 344
Social-Conventional Domain 337 / Psychological Domain 338 RESEARCH UP CLOSE: Children Telling Lies 345
Judgments about Complex Issues 338 Moral Emotions 347
x Contents

Development of Moral Emotions 347 Age Changes in Prosocial Behavior 351 / Stability in Prosocial
Behavior 352 / Prosocial Reasoning 352 / Are Girls More
Moral Emotions and Child Characteristics 347 / Moral Emotions Prosocial than Boys? 353
and Parents’ Behavior 347 Determinants of Prosocial Development 354
Do Moral Emotions Affect Moral Behavior? 348 Biological Influences 354 / Environmental Influences 355 /
REAL-WORLD APPLICATION: Adolescents’ Competence to Cultural Influences 356 / Empathy and Perspective Taking 356
Stand Trial as Adults 349 LEARNING FROM LIVING LEADERS: Judith G. Smetana 357
The Whole Moral Child 350 Grazyna Kochanska 358
Prosocial and Altruistic Behavior 351 Nancy Eisenberg 359
How Prosocial Behavior and Reasoning Chapter Summary 359
Develop 351 Key Terms 361

Chapter 12 Aggression: Insult and Injury 362

Types of Aggression 363 RESEARCH UP CLOSE: Genes, Environmental Triggers, and

Patterns of Aggression 364 Aggressive Behavior 380
Developmental Changes in Aggression 364 Sociocognitive Factors in the Development of
Gender Differences in Aggression 366 Aggression 381
Stability of Individual Differences in Aggression 368 Bullies and Victims 382
INTO ADULTHOOD: From Childhood Aggression to Road
Behavior of Bullies and Victims 382
Rage 369 Consequences of Bullying 384
Causes of Aggression 369 REAL-WORLD APPLICATION: Cyberfighting and
Biological Origins of Aggressive Behavior 370 Cyberbullying 384

Genetics and Aggression 370 Conditions Leading to Bullying 386

Temperament and Aggression 370 / My Brain Made Me Do It: Control of Aggression 386
The Neurological Basis of Aggression 371 / Blame It on My Cognitive Modification Strategies 386
Hormones 371 / Prenatal Conditions 372 BET YOU THOUGHT THAT. . . You Could Reduce Aggressive

Social Influences on the Development of Feelings by ‘‘Letting off Steam’’ 387

Aggression 372 Parents as Agents for Reducing Aggression 388
Parents as Interactive Partners 372 / Abusive Parenting and Schools as Venues for Intervention 388
Aggression 373 / A Coercion Model of Aggression 373 / Aggression Prevention: A Multipronged Effort 389
Parents as Providers of Opportunities for Aggression 373 / The Olweus Bullying Prevention Programme 389 / Fast Track Project
Influence of Peers 374 / Neighborhoods as Breeding Grounds 374 389 / Multisystemic Therapy 390
INSIGHTS FROM EXTREMES: Child Soldiers 375 Cultural Context: Preventing Youth Violence 391
Culture as a Determinant of Aggression 377 / Violence in the LEARNING FROM LIVING LEADERS: Terrie E. Moffitt 392
Electronic Media 377 Kenneth A. Dodge 392
Combined Biological and Social Influences on Chapter Summary 393
Aggression 378 Key Terms 394

Chapter 13 Policy: Improving Children’s Lives 395

What Determines Public Policy for Children? 396 Programs to Reverse Effects of Poverty 399
Types of Public Policy 397
Head Start 399 / Welfare Reform Policies 400 / Input and
Children in Poverty: A Social Policy Challenge 397
Economic Hardship and Social Disadvantage 397 Outcome: Getting What You Pay For 401
Effects of Poverty on Children 397 REAL-WORLD APPLICATION: Early Intervention with Children
in Poverty 401
 Contents xi
Child Care: A Problem Lacking a Unified Support from the Media 410 / Sex Education in Schools 411
Policy 402 Support for Teenage Mothers 412
Choosing Child Care: What’s a Parent to Do? 402 Child Abuse within the Family 413
Types of Child Care 402 Child Abuse: A Family Affair 413
Effects of Child Care on Children 403 The Ecology of Child Abuse 415
Quality of Child Care Matters 403 / What Is Quality Care? Consequences of Abuse 415
403 / Time in Child Care 404
Policies to Prevent Abuse 416
How Can Policy Help? 404
CULTURAL CONTEXT: Child Abuse and Children’s
RESEARCH UP CLOSE: The Florida Child Care Quality Rights 416
Improvement Study 406
Programs that Prevent Abuse 417
Teenage Pregnancy: Children Having Children 407
Federal and State Policies 418
Factors Leading to Teen Pregnancy 407
INSIGHTS FROM EXTREMES: Suggestive Interrogations and
BET YOU THOUGHT THAT. . . More Teens Are Having Sex Legal Policy 419
Than Ever Before 408 LEARNING FROM LIVING LEADERS: Deborah A. Phillips 420
Outcomes of Teen Pregnancies 408 Lindsay Chase-Lansdale 421
Problems for Teenage Mothers 408 / Problems for Children of Kathleen McCartney 422
Teenage Mothers 408 / Problems for Other Family Members Kristin Anderson Moore 422
409 / Problems for Teenage Fathers 409 / Happy Endings 409 Chapter Summary 423
INTO ADULTHOOD: When Teen Mothers Grow Up 410 Key Terms 425
Reducing Teen Pregnancy 410

Chapter 14 Overarching Themes: Integrating Social Development 426

What We Know: Some Take-Home Principles 426
Views of the Social Child 426
The Child Is Socially Competent from an Early Age 426 / The
Child’s Social Behavior Is Organized 427 / The Child’s Social
Behavior Becomes Increasingly Sophisticated 427 / The Child Is
Embedded in Levels of Social Complexity 427 / Children’s
Interactions with Other People Are Reciprocal and
Transactional 427
Organization and Explanation of Children’s Social
Behavior 428
Aspects of Development Are Interdependent 428 / Social Behavior
Has Multiple Interacting Causes 428 / All Causes Are
Important 428
Social Agents and Contexts for Social Develop-
ment 428
Social Behavior Is Influenced by Social Agents in Social Systems
428 / Social Behavior Varies across Both Situations and Individuals
428 / Social Development Occurs in a Cultural Context 429 /
Social Development Occurs in a Historical Context 429 / Some
Aspects of Social Development Are Universal 429
Progress and Pathways of Social Development 429
Development May Be Gradual and Continuous or Rapid and
Dramatic 429 / Early Experience Is Important, but Its Effects Are
Not Irreversible 429 / There Is No Single Pathway to Normal or
Abnormal Development 430 / Tracing Both Normative Pathways
and Individual Pathways Is Important 430 / Development Is a
Lifelong Process 430
Glimpsing the Future: Methodological, Theoretical,
and Policy Imperatives 430
Methodological Imperatives 430
Questions Take Priority Over Methods 430 / No Single Method
Will Suffice 431 / No Single Reporter Will Suffice 431 / No
Single Sample Will Suffice 431
Theoretical Imperatives 431
No Single Theory Will Suffice 431 / No Single Discipline Will
Suffice 432
Policy Imperatives 432
Research on Social Development Can Inform Social Policy 432 /
Social Policy Can Inform Research on Social Development 432 /
One-Size-Fits-All Social Policies Are Inadequate 432 / Social
Development Is Everyone’s Responsibility 432
Emerging Leaders in Social Development 433
At the Wedding 439

Glossary 440 / References 447 / Author Index 541 / Subject Index 563
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Preface

In this second edition of Social Development our goal remains to provide undergraduates and their instructors
with a comprehensive, scholarly, engaging, and up-to-date treatment of theoretical insights and empirical
findings in the field of social development. In writing and updating the book we have tried to convey the
excitement of recent advances along with the accumulated knowledge that forms the basis of the field. In
this revision we have added many recent references to new research on social development and have used
lively examples and illustrations from children to illustrate the research-based conclusions in an effort to make
this edition even more undergraduate-friendly and to arouse and maintain students’ interest. Because we
recognize that the way instructors organize the material covered in a course on social development varies, we
have written the book so that chapters can be read out of order and separate sections can be assigned to meet
different teaching goals.

Theoretical Orientation
Although we cover the traditional theories, our presentation reflects contemporary thought emphasizing
systems, ecological approaches, and the multifaceted, multiply determined, and dynamically related nature
of social phenomena. This focus on multiple levels of explanation is the reason we have included cultural-
contextual and biological foundations of development and have discussed their interplay across levels.

Emphasis on Cultural Diversity

We have integrated information from cross-cultural research and studies that focus on ethnic and racial
diversity within cultures into our discussions of social development. In each chapter, we illustrate these
cultural variations both in the text and in features that provide a more detailed examination of a particular
culture or cultural issue.

Emphasis on Biological Underpinnings

Reflecting recent increased recognition that we must probe the biological underpinnings of social development,
we have devoted a separate chapter to biological influences on social development and introduced biological
factors in our discussions of specific aspects of social development in other chapters. We highlight new advances
in molecular and behavior genetics, neurological assessments (e.g., functional magnetic resonance imaging
fMRI), and the hormonal basis of social development and emphasize the interaction between environmental
conditions and the expression of biological predispositions to provide a forward-looking view that we hope
will intrigue students and instructors.

