CHAPTER

22
The
Respiratory
System

高雄醫學大學 解剖學科
陳世杰 副教授
Tel: 3121101 轉 2301

Modified PowerPoint® Slides

prepared by Leslie Hendon
U. of Alabama, Birmingham
Student Goals
• Four processes involved in respiration
• Organs of the respiratory system
• The skeletal framework of the external nose and the
internal nasal cavity
• Anatomy of nasal conchae, meatus, hard and soft palate
• Anatomy of nasopharynx, oropharynx, and
laryngopharynx
• Anatomy (cartilages, ligaments) of the larynx
• Anatomy of the trachea and the bronchial tree
• Structures of the respiratory zone and alveoli
• Anatomy of the pleural cavity
• Anatomy of lungs
• Pulmonary ventilation
Four Processes involved in Respiration
1. Pulmonary ventilation – air in and out of lungs
2. External respiration – gas exchange between the blood
and air at the lung alveoli (air sacs)
3. Transport of respiratory gases – O2 and CO2 between
the lungs and tissue cells via blood (cardiovascular
system)
4. Internal respiration - at capillaries, gas exchange
between the blood and tissue cells
• Example: CO2-- the interstitial fluids  the cardiovascular
system (blood)  the exchange surfaces of the lungs 
the respiratory system  the air
• O2 ? ☞ Cells obtain energy (ATP) primarily through
aerobic metabolism, a process requires oxygen and
produces CO2 – cellular respiration; O2 in and CO2 out
 Diagram of the Respiratory System
Nose (Nasal
cavity), Conducting zone
Paranasal Respiratory zone -
sinuses副鼻竇, gas exchange
Pharynx 咽, Nasal cavity
Larynx 喉, Oral cavity
Trachea 氣管, Nostril Pharynx
Left main
Lungs Larynx (primary)
(Bronchi支氣管, Trachea bronchus
Bronchi
Bronchioles, Carina
trachea
of

alveoli 肺泡) Right main

(primary)
Alveoli

bronchus Left lung

Right lung

Parietal Diaphragm
pleura
Fig. 22.1
The Nose 2-1
• Provides an airway for respiration
• Moistens and warms air
• Filters inhaled air
• Resonating chamber 共振室for speech
• Houses olfactory 嗅覺(smell) receptors
The Nose 2-2 (b) External
skeletal framework of the
(a) Surface anatomy external nose
顱頂肌 額骨 Frontal bone
Epicranius, 鼻骨 Nasal bone
frontal belly
中隔 Septal cartilage  Dorsum nasi
Root and bridge
of nose 上頜 Maxillary bone
(frontal process)
鼻樑(背) 側 Lateral process of
Dorsum nasi septal cartilage
Ala of nose Minor alar
翼 cartilages

Apex of nose
Dense fibrous  nose ala
connective tissue
Naris (nostril)
Major alar
Philtrum cartilages  apex
人中

• Size variation due to

Fig. 22.2

the nose: differences in nasal cartilages

• the external nose and • Skin is thin – contains many
• the internal nasal cavity sebaceous glands
The Nasal Cavity and Nasal Septum
• External nares – nostrils 外鼻孔 – nasal cavity (NC)
• Divided by – nasal septum
• Continuous with nasopharynx
• Posterior nasal apertures – choanae (internal nares)
• the nasal septum: cartilage and bone
• the anterior portion: hyaline cartilage
• the bony portion: formed by the fusion of
• perpendicular plate of the ethmoid 篩骨垂直板 and
• the plate of the vomer 犂骨
• The part of NC – superior to the nostrils  vestibule前庭
lined with skin containing sebaceous and sweat glands and
hair follicles (– nose hairs, vibrissae)
The lateral and superior walls of the nasal cavity
: maxillary, nasal, frontal, [ethmoid & sphenoid 蝶 bones – roof]
Nasal Conchae 鼻甲 and meatus 鼻道:
• Superior and middle conchae – part of the ethmoid 篩bone
• Inferior concha – a separate bone
• Conchae project medially from the lateral wall of the nasal
cavity 鼻腔側壁向內突起
• Meatus: the groove inferior to each concha
• Particulate matter – deflected to mucus-coated surfaces
• the superior portion or olfactory region lined by olfactory
epithelium:
• the inferior surface of the cribriform plate 篩狀板,
• the superior portion of the nasal septum, and
• the superior nasal concha
Photograph of the Upper Respiratory Tract

choana
Fig. 22.3a
The Floor of the Nasal Cavity
• A bony hard palate 硬腭
• formed by the maxillary* and palatine**腭 bones
• forms the floor of the nasal cavity and separated the
oral and nasal cavities.
• The muscular (skeletal) soft palate 軟腭
• extends posterior to the hard palate, marking the
boundary line between the superior nasopharynx and
the rest of the pharynx
• * : the palatine process of the maxillary bone
Supplement
• ** : the horizontal processes of the palatine bones
Basic Anatomy of the Upper Respiratory Tract
Cribriform plate of
ethmoid bone Frontal sinus
Sphenoid sinus Nasal cavity
Posterior nasal aperture Nasal conchae (superior,
Nasopharynx middle and inferior)
Pharyngeal tonsil Nasal meatuses
Opening of (superior, middle,
pharyngotympanic and inferior)
tube Nasal vestibule
Uvula Nostril
Oropharynx Hard palate
Palatine tonsil
Soft palate
Isthmus of the
fauces Tongue
Lingual tonsil
Laryngopharynx Larynx Hyoid bone
Epiglottis
Esophagus Vestibular fold
Thyroid cartilage
Vocal fold
Trachea Cricoid cartilage
Thyroid gland Fig. 22.3b
Basic Histology of the Upper Respiratory Tract
Two types of mucosa lines most
part of the nasal cavity;
1. Olfactory mucosa –
• Near roof of nasal cavity
• Houses olfactory (smell) receptors
2. Respiratory mucosa (Fig. 22.7) –
• Pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium
5th ed.
Fig. 21.4
Fig. 22.7c
• Goblet cells within epithelium
• Underlying layer of lamina propria
• nasal (compound tubuloalveolar)
glands
• rich plexuses of capillaries and veins
• Cilia move contaminated mucus
posteriorly
• Richly supplied with sensory nerve
endings; irritant→ sneeze reflex
The Paranasal Sinuses, PS 副鼻竇
• PS: nasal cavity is surrounded by air-filled cavities; lined by
respiratory epithelium, check Fig 22.4
• Location of PS – Frontal, Maxillary, Sphenoid, Ethmoid

Fig. 7.15
The Pharynx 咽
• Pharynx = throat; Funnel-shaped passageway;
• Connects nasal cavity and mouth;
• The base of the skull to the level of the 6th cervical vertebra
• Skeletal muscle - pharyngeal constrictors 咽部縮肌
(superior, middle and inferior) - lined by mucous
membrane
• Divided into 3 locations:
Pharynx
• nasopharynx,
Nasopharynx
• oropharynx,
• laryngopharynx Oropharynx

Laryngopharynx

Fig. 22.3c
Nasopharynx
• Superior to the level of the soft palate; Superior to the point
where food enters; Continuous with nasal cavity through
the posterior nasal apertures
• Only an air passageway; lined by typical respiratory
epithelium
• Closed off during swallowing via superior reflection of the
soft palate and uvula懸雍垂
• Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) 咽扁桃腺: located on the
posterior wall
• Contains the opening to the pharyngotympanic (auditory)
耳咽管 tube; a ridge posterior to this opening - tubal tonsil
咽鼓管扁桃體
The Oropharynx
• Arch-like entranceway – fauces 咽門 (throat)
• Extends from soft palate to the epiglottis 會厭
• Passageway for both food and air; lining is stratified
squamous epithelium (squam. epi.)
• Two types of tonsils in the oropharynx
• Palatine 腭 tonsils – in the lateral walls of the fauces
• Lingual舌 tonsil – covers the posterior surface of tongue
The Laryngopharynx
• Passageway for both food and air; Lined with stratified
squamous epithelium
• Continuous with the esophagus and larynx
• Posterior to larynx; Extends to inferior boundary of cricoid
cartilage
The Larynx (voice box)
• the level of the 4th to the 6th of cervical vertebra
• Attaches to hyoid bone superiorly; opens into laryngopharynx
• Inferiorly is continuous with the trachea
• three functions:
• Voice production;
• Provides an open airway;
• Routes air and food into the proper channels (the inlet:
closed – swallowing, open - breathing)
• a cylinder, framework - nine cartilages, are stabilized by
membranes, ligaments and/or skeletal muscle
• Epithelial lining: superior part – stratified squamous; inferior
to the vocal folds - pseudostratified ciliated columnar
Cartilages (C.) of the Larynx
• The Thyroid C.: forms anterior & lateral walls; incomplete
posteriorly; the anterior midline - laryngeal prominence喉
結 - the Adam’s apple
• The Cricoid 環 C.: posterior portion: expanded
• The Epiglottis: leaf-shaped; composed of elastic cartilage.
• Attached anteriorly to the thyroid cartilage; projects
above the glottis 聲門; Attached to the posterior aspect
of the tongue
• During swallowing, the larynx is elevated and the
epiglottis folds back over the glottis, preventing the food
into the respiratory passageways.
 Anatomy of the Body of hyoid
bone
Epiglottis