Concern with Social Policy

Each year governments spend millions of dollars on programs for children. We review some of these policies
and programs that have as their goal improving the lives of children, underscoring the interchange between
basic research and social policy. We devote a separate chapter to this discussion—a unique feature of this
book—so that students can more fully understand the policy-making process as well as specific policies aimed
at children. Our goal is to make the work in this area relevant to students as citizens, informed consumers of
scientific literature, and beginning professionals.

xii
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Chapter Features xiii

Age Scope of Coverage

This book covers social development in infancy, childhood, and adolescence. However, we recognize that
social development does not stop then, so we have included a special feature—Into Adulthood—in each chapter
to illustrate how social behaviors change in adulthood, how adult social behavior is influenced by earlier events
in childhood and adolescence, or how adolescents manage the transition to adulthood. In addition, in Chapter
7, “Family,” we discuss how children’s social development is affected by adult development, specifically their
parents’ development, and how circumstances in parents’ lives alter their behavior and, in turn, modify their
children’s social outcomes.

Chapter Elements

Each chapter begins with examples of hypothetical children of different ages exhibiting the types of social
behaviors we discuss in the chapter. At the end of the chapter, bulleted summaries review the chapter’s key
concepts and main ideas. Key terms, which are highlighted in the text, are listed at the end of each chapter as
a reminder to students of their significance, and combined in a glossary at the end of the book.

Chapter Features

Each chapter contains the following features that address interesting issues in social development. These are
designed to underscore and amplify the main themes of the chapter and are intended to be read along with
the regular text material. Their purpose is to increase students’ interest and understanding about topics that
are important for achieving each chapter’s overall goals.

Research Up Close
In these highlighted sections, we examine a single study or set of studies in more detail to provide students
with a fuller appreciation of the methodological complexities of research on social development. For example,
one such section describes studies of children who were raised in orphanages and who have problems forming
close relationships because of deficits in oxytocin, the “love” hormone. In another chapter, this section
describes studies of developmental changes in the frequency and nature of children’s lies.

Real-World Application
These sections provide examples of ways that basic science is translated into real-world applications, such as
new ways to control violence, school programs to improve children’s social skills, policies to lessen the effects
of maternal incarceration, and consequences of cyberbullying. Our goal is to show how basic research can be
applied to understanding and alleviating real-life problems.

Cultural Context
The focus of these sections is to demonstrate how culture shapes the behaviors and beliefs of children
and adults. They include descriptions of differences and similarities in children’s temperaments, attachment
relationships, and self-concepts around the globe. They also include a discussion of how effects of physical
punishment depend on whether or not punishment is normative in the culture, and they provide illustrations
of the differences in parenting in collective and individualistic cultures.
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xiv Preface

Bet You Thought That …

The goal of this feature is to challenge assumptions about how social development works by providing
illustrations that are counterintuitive, for example, not all infant smiles are the same, genes alone do not
determine social potential, babies can “read minds,” and parenting is a brain booster rather than a brain drain.

Into Adulthood
In an era of increasing emphasis on life-span development, appreciating that developmental trajectories do
not stop at age 21 is important. For this reason, each chapter has a section that describes some aspect of
development beyond adolescence. Examples include a description of how children whose aggressive behavior
begins in early childhood are at risk for violent offenses in adulthood, a discussion of how early attachment
patterns foreshadow the quality of later romantic ties, and a summary of how the lives of adults differ
depending on whether they were shy or bold as children.

Insights from Extremes

In these sections, we discuss extreme cases that have led to insights about social development. These cases
include children reared in institutions, a child who was isolated from social contact until she was 13 years old,
children who are forced to be soldiers, children with autism, and transgender children.

Learning from Living Leaders

Who are the current leaders in social development? How did they become interested in this field? What
questions have they tried to answer? What do they think are the most pressing issues in their area? What
message do they have for undergraduates? A variety of experts answered these questions, and the Learning
from Living Leaders feature summarizes their responses. We hope that these profiles will put a face on
researchers in the field and introduce students to some of the paths that lead to becoming a research leader,
perhaps inspiring them to consider a career in this field.

Uniqueness of the Book

Several components of this text distinguish it from other books devoted to this topic. One is the discussion
of the biological underpinnings of social development, both in a separate chapter and within the content
of the other chapters. The discussion highlights the roles of hormones, such as cortisol and testosterone. It
includes new techniques for probing brain activities and reviews recent work on mirror neurons and the
“social brain,” which suggest that there are brain-specific correlates of social behaviors, such as empathy, moral
decision making, and reactions to televised violence. This component also includes new work in behavior
genetics, which emphasizes the role of environments in controlling the expression of genetic predispositions.
Second, the book considers cultural variation both among societies around the world and within our own
society. Third, the book has a chapter specifically devoted to social policy that examines in detail the policy
process and highlights a number of recent government policy initiatives affecting children’s lives. Fourth, the
book includes unique features in each chapter, such as “Bet You Thought That,” “Insights from Extremes,”
and “Into Adulthood.” Finally, the book presents discussion of research on the cutting edge of the field to
capture the excitement of recent advances in this area. To write these discussions, we have not only relied
on published sources but also have sought out as-yet-unpublished information from several sources including
forthcoming articles from experts and hot topics on the Internet. We believe this book offers students a fresh
and unique perspective on social development.
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Highlights of the Second Edition xv

Highlights of the Second Edition

Several new features, including stylistic changes as well as content changes, have been incorporated into this
new edition.

Emerging Leaders
The Emerging Leaders feature, in Chapter 14, showcases 17 young scholars who are helping to shape the
direction of research and policy in social development. Combined with the Learning from Living leaders
feature, it encourages students to appreciate the ways research is conducted by real people and gives them
some inspirational messages about the research process.

Making Social Development More User Friendly

A second new feature is the addition of quotes from children and parents (real and hypothetical) that are
interspersed throughout the book. Our goal is to illustrate key research findings by showing how they relate
to children and families. We hope that these additions enliven the book and increase students’ understanding.

Updating Social Development with New Research Findings and Insights

We have revised Social Development to include the most recent developments in theory, research, and policy.
To achieve this goal, we have carefully reviewed recent publications and added more than 500 new references
to our review of the field of social development.

Highlighting Ages of Children

In this revision we have included more description of the ages of the research participants so students can
more fully appreciate variations in children’s developmental capabilities.

New Topics
New topics added in this revision include the following:
• The role of religion in development (religion is covered in identity development in Chapter 6: “Self and
Other: Getting to Know Me, Getting to Know You”; in natural mentors in Chapter 9: “Schools, Mentors,
and Media: Connections with Society”; and in prosocial and altruistic behavior in Chapter 11: “Morality:
Knowing Right, Doing Good.”)
• More coverage of achievement (achievement in covered in Chapter 9: “Schools, Mentors, and Media:
Connections with Society” and in Chapter 10: “Sex and Gender: Vive la Différence?”)
• New section on natural mentors and mentoring programs in Chapter 9: “Schools, Mentors, and Media:
Connections with Society”
• New section on sexualization of children and teens by media exposure in Chapter 9: “Schools, Mentors,
and Media: Connections with Society”

Specific New Additions to Individual Chapters

Updated topics in this revision include the following (among others):

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION: THEORIES OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

• Life history theory as a new variation on evolutionary theory
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xvi Preface

• Links between the theories outlined in Chapter 1 and topics discussed in later chapters (added so students
can appreciate the relevance of the theories for guiding research)

CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODS: TOOLS FOR DISCOVERY

• Updated discussion of the use of the Internet as a research tool
• New insights into research ethics
• Updated treatment of ethnographic methods

CHAPTER 3: BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS: ROOTS IN NEURONS AND GENES

• Introduction of the concept of attunement (to help explain parents’ and infants’ biological preparedness for
social interaction)
• New examples of uses of brain-imaging techniques to reveal biological changes associated with social
behaviors
• New work on how growing up in an unstimulating environment such as an orphanage can lead to reduced
brain activity
• Updates on our understanding of genetic influences including the modifiability of DNA by environmental
factors
• New studies of interactions between genes and environment that further illustrate this model of genetic
transmission
• New work on inadequate neuronal pruning in autistic children’s brains, providing new insight into the
biological basis of autism
• New work on the neurological basis of temperament as well as further evidence of stability of temperament

CHAPTER 4: ATTACHMENT: FORMING CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS

• New evidence of brain differences in adults with different patterns of attachment
• Recent evidence that men’s caregiving experience influences their hormonal readiness to respond to infants
• Updates on the links between caregiving and attachment
• Recent meta-analysis of the links between insecure and disorganized attachments and later externalizing

CHAPTER 5: EMOTIONS: THOUGHTS ABOUT FEELINGS

• New evidence of how parents influence children’s emotion regulation
• Recent studies of the long-term effects of maternal depression on the development of depression in
adolescents
• New work on the patterns of interactions between depressed mothers and their infants
• New evidence that depression in combination with conduct problems can heighten the probability of
adolescent suicide