Thyrohyoid
Larynx 3-1 Thyroid cartilage membrane
Laryngeal
prominence
(Adam’s apple)

Cricothyroid
ligament
Cricoid
cartilage
Cricotracheal Tracheal
ligament cartilages
Body of hyoid (b) Anterior view
bone

Laryngeal prominence
(Adam’s apple)

Cricoid cartilage
Sternal head
Clavicular head
Sternocleidomastoid

Clavicle
Jugular notch

(a) Surface view

Fig. 22.5a, b
Anatomy of the Larynx 3-2

Fig. 22.5b, d
Paired Laryngeal Cartilages (c.)
• The arytenoid 杓狀 c. articulate with the superior of the
enlarged portion of the cricoid c.
• The corniculate 小角 c. articulate 形成關節 with the
arytenoid c.
• the corniculate and arytenoid c.: involved with opening
and closing of the glottis and the production of sound
• The cuneiform 楔 c. (elongated, curving) lie within the
aryepiglottic fold 杓會厭襞 that extend between the lateral
aspect of each arytenoid c. and the epiglottis
 Epiglottis

Anatomy of the Hyoid bone

Thyrohyoid
membrane

Larynx 3-3 Corniculate cartilage

Thyroid Arytenoid cartilage
cartilage

Cricoid cartilage
(d) Sagittal section
(anterior on the right) Glottis

Tracheal cartilages
Epiglottis

Thyrohyoid
membrane Body of hyoid bone
舌骨體 (c) Photograph
Thyrohyoid membrane of
Cuneiform cartilage
Fatty pad
cartilaginous
framework of
Corniculate cartilage Vestibular fold
(false vocal cord)
the larynx,
Arytenoid cartilage posterior view
Thyroid cartilage
Arytenoid muscle
Vocal fold
(true vocal cord)

Cricoid cartilage Cricothyroid ligament

Cricotracheal ligament

Tracheal cartilages

Fig. 22.5c, d
Laryngeal Ligaments
• Extrinsic 外部的 ligaments attach the thyroid c. to the hyoid
bone and the cricoid c. to the trachea.
• Intrinsic 內部的 ligaments binds all 9 cartilages together
• the vestibular and vocal ligaments that project into the
glottis; extend between the thyroid c. and the arytenoids;
are covered by mucosal folds
• the vestibular folds 前庭皺襞, relatively inelastic; to prevent
foreign objects from entering the glottis  false vocal cords
• the vocal folds 聲帶皺襞, highly elastic  elastic tissue;
involved w/ production of sounds  true vocal cords;
• The opening between the vocal folds is the rima glottidis; the
vocal folds plus the rima glottidis are collectively known as the
glottis 聲門
Laryngeal Musculature
• the intrinsic laryngeal muscles: one group regulates tension in
the vocal folds, while a second set opens and closes the glottis.
• Opening or closing the glottis involves rotational movements of the
arytenoids that move the vocal folds apart or together.
• the extrinsic laryngeal musculature positions and stabilizes the
larynx.
• During swallowing:
• Extrinsic muscles elevate the larynx, bending the epiglottis over
the entrance to the glottis, so that the bolus can glide across the
epiglottis.
• While this movement is underway, intrinsic muscles close the
glottis.
• Laryngeal muscles – left & right recurrent laryngeal nerves
(branches of vagus)
 Movements of the Vocal Folds Supplement
Anterior
Thyroid cartilage

Cricoid cartilage
外環杓肌 Vocal ligaments
of vocal cords
Glottis
Lateral
cricoarytenoid muscle
Arytenoid cartilage
Corniculate cartilage
Posterior
cricoarytenoid muscle
Posterior
後環杓肌
Base of tongue

Epiglottis
Vestibular fold
(false vocal cord)
Vocal fold
(true vocal cord)
Glottis Rima
Inner lining of trachea glottidis
Cuneiform cartilage 襞隙裂孔
Corniculate cartilage

(a) Vocal folds in closed position; closed glottis (b) Vocal folds in open position; open glottis
6th ed. Fig. 22.6
Voice (Sound) Production
• air passing through the glottis vibrates the vocal cords and
produces sound waves
• sound pitch: the diameter, length, & tension in the vocal folds.
• the diameter and length - the size of the larynx.
• The tension  the contraction of voluntary muscles  the
relative positions of the thyroid and arytenoid c.
• the distance , the vocal folds tense & the pitch rises; the distance
, the vocal folds relax & the pitch falls.
• Male with longer vocal folds vibrate slowly → deeper, lower voice
• air force across the vocal fold → stronger vibrations → louder
• the walls of larynx vibrate → a composite sound
• Speech requires pharynx, mouth, nasal cavity & sinuses to
resonate that sound; Tongue & lips form words
• Whispering is forcing air through almost closed rima glottides, the vocal
cord do not move -- oral cavity alone forms speech
 Sphincter 括約肌 function of the larynx
Valsalva’s maneuver
• exhalation against a closed
airway, usually done by closing
one's mouth, pinching one's nose
shut while pressing out as if
blowing up a balloon
• Vocal folds can act as a sphincter
during abdominal straining使勁→
intra-thoracic and intra-abdominal
pressure ↑
• → stabilize the body trunk
http://www.valsalva.org/valsalva.htm
when one lifts a heavy load;
• → evacuate the rectum
 The Trachea
Posterior
• begins anterior to
Fig. 22.7
vertebrae C6 in a
ligamentous
Mucosa attachment to the
Esophagus Submucosa cricoid c.; Descends
Trachealis into the mediastinum
Seromucous gland
muscle Lumen of
trachea in submucosa
前縱隔
Hyaline cartilage
• at the level of
vertebra T5 - T7,
Adventitia
Anterior carina 隆突; ＜the
(a) Cross section of the trachea and esophagus left and right primary
• a tough, flexible tube with a bronchi 支氣管
diameter of around 2.5 cm (1 in) • 16-20 C-shaped
and a length of 11 cm (4.25 in). cartilage rings keep
airway open
 Mucosa
Pseudostratified The wall of the
ciliated columnar
epithelium Trachea
Lamina propria
(connective tissue)
• The cartilage layer
(neighboring C-
Submucosa
shaped cartilage rings:
Seromucous gland
in submucosa fibro-elastic annular
ligaments); or the
trachealis - smooth
Hyaline cartilage muscle (- sympathetic
(b) Photomicrograph of the tracheal wall (250)
Fig. 22.7 stimulation  the
• the mucosa: the lining 內襯: diameter)
respiratory epi. + the lamina propria • the adventitia
 mucosa membrane
• the submucosa: seromucous gland;
Lung, Bronchial Tree and Primary Bronchi
• Bronchial tree - branching respiratory passages within lungs
• Primary (main) bronchi (lie posterior to the large pulmonary
vessels) – largest bronchi; right bronchus – wider & shorter
than the left; into hilum (a) The branching of the bronchial tree
Superior lobe Trachea
• the lung hilum: of right lung Superior lobe
of left lung

bronchus, pulmonary Fig. Left main

22.8a (primary)
vessels, nerves, bronchus

lymphatics. Lobar
(secondary)
bronchus
Segmental
(tertiary)
bronchus
Inferior lobe
Middle lobe
Inferior lobe of right lung of left lung
of right lung
Bronchi and Bronchioles of the Bronchial Tree
Within lungs, primary (main) bronchi →
• Secondary (lobar 葉) bronchi
• three on the right → 3 lobes
• two on the left → 2 lobes
• Tertiary (segmental 節) bronchi
• branch into each lung segment: 4th-order …
• Bronchioles 細支氣管– little bronchi, less than 1
mm in diameter
• Terminal bronchioles 終末細支氣管– less than
0.5 mm in diameter
• 23 orders of air tubes
Photomicrograph of a bronchus Supplement