CHAPTER 6: SELF AND OTHER: GETTING TO KNOW ME, GETTING TO KNOW YOU
• New work on the role of stereotyping of minorities on TV as well as the role of positive images in the
development of ethnic identity
• A new section on religious identity and its links with child and adolescent well-being
• New research on sexual identity
• Recent work on young children’s perspective-taking abilities
• A new meta-analysis concerning the developmental progression of prejudice
• Advances in children’s understanding of the rules of pragmatics
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Highlights of the Second Edition xvii

CHAPTER 7: FAMILY: EARLY AND ENDURING INFLUENCES

• New insights into why mothers’ satisfaction declines after a baby arrives
• The predictive value of the couple’s relationship as newlyweds for understanding later parenting style
• The influence of a positive marital partner on breaking the cycle of hostile parenting across generations
• Changes in maternal multitasking abilities after giving birth
• New work on coparenting
• Recent evidence that family rituals and family dinner routines predict better child outcomes
• Cross-national evidence of the links between economic resources and parenting
• The downside of family affluence, which shows that poor parenting among economically well-off families
is linked to poor adolescent outcomes
• The effects of physical punishment on children from conservative Protestant families
• Recent research on the effects of open adoption

CHAPTER 8: PEERS: A WORLD OF THEIR OWN

• New evidence of the reinforcing effects of high-status peers on deviant behavior
• The role of social comparison with peers as a way of gaining leverage with parents
• New links between theory of mind and peer acceptance
• New research on children’s understanding of faux pas and their links to peer rejection
• New research showing that depressed children who have trouble reading social-emotional cues are less
accepted by peers
• New work on the mixed social goals of acceptance and dominance by perceived popular children
• New research on gender atypical traits and lower peer acceptance
• New work on antipathies between former friends and nonfriends
• New research showing that parental restrictiveness concerning peer contacts can sometimes backfire and
lead to more peer contact and acting out
• New research on the determinants of friendship stability of boys and girls
• New work on links between romantic relationships and parent and friend relationships

CHAPTER 9: SCHOOLS, MENTORS, AND MEDIA: CONNECTIONS WITH SOCIETY

• New work on extracurricular activities and friendship
• New discussion of whether same-sex schools increase gender stereotypes and recent experimental evidence
of the links between same-sex schools and academic achievement
• Some negative aspects of open classrooms
• New research on the social benefits of parents’ involvement in schools
• New section on natural mentors and mentoring programs and their positive effects on youth
• Updated statistics on availability of electronic access for children
• New research on the content of children’s media fare, especially the pornographic content
• New work on how television biases viewer perceptions
• Updates on stereotyping and underrepresentation of minorities on TV
• New section on how television demeans women
• New section on how mass media sexualize girls
• New work on the effects of Internet holidays on children and adolescents
• Research on the positive effects of Internet connections on real-life friendships
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xviii Preface

CHAPTER 10: SEX AND GENDER: VIVE LA DIFFÉRENCE?

• New work on gender differences including verbal skills and emotional displays
• Long-term effects of gender-atypical behavior for later gender roles
• New research on the effects of gender labels on job applicants’ success
• Research showing that girls’ gender-typical values are more genetically determined than boys’ values
• New studies of the links between gender schemas and gender-congruent behaviors
• New work on parents’ differences in encouragement of boys’ and girls’ achievement
• A new meta-analysis showing that the availability of female relatives in science and math careers influences
girls’ attitudes toward their own math abilities
• Recent work continuing to show the gender stereotypes in video games and on TV
• The role of the Olympic Games in highlighting girls’ athletic prowess
• New discussion of the shrinking gender gap in math ability as well as reasons for the continuing differential
enrollment of boys and girls in math and science courses

CHAPTER 11: MORALITY: KNOWING RIGHT, DOING GOOD

• Elaboration of the discussion of moral heroes
• New work on parents’ contribution to children’s self-regulation
• New research on temperament and self-regulation
• New insights in cultural variations in parents’ socialization of lying and polite deception
• Developmental course of understanding of guilt
• New research on infants’ understanding of prosocial behavior
• New insights into the effects of involvement in prosocial responsibilities
• New work on links between religion and prosocial behavior
• New studies on how teachers and taking responsibilities for pets can modify prosocial behavior
• Updates on links between perspective–taking and prosocial behavior

CHAPTER 12: AGGRESSION: INSULT AND INJURY

• Updated statistics on rates of incarceration among minority and nonminority youth
• New research on negative consequences of relational aggression, such as friendship loss, depression, and
delinquency
• New cross-cultural evidence of links between temperament and aggression
• New research showing the link between parents’ harshness toward adolescents and aggression in adolescents’
romantic relationships
• New work on the role of high-status peers influencing increases in social and physical aggression among
their peers
• Updates and new insights into the effects of being child soldiers
• A new meta-analysis of the links between exposure to aggressive video games and aggression
• New work on desensitization (reduced brain activity) as a result of repeated exposure to media violence
• Combined effects of biology and environment is updated with new work on twins with and without an
aggressive friend
• New evidence that cortisol reactivity to family violence determines later aggression
• Updated statistics on rates of bullying and cyberbullying
• New work on negative consequences of bullying for the adjustment of cyberbullies themselves
• New evidence of the effectiveness of school-based antibullying programs
• Updated evidence on the long-term effects of the Fast Track Project for reducing aggression
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Instructor Resources xix

CHAPTER 13: POLICY: IMPROVING CHILDREN’S LIVES
• Updates on long-term effectiveness of Head Start
• New statistics on the costs of child care
• Updates on long-term effects of early child care
• New research on the effect of public aid subsidies on parents’ ability to purchase high-quality child care
• New figures on the poor pay of child-care providers and the implications of poor pay for staff turnover
• Updates on the decline of teen pregnancy rates
• New research on role of media in teen sexual behavior as well as new studies on the links between timing
of puberty and adolescent sexual activity
• Updated statistics on rates of child abuse
• New work on the long-term benefits for children of child-abuse intervention programs

Instructor Resources
Reseources for instructors are available at www.wiley.com/college/clarke-stewart. All resource material has
been updated to reflect changes in the current edition of the book.

Instructor’s Guide
The comprehensive instructor’s guide provides chapter outlines, chapter summaries, key terms for each
chapter (glossary items and additional important terms), and chapter learning objectives. Ideas for lectures, class
discussions, demonstrations, student activities (e.g., small research projects that students can conduct in settings
outside of class), and topics suitable for class debates are given. A set of handouts are provided that can serve as
a review guide for students. The guide offers topics and writing guidelines for students’ term papers, including
suggestions for conducting a literature search, recommendations about the best search engines, suggestions
about how to organize a review section by section, and an overview of APA formatting and referencing style.
It lists relevant short films generally available from the university or college media resource center and popular
movies and TV programs that illustrate themes of each chapter. Films such as Juno document the experience
of adolescent pregnancy; Mean Girls illustrates the issues of relational aggression among high school girls; Gone
Baby Gone provides insights into different levels of moral reasoning. Suggested background readings are also
given for each chapter.

Test Bank
In the Text Bank, approximately 80 multiple-choice questions, 15 short-answer questions, 10 essay questions,
and 20 true/false questions are provided for each chapter. Some of these questions are available for students to
use as a practice quiz. New questions have been added to reflect revised text content. All questions are keyed
to specific pages of the textbook.

PowerPoint Slides
PowerPoint slides serve as a springboard for lectures covering the key points, figures, tables, and key terms
in each chapter. These slides can be used as they are or can be modified to suit the instructor’s specific
requirements.

Annotated Web Links

A set of Web links connecting to relevant written and video materials for each chapter can be used to
supplement information in the textbook or as a starting point for class assignments.
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xx Preface

Topics for Use with Classroom Student Response Systems

A set of questions that can be used by instructors who wish to assess student opinions about certain topics in
social development is provided. For example, topics such as the role of religion in development or social issues
such as adoption or marriage of gay couples can be the basis for soliciting students’ opinions and engendering
class discussion.

Student Resources
Student resources are available at www.wiley.com/college/clarke-stewart.

Practice Questions
For each chapter, resources include 10 to 15 practice multiple-choice questions, a set of flashcards for key
terms, and three sample essay questions that can be turned in to the instructor for evaluation.

Handouts
Handouts are provided that can serve as a review guide for each chapter.

Research Guide
The research guide gives a list of possible term paper topics and guidelines for writing papers, including
suggestions for conducting a literature search, recommendations about the best search engines, suggestions
about how to organize a review section by section, and an overview of APA formatting and referencing style.

Annotated Web Links

A set of Web links connects to relevant written and video materials for each chapter. These can be used to
supplement information in the textbook or as a starting point for class assignments or term papers.