Mucosa
Pseudostratified
epithelium

Lamina propria

Lumen Fibromusculo-
cartilaginous layer
Cartilage plate
Smooth muscle

Fig. 22.8b
 Supplement
Changes in Tissue Composition along Conducting Pathways
• Supportive connective tissues change
• C-shaped rings replaced by irregular cartilage plates
• Bronchioles – no cartilage plates
• Epithelium changes
• First, pseudostratified ciliated columnar
• Replaced by simple columnar, then simple cuboidal
epithelium (terminal & respiratory bronchioles; neither cilia nor
mucus cells in these small bronchioles)
• Smooth muscle becomes important
• Trachealis muscle → helical bands; absent around alveoli
• Relax – sympathetic stimulation; Constrict - parasympathetic
stimulation
• Absent around the alveoli
Structures of the Respiratory Zone
• End part of respiratory tree
• Consists of air-exchanging chambers - alveoli
• Respiratory bronchioles – branch from terminal bronchioles;
Lead to alveolar ducts 肺泡管 and alveolar sacs 肺泡曩→
alveoli
Alveoli
Alveolar duct

Respiratory Alveolar duct

bronchioles

Terminal
Alveolar
bronchiole
sac

(a) Fig.22.9a
 Respiratory
bronchiole
Features of Alveoli
Alveolar
Alveolar pores
duct

Alveoli
Alveolar
sac Fig. 22.9b

Fig 22.10 (left fig) SEM of Terminal bronchiole

capillary casts; (right fig) Respiratory bronchiole

Capillary-alveoli
relationships
Smooth
muscle
• 400 million within the lungs Elastic

• surrounded by elastic fibers (no fibers

Alveolus
smooth muscles) & capillaries;
Interconnected via alveolar pores Capillaries
Alveoli and the Respiratory Membrane Red blood
cell
Nucleus of type I
(squamous
epithelial) cell
Alveolar pores

Capillary
O2 Capillary
CO2
Macrophage Alveolus Fig.
Endothelial cell nucleus 22.10c
Alveolus
1 Alveolar epithelium
Respiratory 2 Fused basement
membrane membranes of the
alveolar epithelium
and the capillary
Red blood cell in capillary Type I cell of alveolar wall
endothelium
Alveoli (gas-filled Type II (surfactant-secreting) cell 3 Capillary endothelium
air spaces)
抗表面張力劑分泌
• Alveoli wall - squamous type I and cuboidal type II • Respiratory
alveolar cells + basal lamina; covered by capillaries membrane – 3
layers – gas
• Macrophages: remove inhaled particles; migrate into
exchange
bronchi
5th ed.
Fig. 21.11 Pleural Cavities and lungs
• A double-layered pleural sac
surrounding each lung - parietal 胸
膜 and visceral臟層 pleura
• pleural cavities around lung
surfaces – slitlike space; the
exception  pleural cavities
extend below the inferior lung
surface (Fig 22.13)
• Each lung is a blunt cone 鈍圓錐
• Pleurae 胸膜 help divide the with the tip or apex (extends into
thoracic cavity: the central the base of the neck above the 1st
mediastinum and 2 lateral rib); board concave凹面的 inferior
pleural cavities – pleural fluid portion, the base; on the left lung,
• Lungs in pleural cavities cardiac notch心切迹 - depression
lined by serous漿 membrane that accommodates the heart (Fig
22.13)
(pleura 壁層)
Lung Surfaces Apex of lung
Left lung
5th ed. Fig. 21.13b Fig. 22.11b
Pulmonary
artery

Left main
Left bronchus
superior lobe

Oblique Pulmonary
fissure vein

Left inferior Impression

lobe of heart

Hilum Oblique
fissure

Aortic
impression
Lobules

• costal (anterior, lateral and posterior surfaces of lungs;

contact the ribs) 肋,
• diaphragmatic (rests on the diaphragm, the base) 橫隔,
• mediastinal (medial): grooves for blood vessels, bronchi,
and nerves
Transverse Section through the Thorax
• the mediastinal surfaces - the hilum: bronchus,
pulmonary vessels, nerves, lymphatics – in & out
• the root of the lung [located anterior to vertebrae
T5 (right); T6 (left)] attach lung to mediastinum.
Vertebra Posterior Esophagus
(in mediastinum)
Root of lung
at hilum
Right lung T6 Left main bronchus
Left pulmonary
Parietal pleura artery
Left pulmonary vein
Visceral pleura
Left lung
Pleural cavity
Thoracic wall