Acknowledgements

In writing this book, we received constructive suggestions from many experts in the field as well as instructors
who teach social development. The book is better as a result of their feedback, and we are grateful for their
assistance. The reviewers of the first edition of the book were the following: Joan Grusec, University of
Toronto; Scott Miller, University of Florida; John Bates, Indiana University; Susanne Denham, George Mason
University; Deborah Laible, Lehigh University; Melanie Killen, University of Maryland; Judith Smetana,
University of Rochester; Susan Harter, University of Denver; Jennifer Lansford, Duke University; Steven
Asher, Duke University; Gary Ladd, Arizona State University; Patricia Greenfield, University of California, Los
Angeles; Rob Crosnoe, University of Texas; Everett Waters, State University of New York at Stony Brook;
Philip Rodkin, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Craig Hart, Brigham Young University; Mark
Cummings, University of Notre Dame; Lindsay Chase-Lansdale, Northwestern University; Campbell Leaper,
University of California, Santa Cruz; Glenn Roisman, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Barry
Schneider, University of Ottawa; Kenneth Rubin, University of Maryland; Samuel Putnam, Bowdoin College;
Julie Dunsmore, Virginia Tech University; Jamie Ostrov, University of Buffalo; Herman Huber, College of
Saint Elizabeth; Nancy Furlong, Alfred University; Celina Echols, Southeastern Louisiana University; Robert
Marcus, University of Maryland; Cynthia Hall, University of Alabama at Birmingham; Cheryl Goldman,
Fitchburg State College; Ashton Trice, James Madison University; Joyce Munsch, California State University,
Northridge; Juliana Raskauskas, California State University, Sacramento; Eileen Achorn, University of Texas
 Park fpref.tex V1 - 11/07/2013 10:34 P.M. Page xxi

Acknowledgements xxi
at San Antonio; and Bonnie Kanner, Worcester State College. Reviewers of the second edition included
Eileen Achorn, University of Texas, San Antonio; Steven Asher, Duke University; Pamela Davis-Kean,
University of Michigan; Joanna Gentsch, University of Texas, Dallas; Martha Pott, Tufts University; Faith
Sproul, Temple University; and Alastair Younger, University of Ottawa. Chris Johnson and Robert Johnston,
our editors at the Wiley Higher Education division, have done a fine job in seeing this project through the
production process and into the hands of users. We are grateful for their support as well as the support of Jay
O’Callaghan in the production and launching of the book. Thanks to the many other Wiley staff, including
Brittany Cheetham, Joyce Poh, Kristen Mucci, Patrick Flatley, Julia Nollen, Lisa Gee, and Margaret Barrett,
who contributed to the production and advertising of the book, and to the field representatives who continue
to work on behalf of this project.

LLearning from Living Authors

Alison Clarke-Stewart is a leading scholar in social de-
velopment. She grew up in Canada and completed
her undergraduate and master’s work at the Univer-
sity of British Columbia before moving to the United
States for graduate school. Just before she began her
Ph.D. program, she had an epiphany. The violence
that erupted that summer culminating in the assassi-
nations of Robert Kennedy and Martin Luther King,
Jr., led her to decide to study children’s social de-
velopment in the hope that by doing so she might
contribute to making the world a better place. After
receiving her Ph.D. from Yale University she studied
family interactions, child care quality, early childhood
education programs, divorce and custody effects, and
children’s eyewitness testimony—always with the goal of
discovering ways people could create more positive ex-
periences for children and enhance their social skills and
relationships.
Before her retirement, Clarke-Stewart was Professor
in the Department of Psychology and Social Behavior
and Associate Dean for Research in the School of Social
Ecology at the University of California, Irvine. Earlier
she taught in the Department of Education and the
Committee on Human Development at the University of
Chicago. She is a Fellow of the American Psychological
Association and the American Psychological Society,
a member of the Society for Research in Child
Development, and she was a Principal Investigator in
the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth
Development, and an investigator in the National
Children’s Study. She was a Fellow at the Center for
Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences and a Visiting
Scholar at Oxford University. She served on the editorial
boards of Social Development and the Journal of Applied
Developmental Psychology. She wrote four textbooks in
child development and authored Day Care, coauthored
Children at Home and in Day Care, and co-edited The
Development of Social Understanding. Her most recent
books included What We Know about Childcare; Divorce:
Causes and Consequences; Divorce Lessons: Real Life Stories
and What You Can Learn From Them; and Families Count:
Effects on Child and Adolescent Development. She is also
coauthor of a leading introductory psychology textbook
(Psychology) which is now in its 9th edition.
Ross D. Parke was Distinguished Professor of
Psychology and Director of the Center for Family
Studies at the University of California, Riverside. He
also taught at the University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign and at the University of Wisconsin. He
is past president of the Society for Research in Child
Development, from which he received the Distinguished
Scientific Contribution to Child Development Award,
and of the Developmental Psychology Division of the
American Psychological Association, which awarded
him the G. Stanley Hall award for his contributions
to developmental psychology. He has served as editor

xxii Preface
of the Journal of Family Psychology and Developmental
Psychology and was associate editor of Child Development.
He is the author of Fatherhood, coauthor of Throwaway
Dads, and coeditor of Family–Peer Relationships: In Search
of the Linkages; Children in Time and Place; Exploring Family
Relationships with Other Social Contexts; and Strengthening
Couple Relationships for Optimal Child Development. His
most recent book is Future Families: Diverse Forms,
Rich Possibilities published by Wiley-Blackwell in 2013.
He earned his Ph.D. from the University of Waterloo,
Park fpref.tex V1 - 11/07/2013 10:34 P.M. Page xxii
Ontario, Canada, and his work has focused on early
social relationships in infancy and childhood, the effects
of punishment, aggression, child abuse, fathers’ roles in
child development, links between family and peer social
systems, ethnic variations in families, and the effects
of new reproductive technologies on families. He has
taught a college course on social development for more
than 40 years and is highly regarded as a textbook author
with seven editions of Child Psychology: A Contemporary
Viewpoint to his credit.
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CHAPTER 1 Introduction:
Theories of
Social
Development

Source: alantobey/iStockphoto.

Four-month-old Abby gazes into her mother’s eyes. Her mother returns the gaze and smiles broadly.
Abby smiles back at her mother and coos. This simple social exchange represents the beginnings of
social development. Five-year-old Jason is a bully. He terrorizes the other children in his classroom,
takes their toys, hits them, and verbally abuses them. His classmate Aiden is quiet, cooperative, and
compliant; he shares his toys and settles disputes peacefully. Not surprisingly, classmates like Aiden
better than Jason. These patterns reflect individual differences in social behavior during early childhood.
Twelve-year-old Emma loves to spend time with her best friend Meg. They walk to school together,
meet at recess, sit next to each other at lunch, play on the same soccer team, confer about homework,
and instant message late into the night. Their close relationship is typical of best friendships in middle
childhood. These three hypothetical examples illustrate some of the phenomena of social development
in childhood. In this chapter, we discuss the theories that explain these phenomena and the questions
that are central to the study of social development.

What is the study of social development? It is many things. It is a description of children’s social behavior and
how it changes as children get older. It is a description of children’s ideas about themselves and other people,
their relationships with peers and adults, their emotional expressions and displays, and their ability to function
in social groups. It traces continuities and discontinuities in children’s social behavior, relationships, and ideas
over time. It is also an explanation of the processes that lead to changes in social behavior and to individual
differences among children. It includes examination of how other aspects of development—cognitive,
perceptual, language, and motor development—underlie children’s social behavior.
Researchers in the field of social development investigate the influences of parents and peers, schools and
the media, and culture and biology on children’s social behavior and ideas. For some scholars, unraveling the
mysteries of social development is a goal in itself. It allows them to satisfy their curiosity about why some
children become juvenile delinquents and others become model teens. It offers insights into the principles and
laws that govern social interaction.
Other scholars have more practical concerns. They gather information about social development to help
people make better decisions about children’s lives. They give parents information that will help improve

1
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 CHAP. II.
It was long ere Sebastian could calm the anguish of her, who still
“Warmed his fond heart, and beat in every pulse:”

To the pang of parting, quickly succeeded the tortures of suspense; her

child was at the mercy of an ocean whose horrors she had herself
experienced too awfully not to apprehend similar disaster for others.
Aziek soon ceased to complain, but Sebastian’s watchful eyes marked
the sudden alteration in hers at every blast of wind. Those wintry storms
which formerly served to heighten the sublimity of their scenery, were now
heard with horror: the pale cheek, the lifted eye, the scarce-breathed, half-
checked apostrophe, all testified the suffering of an anxious mother.
Sebastian perceived the inutility of remonstrance and exhortation; these
might teach her to conceal her grief, but they could not bring her to conquer
it: he abandoned them therefore, contenting himself with winning her to
other interests, and planning new calls upon her benevolence.
He talked perpetually of Blanche, he talked without gloom; he reverted
to her sweet manners and virtues, he repeated the anecdotes of her
childhood, (anecdotes, which a mother never ceases to hear with interest) he
drew various imaginary pictures of her future destiny, and he took care to
make those pictures pleasing. By degrees Kara Aziek learnt to associate the
prospect of happiness with this temporary privation; she learnt to believe
the sanguine fortunes he foretold, and her mind, permitted to dwell on one
dear object, readily took the only way he chose should lead to it. If tears
sometimes trickled down her cheek at the name of her far-distant treasure,
they were tender tears, full of gratitude and hope.
The tedious months at length wore away, and letters arrived from Sicily.
What were the emotions of the parents when they saw the writing of
their daughter, and were thus assured of her safety! for some time they
could not read her letter; but they opened not any other, their child’s
sentiments and situation absorbed all their interest. Having recovered
himself, Sebastian read the letter aloud, though his voice and his hand yet
betrayed signs of remaining agitation.
The letter contained an account of Blanche’s voyage, a warm
acknowledgement of Gaspar’s cares, description of her reception by the
Duchess of Medina Sidonia, and a confession of her pleasurable emotions
on witnessing the customs and refinements of Europe.
To these details was added the most affecting expressions of love for her
parents, and of sorrow at their wide separation: it was evident that the
simple enjoyments of her native village yet held their place in her
uncorrupted heart; the amusements of Sicily could not displace them, for
these amusements only gratified her senses.
Charmed with the Duke and Duchess of Medina Sidonia, she described
their kindness in glowing language: her delineation of their sentiments
relieved Kara Aziek from many fears; with such noble persons she could
trust her daughter’s heart.
The packets from De Castro and Gaspar were chiefly on business:
Sebastian perused them attentively. They informed him that Queen
Elizabeth’s favorable disposition yet remained unimpaired, but that being
desirous of acting on certainties, and avoiding indiscreet reliance on her
good faith, De Castro thought it expedient to return to London with his
credentials from Sebastian, for the settlement of a final treaty between
them; of which Princess Blanche should be the pledge on the side of
Portugal, and an immediate loan of money, (for the furtherance of their
schemes,) the guarantee on the part of England.
This arranged, he would instantly send for Blanche, who might be safely
committed to Gaspar, and would be permitted to retain this watchful friend
about her person, at the court of London.
Through the exertions of Lord Essex, some German Princes had
promised to join the triple league against their common enemy, and Henry
of France, (perhaps secretly favoring those principles he had weakly yielded
up to gain a throne,) actually advanced an unconditional sum of money for
the aid of Sebastian’s agents in their various missions.
A formidable expedition under the gallant Essex, was fitting out in the
ports of England; the capture or destruction of Cadiz was its object. But the
most extraordinary part of this communication, was contained in the
following sentences.
 “Amongst the volunteers in our expedition, there are two, at whose
names your majesty will start. Antonio of Crato, and his son Don
Christopher. For some time the prior had been upheld by the English, but on
discovering the instability and levity of his character, they abandoned his
interests: I found him living a neglected and private individual in London.
“He was unconscious that my exertions here were caused by any
stronger motive than the abhorrence of the Spanish yoke, (for our secret
goes not beyond a small circle) and he deemed it right to visit me—my
reception was so cold, that he quickly left me, and we have never met since.
“He is embarked in the enterprize, foolishly believing that it is meant for
his exaltation: Lord Essex is aware of the use which may be made of this
folly, (as it indeed serves to mask the real candidate for Portugal) and
suffers him therefore to boast as he will.
“Don Christopher is of a different stamp: there is an honourable
melancholy about him, that touched me at first sight; it is easy to perceive
that he blushes at the remembrance of his mother, and that the story of your
majesty’s wrongs has reached his ears. He accompanies the Earl of Essex as
his lieutenant: for he is a true patriot, and seems earnest to make some
atonement for the sins of his parents. Let me, sire, bespeak your favor for
him, when you meet him in Portugal.”
At this mention of his perfidious cousin, Sebastian felt an emotion long
unknown: his blood ran cold, and hastily putting down the letter, he took up
that of Gaspar.
Kara Aziek had no attention to bestow on the abject Prior of Crato: she
was absorbed in grateful contemplation of the happy prospect before her.
Don Emanuel had enumerated so many Spanish and Portuguese nobles,
eager to assist in the re-establishment of Sebastian or his offspring, that it
would have been criminal to refuse placing some confidence in their efforts.
England, France, and Holland, were on their side, and nothing remained to
be concluded, except the signing of a treaty, and the delivery of their mutual
pledges.
With these prospects she was not merely consoled, she was inspirited:
for the first time since the departure of Blanche her lovely eyes shone with
happiness, and she smiled without effort. Her hopes were gay, her joy
unclouded; for of the political world and its tumults, she had experienced
too little to form a distant idea of its rapid mutations.
 Sebastian on the contrary, though he abounded in hope also, formed an
instantaneous picture of all the struggles and vicissitudes likely to follow
the public proclamation of his claims. The lives, the fortunes, of every one
embarked in his cause were now at stake: if Spain should feel in herself the
strength adequate to resistance, she would certainly refuse to yield back the
crown of Portugal, at the mere summons of England. War then, must decide
it at last; that war which he had hitherto so carefully shunned!
To the painfulness of this reflection he opposed the chief argument of De
Castro, which consisted in the horrible oppression of Philip: his extortions
and cruelty, daily ruined or maddened some noble Portuguese; he carried
their youth to fight against the Netherlands, and since not even personal
safety was purchased by submission to his yoke, was it not better to shed
their blood in brave resistance?
Aided by other powers, they would contend on equal terms, in point of
physical strength: and the force of a powerful sentiment would surely give
them superiority in all that related to opinion.
Revived by this reasoning, Sebastian banished the gloom of useless
regret, yet he could not cease to occupy himself with conjecture and
anticipation:—his mind was active and anxious, but that activity and that
anxiety were full of cheerfulness.
From this day the discourses of Sebastian and Kara Aziek lost their
pensive strain: they conversed more frequently together, and the theme they
dwelt on was their return to Europe. Time seemed long to them, because
they were eager, but it had ceased to be sad.
In these new emotions their former duties were not forgotten: as they
anticipated a removal from Cachoeira, its peaceful inhabitants, formed by
their care, and dependent on their goodness, became more interesting to
them; the Guaymures had claims on their hearts, which neither Sebastian
nor Kara Aziek were of a nature to disregard. They now redoubled their
solicitude for their welfare; and Sebastian already decided on leaving part
of his property in the hands of two respectable Portuguese, who had settled
near his abode: to these men he might safely trust it, as a deposit for the
promotion of public works, or as a fund in case of any unexpected calamity
by fire.
Months had gone by, and the second appearance of ships from that
quarter of the globe where all their interests was centered, was looked for
eagerly by Sebastian and Kara Aziek: the ships arrived.
Assured of his daughter’s health by seeing her hand writing, and now
deeply solicitous to learn the event of the pending negociation, Sebastian
transferred her letter to his wife, and opened the packet from Don Emanuel.
It was written immediately after his second return from England: it was
full of joyous expectation, Elizabeth had acceded to all the requests of the
King of Portugal; she was ready to exchange a large subsidy for the person
of the Princess Blanche; her expedition against Spain had sailed, and the
moment she should obtain some advantage there, and have the presumptive
heiress of Portugal in her possession, she meant to send and demand of
Philip the restitution of her father’s kingdom.
De Castro was come back to Sicily for the purpose of securing his
brother-in-law’s support to the measures of England: by the council of his
nobles, Philip might be influenced to resign a crown which he could not
keep without their assistance.
Affairs then were at their crisis; or rather that crisis was past, and at this
moment, Blanche was either residing in the palace of her ancestors, and
accepted as the representative of her father, or dwelling in England, while
foreign armies were disputing for her father’s rights.
The agitation excited by this idea, was yet fresh in the hearts of Kara
Aziek and her Sebastian, when a vessel with dispatches to the governor,
brought intelligence that Cadiz was taken by the English, that it was
suspected they meant to send out a fleet against Spanish America, and that
consequently the governor was called on to prepare for obstinate defence.
These news reached Cachoeira by the messenger who brought a letter
that had come in the same ship.
The letter was from Gaspar, and but a month later in date than that of De
Castro: it was short and afflicting: Don Emanuel was dead. A long and
violent fever with which he had been seized soon after his return to
Messina, had delayed the departure of Blanche, and had at last terminated
the life of her most valuable friend.
De Castro had died in the full belief that Providence favoured the cause
of justice and his King; he had died at the brightest moment of their
enterprize; he was therefore to be envied perhaps, if Providence should will
a different fate, and ordain disappointment to the allies.
 But what a shock was this event! what a loss! the grief of Sebastian was
as profound as remembrance of De Castro’s past services, and dependence
on his exertions might be expected to render it: he lamented not only the
best of men, but the most zealous of friends. The sinew of his strength was
gone; nay rather, was not De Castro the soul of every project?
A solemn check was here given to those anticipations which had so
lately spread joy through Cachoeira: one blow, taught him who had been
stricken by repeated misfortune, to expect another, and while he mourned
the companion he loved, he trembled to imagine that new calamities might
be in store for himself and others.
Kara Aziek entered into all his feelings; her daughter, deprived of this
faithful protector, whom power and influence rendered more valuable than
the humbler though equally devoted Gaspar, pressed on her heart, and
called aloud for succour.
Upon the affection of the Duke and Duchess of Medina, she slightly
calculated, (for we do not receive strong impressions by mere description,
we must witness attachment, to rely on its existence) Kara Aziek only saw
her inexperienced daughter, alone, desolate, and sad, going amongst
strangers, to whose honour she must trust for generous treatment.
Distracted, bewildered, unconscious of what to wish or to propose, she
fell into a passion of grief which Sebastian understood but too well. He was
standing buried in thought: at the sound of her sobs he started, and
approaching her to support her, said in a composed tone: “We have indeed
lost our best friend, my Aziek! he cannot be replaced. Ought I not to
consider his death as the vice of Heaven calling me to abandon this solitude
and appear on the scene myself? Even in his most sanguine moments De
Castro regarded England with suspicion, and knew her to be guided by self-
interest: that base principle may as easily lead to her betraying my affairs,
as to her advancing them. What then would be the fate of our Blanche?
rouse yourself my beloved! we must stand the shock of peril together—my
resolution is taken—I quit Brazil.”
At these words Kara Aziek flung herself on his bosom with a cry of joy;
she had lost sight of every object except her daughter, and contemplating
her desolate state, possible danger to her husband was forgotten. “O my
Sebastian!” she exclaimed, “let us indeed brave the world united; give me
back my child, and then whatever be the destiny awarded us, we shall meet
it with courage. Here, our peaceful days are over—long, long have they
been over, without Blanche we live on, bereft of our soul.—Shall we ever
see her again? O thought too blissful!”
She ceased, overcome with an emotion which Sebastian endeavoured to
moderate, by assuring her that when once they had regained their daughter,
no political motive should induce him to resign her a second time.
The letter from Caspar was again read; and a long postscript which
Sebastian had overlooked in his first consternation, now served to guide
him in his plan for the future.
This postscript informed him that Juan (the cousin of Don Emanuel) had
set off for England with the intelligence of their loss; and that the detention
of Blanche had been agreed upon amongst them, until Queen Elizabeth
should fulfil her promise by sending part of the stipulated subsidy. This
caution, together with the length of time which must pass ere Don Juan
could return, (in consequence of the secret and circuitous route by which all
voyages to an enemy’s country were necessarily taken) animated Sebastian
to hope that his daughter had not yet left Sicily, and that he might find her
still at Messina.
It was his intention rather to become his own pledge of faith, than to risk
the security of his child. Known in Sicily as the orphan ward of Don
Emanuel, she had hitherto lived unsuspected, under the protection of his
sister: it was true, most people concluded her to be the illegitimate offspring
of her reputed guardian, but that conclusion excited no further inquiries, and
threatened her with no danger: it was therefore the safest asylum in which
affection could place her.
Having formed his resolution, Sebastian lost no time in beginning to act:
he settled his arrangements at Cachoeira; he left the largest portion of his
remaining property in the hands he had proposed, and preparing his mind
for toils and troubles to which it was now disused, he bade an eternal
farewel to Brazil.
It was a day of dismal sadness at Cachoeira, when its founder departed:
the importunate lamentations of his Indians followed him even to St.
Salvador; many of them petitioned to go with him, some refused to quit his
side till they saw him embarked, others flung themselves into the sea and
swam after the ship.
 Sebastian had thanks and benedictions for them all: Kara Aziek repaid
them with her tears, and affectionate though mournful smiles. She knew
they were never to meet again, and her heart ached to think how delusive
were the hopes of their return, which each ardent native continued to
express, and demanded to have confirmed.
At length the sounds of sorrow no longer reached them from the
receding shore, it became more distant every moment, it lessened to a
speck, it sunk beneath the horizon! They looked back, and that vast
continent was blotted out from their sight: nothing remained but their
solitary vessel in the midst of that solemn and toiling ocean, beyond which
they were going to court difficulty and danger.
Their situation was like that of a soul returning a second time into mortal
life, after having long reposed on the calm of another world. Kara Aziek
doubted whether she should have strength to encounter the cares
inseparable from such a change; and Sebastian searched his spirit to
discover some of that fire and decisiveness which once predominated in his
character, though it had lain dormant at Cachoeira.
Bereft of Don Emanuel De Castro, he felt dependent chiefly on himself:
(for Don Juan he remembered merely as a very young lord whose character
was not yet developed when they sailed for Africa,) he shuddered to think
what might ensue should the Duke of Medina fail him at this awful
moment: should he have betrayed the secret of Blanche’s birth, her parents
might be hastening only to hear that their innocent child was immured in a
Castillian prison; but should he prove faithful, his counsel might in some
measure atone for the loss of De Castro.
Sebastian revolved these thoughts with deep attention; for the period was
critical, and he was about to play a solemn game that staked his liberty and
his life, the safety of his wife and daughter, and the existence of Portugal.
 CHAP. III.
Filled with such agitating interests, neither Kara Aziek nor Sebastian
marked the dangers of their voyage: they heard the raging storms without
apprehension; mightier storms were threatening from afar, of still-deadlier
import, and though they cherished a rational hope of finding the scene less
fearful than they dreaded, they felt a presentiment of impending evils.
In something more than three months they reached St. Lucar, whence
they immediately took a passage up the Straits, to Messina.
They had re-embarked, and the vessel was under weigh, when a stranger
put off in a boat from the shore, and gained the ship. He had come post
from Madrid on some business near St. Lucar, and was now anxious to
reach the Venetian gulph where he calculated on obtaining a birth in some
vessel proceeding to Venice: his looks were those of a man who has just
quitted a scene of confusion: he had indeed left the capital of Castille an
hour after its gloomy tyrant had breathed his last.
Philip the second was dead: and as if the whole fabric of her enormous
power was shaken by this event, the strangers in Madrid all hurried to
convey the news, each to his own country, anxious to proclaim that this was
the moment for crushing the despotism of Spain.
Sebastian was sitting alone with Kara Aziek in the cabin they had
exclusively engaged for themselves, when the captain suddenly entered, and
unconscious of the peculiar interest his passengers had in such a
communication, imparted the death of Philip merely as a piece of news. He
then bolted out again, leaving Sebastian transfixed with surprise.
This event was indeed important to him: it was that which would give
his confederates every advantage, by affording them the opportunity of
falling upon Spain at a moment when her unsettled government could but
feebly resist, or would find it policy to comply with their demands: such an
event looked like an omen of success.
Amazement had struck both Sebastian and Kara Aziek speechless: they
did not hear the concluding sentence of the captain, who had requested
leave to send his new passenger into their cabin, as he was of rank, and no
other part of the ship was fit for his reception; they were startled therefore
to see a stranger of good mien and richly habited, enter their apartment.
The bright flush of their countenances subsided directly, and they turned
towards the windows; for Sebastian was anxious to avoid the chance of
recognition.
The stranger hesitated; at length closing the door, he advanced and
apologized for his intrusion, pleading the necessity occasioned by a violent
fall of rain, which drove him from the deck, and obliged him thus to throw
himself upon the politeness of others.
The gentleman spoke in Italian, which was evidently his native tongue.
His address was too courteous for Kara Aziek to persist in an appearance
of incivility; she turned round, and pronounced with hesitation, the
permission he sought.
Sebastian remained as if in thought, with his face to the windows; the
stranger sat down: he continued to converse with his fair companion, who
listened attentively, since he talked of the event which occupied her
thoughts. He spoke eloquently of the atrocious crimes that had disgraced
the life of Philip, and hazarded several acute conjectures upon the changes
which his death would produce in the cabinets of Europe. In particular, he
described one of the tyrant’s most insolent acts to the republic of Venice,
and anathematized his iniquitous treatment of Portugal.
At this part of his harangue, Sebastian unconsciously turned round, and
fixed an earnest look on the speaker; the latter started, stretched eagerly
forward, betrayed signs of doubt and surprize, and for a moment was silent;
but he resumed his discourse, on seeing that Sebastian precipitately moved
away.
While the Italian continued to speak, he watched every movement of
Sebastian: his countenance rapidly expressed the succession of thoughts
which this observation excited; suddenly rising he came directly in front of
the person he scrutinized. At this action an indignant flush crimsoned
Sebastian’s features; his look became severe; and the proud majesty with
which he stepped back from the advance of his observer, made the latter
pause.
“I mean not to offend, Sir!” said the stranger, respectfully inclining his
head, “Gracious Virgin! can it be possible; I know not what to—I dream
surely!—so many years!—if I am right in my suspicion, my knee should
follow the homage of my mind.”
Sebastian saw that he was discovered, but resolving to retain
concealment as long as possible, he gravely replied, “your manners surprise
me, sir! I am unconscious of ever having seen you before.”
The stranger still kept his eyes rivetted to the face of Sebastian, but their
expression was rather inviting than hostile. “My memory assures me, sir,”
he returned, “that I have seen you before: it was in the palace of Santos de
Veiel, on the coast of Algarve, where I went on a secret mission from the
Venetian Republic, to the young king of Portugal. Many years have gone by
since that period, but I still retain the impression made on me by Don
Sebastian’s most princely lineaments and gracious presence.—His
moderation, justice, and magnanimity in the conduct of state business, I had
then an opportunity of observing; his ardent piety was no less my
admiration:—and since the fatal year in which he was said to have perished,
I have always been one of those who most eagerly listened to the various
stories of his re-appearance.—I wish you to know me completely, sir: I am
Signor Giuseppe Morosini: the name of the noblest house in Venice, is, I
trust, a herald of honour:—at this day, my brother holds the first dignity of
the republic.”
“Your mien announced your nobility, sir!” replied Sebastian,
endeavouring to preserve the repelling coldness with which he awed the
vivacity of the Italian: Signor Morosini looked disappointed and
embarrassed; this remark did not answer his question, and he feared to
repeat it.
“My enthusiasm transports me too far;” he said, after a short silence, “if
you are not the personage I imagine; my discourse must sound like the
ravings of a madman, pardon me sir, I have no curiosity; respect and
disinterested zeal, alone dwell in my heart.—I see that I am not understood
—or not recollected—or not credited:—I am at a loss what to do.”—
The Venetian stopt, and sitting down, Sebastian perceived that he
contrived to let his mantle fall off, and discover below the collar of his ruff,
a device of diamonds which fastened it to his vest: this very bauble he
remembered having given to the Venetian envoy, at the period mentioned
by this stranger. He now examined him attentively; and as Signor
Morosini’s countenance had lost its vivacity, and taken an air of
mortification, that expression came nearer to the serious air of a man of
business: he began to recollect his features and his figure; though the
former were extremely darkened, and the latter greatly enlarged since they
had met at De Veiel. But still he shrunk from precipitate disclosure, and
remained silent.
Kara Aziek, in whom the stranger’s first address had awakened a
thousand fears, now recovered from that impression, and exchanged an
approving glance with Sebastian: she ventured not to speak, and for some
time, silence succeeded to the warmth of energetic discourse.
The reflections of Sebastian were fluctuating and troubled: his nature led
him to implicit confidence in the protestations of a man of whom he
remembered nothing that was not honourable; but experience had taught
him to doubt and to investigate, ere he trusted past recal.
Yet in what way should he act? if Signor Giuseppe were permitted to
depart under the impression which it was evident he retained, pique at being
distrusted, might render him forward to describe the person he had seen,
and the surprise that encounter had caused him. Such conduct must prove
destructive of that secrecy, which, for awhile, should belong to Sebastian’s
intercourse with Spanish subjects: he would be traced to Messina, to the
abode of the Duke de Medina Sidonia’s wife, and the sacrifice of their
whole family might follow the annihilation of his own.
Was it not better therefore, to take a bold step, and rely at once on the
honour and truth of this Venetian? his near relationship to the Doge, and the
aversion he expressed to the memory of Philip, might be fairly considered
as grounds for confidence; and if his favorable remembrance of the
Portuguese monarch, inspired him to attempt acquiring for the confederate
powers, the assistance of Venice, his friendship must be considered as an
important advantage.
These thoughts were agitating her husband, while Kara Aziek tried to
support languid conversation with Signor Morosini: the latter preserved a
timid and mortified air, yet now and then he stole an earnest glance towards
both his mysterious companions.
Sebastian suddenly approached, and lowering his voice, said, “I would
learn from you, noble Venetian, the name of him for whom you take me?”
Signor Giuseppe raised his head, and said frankly, “For Don Sebastian
himself.”
 Sebastian gave no other answer than a gracious smile: the Venetian
seized the confession made by this well-remembered smile, and bent his
knee to the ground; the King gave him his hand, raised him up, and seated
himself by his side.
Signor Morosini, with the vivacity of his country, then began to pour
forth expressions of sincere joy, of wonder, of curiosity: he was eager to
learn where the King of Portugal could have been concealed so long; and
ere Sebastian found voice to reply, had imagined a thousand fantastic and
improbable adventures, which he uttered with more than his usual rapidity.
Sebastian briefly replied, then added, “You find Signor, that I know what
is due to the bare word of an honorable man: you have merely assured me
that you wish to serve me, and relying on that assurance, I no longer
hesitate to employ your friendship in negotiation with the Republic. For my
long irresolution at our first meeting, your own sense of discretion will
plead: in circumstances like mine, caution is a virtue.”
Signor Morosini replied with an excess of urbanity: his looks witnessed
his words; and the readiness with which he promised to use the utmost
diligence and prudence, in his negotiation with the Doge and the Senate,
forced Sebastian to confess, that his warmest friends were ever those on
whom he had no right to calculate.
Kara Aziek had retired to another part of the cabin, and taking up some
needlework, ventured not to share in a discourse, where every word was of
consequence to Sebastian, who alone could know how much to withhold or
to confide.
She observed that he never mentioned Blanche, that he prayed leave to
postpone telling the whole of his adventures, and that although he spoke of
England, France, and Holland, as favourably disposed towards him, he did
so in general terms; declining further explanation, until Venice had
determined on what course she would pursue.
Signor Giuseppe understood only, that the King of Portugal was going to
seek some old friend in Sicily; and solemnly swearing not to confide that
secret, even to his brother, he promised to be speedy in dispatching news of
success or failure, to Messina.
Thus situated, the vessel brought them to the mouth of the Venetian
gulph.
 So many ships were proceeding to Venice, that Signor Morosini found
no difficulty in procuring the passage he sought: he renewed his promises
of secresy and devotedness, and getting into a felucca, was soon removed
from the vessel of Sebastian.
Filled with unexpected satisfaction by this Providential rencontre, and
led to hope complete success, since Philip was snatched from the world,
Sebastian discouraged not the expression of Kara Aziek’s joyful feelings.
He believed that the terror of Philip’s name no longer operating to
intimidate other sovereigns, past injuries would make them rise to limit the
power of his successor, such an event must prove a signal for Portugal to
start forward in her own cause: and if at the same time her long-lost
monarch should appear at the head of a confederate army, would not his
miraculous appearance stimulate them to victory.
It was now that the sun once more shone out over the darkened fate of
Sebastian: how various, how trying had been his lot! but he was becoming
accustomed to change; and that equanimity of soul which so peculiarly
distinguishes those who have passed through many vicissitudes, was
already visible, equally under sunshine or under storms.
Kara Aziek was less philosophic, and more animated; she thought their
allotted time of suffering had reached its termination, and fondly
anticipating a re-union with her daughter, trusted that after this moment,
their destiny must remain bright and secure.
The wind favored her eagerness: their vessel proceeded rapidly, and
gained the port of Messina.
The house of Marco Cattizone (a name assumed by Gaspar, who
believed it prudent to lull curiosity, by passing for an Italian) was easily
discovered: as Sebastian and Kara Aziek approached it, their hearts
throbbed with apprehension, lest they should not find him: if he were gone
to England with Blanche, another tedious voyage must be taken.
They had wrapped themselves in large mantles to conceal their figures,
without appearing to have studied concealment, and having landed towards
night, they reached the house unnoticed. Sebastian knew that Gaspar had
married the favorite woman of the Duchess Medina, (by whom this little
estate was given as her dowry) he was therefore prepared to act cautiously,
when appearing thus unexpectedly before a friend, whose surprise might
betray him into indiscretion.
 Having learned that Marco Cattizone was at home and alone in his
garden, he went with Kara Aziek into a retired room, and desired him to be
sent for. In a few moments Gaspar entered: Sebastian and Kara Aziek stood
with their faces averted till the servant had closed the door, they then turned
round, and Gaspar uttered a cry of joy: the next instant his countenance
changed, and he exclaimed, “In the name of God, dearest master, why are
you here? this precipitate step”—His looks expressed the apprehension he
felt.
Regardless of themselves, the impatient parents only pronounced the
name of Blanche. “She is here, blessed be Heaven!” returned Gaspar, “still
the care and delight of our good Duchess.”
“Does she remember us,” exclaimed Kara Aziek, “does she love us as
she used to do?”
Gaspar’s animated reply drew a flood of joyful tears down the cheeks of
the tender mother: lost in delightful anticipations, she listened not to the
alternate interrogatories and explanations of Sebastian and his friend; when
they spoke of the subject nearest her heart, she was all ear again.
They spoke of Blanche’s prolonged stay at Messina.—Caspar confessed,
that after the death of Don Emanuel de Castro, some wavering conduct on
the part of Queen Elizabeth, had rendered him fearful of committing so
precious a pledge to her good faith. Elizabeth had taken advantage of their
loss, to dictate new terms of alliance, and in her conversation with Father
Texere, had stipulated for two of the most important islands belonging to
Portugal, in the Atlantic and Indian ocean, to be given her as a
compensation for her services, in case Don Sebastian should be restored:
the repayment of the subsidy, of course, was not abandoned in her altered
articles.
Her avidity, and the ungenerous advantage thus taken of desperate
circumstances, had alarmed Gaspar, and disgusted the other adherents of
Sebastian: they deemed it right to detain Princess Blanche till the English
Queen should come back to her former terms; since once delivered into her
possession, the safety of Blanche might be turned by her into an instrument
of fresh extortion.
The ultimatum of the confederate nobles had lately been sent to London,
and at this period, Don Juan De Castro, (who was the bearer of it) was daily
expected to arrive with the decision of Elizabeth.
 Intelligence like this must have struck a death-blow to the hopes of
Sebastian, had he not possessed a ground of encouragement in the prospect
of Venetian aid, and some consolation from the death of him who had
trampled on his country: his countenance was undismayed. “Let us not
despond, my friend! I have other resources yet.—Providence has not
abandoned your King:—our prime enemy is gone to answer for all his
crimes against God and man,—Philip of Spain is dead.”
Gaspar looked as if doubtful whether he were dreaming or awake, he
turned a vacant gaze from Sebastian to Kara Aziek: the former repeated his
assertion, briefly adding the source whence his information was derived.
That explanation led to a narrative of the adventure with Signor Morosini;
at which Gaspar passed from the extreme of despondency, to the extreme of
joy.
All his trouble vanished: he rightly believed that the accession of fresh
allies would force Elizabeth into moderation and fidelity; and that Philip III.
unwilling to strain the nerves of an infant government, and eager to regain
those friends which his gloomy predecessor had spurned from him, might
yield with a good grace to the mediation of so many princes, and restore the
crown of Portugal.
Relieved from the torture of contemplating future disasters, he now
considered the arrival of his sovereign, as an alarum to raise the spirits and
confirm the loyalty of his adherents; and no longer apprehensive for his
personal security, he delivered himself up to the gratifications of friendship.
Only the remembrance of De Castro, the generous De Castro, saddened
this meeting: his activity and virtues were sincerely eulogised: his last hours
were described by Gaspar; and many were the tears which then embalmed
his memory.
The distance of villa Rosolia, obliged Kara Aziek to resign the
expectation of embracing her daughter before the next day. Gaspar dwelt at
Messina for the convenience of receiving and forwarding dispatches beyond
sea; and Kara Aziek divined, that as his wife still retained her situation
about the person of the Duchess, he had formed the connection chiefly that
he might visit the villa unnoticed by the other domestics; thus preserving
his intercourse with the Duke, and his interest in Blanche undiscovered.
Villa Rosolia was two leagues off, but Gaspar deemed it expedient to
dispatch a messenger with a letter to Blanche under cover to his wife,
informing her of the arrival of her parents, and preparing her to receive
them on the ensuing day.
The return of this messenger brought a letter from Blanche written in the
overflowings of filial joy: she named an early hour for receiving her parents
on the morrow, when she hoped they were to meet never to part again.
Parental emotions banished sleep from the pillow of Kara Aziek and
Sebastian: their night was spent in conversation about her, upon whom hung
all their domestic happiness. Would they find her still the same artless and
admirable creature they had parted with in Brazil! would the same beautiful
countenance present itself unchanged to their partial sight?
A multitude of natural doubts and fears moderated their joy, but
increased their impatience, and they rose soon, to commence their short
journey to Rosolia.
Gaspar had the self-denial to remain behind, lest his appearance in
familiar society with the visitors of the Duchess Medina, should excite
curiosity in her household.
The hired carriage which conveyed them from Messina, was not long of
bringing them to the gate of the villa. At beholding that house which
contained her child, Kara Aziek’s emotion was heightened to painfulness:
she turned pale, grew faint, and alighting from the carriage, tottered into a
hall, almost unconscious of existence.
Having paused a little to recover herself, a servant led them into an
unoccupied apartment, where they were immediately joined by their
daughter.—She came alone.
At her entrance, both parents stretched out their arms towards her,
without having power to advance; they scarcely saw the beautiful young
creature who sprung to their embrace with the bloom of a Hebé, and a
sensibility which covered her glowing cheeks with tears: they knew it was
their child; for her voice vibrated in well-remembered sweetness on their
ear. They blessed, they embraced, they wept over her; they murmured out
their gratitude to Heaven; and lost to every thing else, thought only that
they were indeed met to part no more.
When this mutual transport had a little subsided, they were able to look
attentively on Blanche: it was not her extreme beauty (though she was
lovelier than any “mortal mixture of earth’s mould”) that elevated and
delighted their hearts; it was the expression which made that beauty
beautiful to them. Her eyes still beamed the tenderness and sweetness of her
mother, her brow yet announced the energy and heroism of her father: her
manner was still simple and modest; her words the language of unperverted
truth.
The mutual details of this happy family may be easily imagined: they
consisted on the part of the parents in the repetition of what they had
already repeated to Gaspar; and on the side of Blanche, in accounts of her
habits of life, and such interesting anecdotes of her protectress as were
connected with them.
She informed her father that the Duke had been sent for express the
evening before, on the death of Philip II. and ere Sebastian reached
Messina, had gone for Spain with his only son Don Hyppolito, in order to
appear at the first council of their new sovereign. This circumstance, though
it robbed Sebastian of that Nobleman’s advice, was yet to be considered as
replete with advantages, since in quality of counsellor to the new monarch,
he might add his influence to the Portuguese party, when England and the
other allies should openly proclaim in his favor.
Eager to introduce her protectress, Blanche now hastened away for that
purpose; she returned, preceded by the Duchess.
Her resemblance to Don Emanuel deeply affected Sebastian, he kissed
her hand in silence, and as he lifted up his head again, the Duchess saw that
tears were on his cheek; interpreting their cause, she too, turned aside to
hide rising emotion.
It is only a half-sorrow which seeks to display itself: true grief, like true
virtue, courts the shade.
Not a heart there, but was full of De Castro’s memory, yet not a lip
trusted itself to breathe his name.
The conversation flowed less on the past, than the future. Sebastian
found that the Duchess possessed an acute and penetrating mind: she had
entered into all the views of her brother and husband; and though the latter
had never consented to act in rebellion against his own lawful sovereign, he
was forward to avow his abhorrence of usurpation, and to prove it, by
entering his protest against a detention of the Portuguese crown, should
Philip refuse to resign it on the appearance of Sebastian.
She stated these principles with perfect candour, professing no more in
her husband’s name, than she knew him earnest to perform. She offered
Sebastian the protection of her house, and the use of the revenues attached
to it; for the family of Medina Sidonia was the richest in Spain, and this
Sicilian estate made but a small part of their wealth.
Impressed by her generous conduct, both Sebastian and Kara Aziek
renewed those protestations of eternal gratitude which they had first uttered,
while acknowledging all they owed to her for her maternal care of their
daughter, but they neither required nor accepted any additional favors
beyond that of shelter for awhile.
Happy were the days that now flowed away at the villa Rosolia; in the
enjoyment of life’s most hallowed affections, the parents and the child
refused to allow any moment of their time to distracting cares; they were all
absorbed in each other.
Gaspar might be said to hover over their domestic circle; for his spirit
was always with them, though their inequality of rank rendered the
discretion of distant respect an act of necessity. At some periods however,
this restraint was amply compensated. Innocent stratagems were devised by
which he had opportunities of conversing whole hours with his noble
friends; and though his wife was not entrusted with the secret of Blanche’s
connexion with these extraordinary strangers, she knew them to be his
former master and mistress, and wondered not at their graciousness to her
husband.
Letters from Spain and Venice changed the calm aspect of villa Rosolia.
—Medina Sidonia wrote, that he found the new King well-inclined to
lighten the burthens which his predecessor had imposed on the Portuguese,
nay, that he was aware of the danger of driving them to despair, and the
policy of conciliation; and that he had listened with attention to Medina’s
suggestion of placing at the head of their government their first noble, the
Duke of Braganza. This suggestion had been hazarded to try Philip’s pulse,
and from the moderation with which he received it, Medina sanguinely
concluded, that he would not attempt retaining the crown when the
legitimate owner was proved to be living.
Signor Morosini’s packet contained more substantial good fortune: it
accompanied an invitation from the Doge, for Don Sebastian to repair
immediately to Venice, where he promised (on certain conditions,
advantageous for the republic, and not inimical to the interests of Portugal)
to protect him against Spain, to procure the assistance of other Italian states,
and if supported by England and France, to take up arms in his cause.
Among the motives for gratitude to Don Sebastian which the Venetian
republic felt and acknowledged, was a very considerable loan of money
which she had borrowed at a time of imminent want, and which she had not
since been able to return. Sebastian had cancelled the debt; and he now
received this forwardness to assert his rights, as an honourable proof that
political virtue had not abandoned the world.
A list of illustrious names was subscribed to this letter: he well
remembered many of their signatures, that had been inscribed on official
papers at the period alluded to, and no longer doubting either the sincerity
or the success of Signor Morosini, he once more gave the reins to his
sanguine nature, and believed himself justified in trusting to the honor of
the Venetians.
This seemed the crisis of his fate, the hour that was to determine whether
Portugal should be emancipated, or doomed to eternal slavery. The bold act
of suddenly claiming his rights from the bosom of an independent state,
would fix the wavering inclinations of France and England; Holland had
never retracted her good faith; and thus supported, Sebastian believed
himself called on to resolve decisively.
It was important for him to secure the friendly offices of some powerful
personage in his own dominions, and to whom could he look with such
certainty, as to his kinsman the duke of Braganza?
This nobleman was that Theodosius, Duke of Barcelos, who at eleven
years old had borne a royal standard over the field of Alcazar: he was now
the only representative of their ancient house. To him, (as one dear to his
recollection, and well acquainted with his hand-writing) Sebastian intended
to address a confidential letter, informing him of his existence, and of his
determination to repair immediately to Venice, whence he should send a
summons to Philip for the restoration of his dominions.
Gaspar eagerly offered to become the bearer of this important dispatch,
fearful that any messenger less aware of its momentous nature, might fail of
delivering it, or loiter on his way. Gaspar’s long absence from Portugal
persuaded him that his person would be worn out of the memory of all but
his most familiar associates, and to none of them, except his sisters, was his
return from Barbary known. Besides the motive of duty, he pleaded his