Pulmonary trunk
Pericardial
membranes Heart (in mediastinum)
Anterior mediastinum
Sternum
Anterior
(d) Transverse section through the thorax at level of T6, viewed from above. Fig. 22.11d
Location of Lungs and the Pleural Cavities Supplement
Clavicle Fig. 22.13
Lung
Rib 3
Rib 4
8 5 Lung
Nipple
9 6
10 7

12 8
11 Parietal Midaxillary Parietal
Infrasternal
pleura line 9 pleura
angle at the
xiphisternal
10
joint
Midclavicular line Cardiac
Costal margin
(a) Posterior view (b) Anterior view notch

• Posteriorly, the inferior margin of the parietal pleura lies adjacent to T12
near the posterior midline and runs horizontally to reach rib 10 at the
midaxillary line. Anteriorly, the parietal pleura ascends to rib 8 in the
midclavicular line and to the level of the xiphisternal joint at anterior
midline.
• The inferior borders of the lungs are located 2 ribs superior to the
pleural margin; anteriorly, the lungs meet the pleural margin near the
xiphisternal joint 劍胸關節.
Lobes of the Lungs
5th ed. Fig. 21.13a

• The lungs have distinct lobes separated by deep fissures

• The right lung: 3 lobes; superior-- the horizontal fissure 水平
裂 -- middle -- the oblique fissure 斜裂 -- inferior
• The left lung: 2 lobes; superior -- the oblique fissure – inferior
• Each lobe is served by a lobar bronchus; contains 10
bronchopulmonary segments 支氣管肺段
Bronchopulmonary Segments Segments - Supplement
Apical
Superior lobe
Posterior Superior
Apical division
Anterior
Posterior
Anterior Superior
lingular
Middle lobe Lingular
Inferior division
Lateral lingular
Medial
Inferior lobe
Superior
Inferior lobe
Anterior basal
Superior
Anterior Lateral
basal basal Fig. 22.12 b
Lateral
basal
Right lung Left lung
Anterior view

• Each segment is supplied by its own tertiary bronchus and a

branch of a pulmonary artery and vein
• Each segment is surrounded by and isolated from other segments
by thin partitions of dense connective tissue (with small veins)
• The lingula is homologous to the middle lobe of the right lung
 Supplement
Bronchopulmonary Segments and the
Bronchial Tree

Fig. 22.12 a
 Supplement
Bronchial tree and Bronchopulmonary Segments
Right lung Left lung

Right
superior Left superior
lobe (3 lobe
segments) (4 segments)

• Secondary
Right
middle
(lobar) bronchi
lobe (2 → Tertiary
segments)
(segmental)
bronchi

Right Left inferior

inferior lobe lobe
(5 segments) (5 segments)
6th ed. Fig. 22.12
Pulmonary Lobules
• The connective tissue of the root extend into parenchyma
 fibrous partitions, or trabeculae小樑 : contain elastic
fibers, smooth muscles and lymphatics.
• trabeculae branch repeatedly;
• contain the branches of the conducting passageways,
pulmonary vessels and nerves;
• the terminal portions, septa divide the lung into lobules;
• each lobule is supplied by a bronchiole and the
branches of the pulmonary arteries (veins); lobules can
be seen with the naked eye.
• In smokers, connective tissue of lobules – blackened with
carbon
 Blood Supply and Innervation of the Lungs
• Pulmonary circulation: pulmonary arteries – deliver oxygen-poor blood
to the lungs; pulmonary veins – carry oxygenated blood to the heart
• Pulmonary trunk (Fig 20.7)  right & left pulmonary arteries 
lobar arteries  artery branches with air passageways 
capillaries around alveoli  -  superior & inferior pulmonary
veins Supplement
• VBA within lungs: Vein Before Artery; Vein Bronchus Artery
• Venous tributaries in connective tissue partitions between lobules
and segments
• bronchial arteries and veins enter and exit at hilum and within lungs
they lie on the branching bronchi – provide O2 and nutrients and drain
blood – lung tissue
• Innervation: Sympathetic, parasympathetic, and visceral sensory fibers
• Pulmonary plexus on the lung root (Fig 15.5); from there, nerve
fibers lie along the bronchial fibers and vessels
• Parasympathetic – constrict airways; sympathetic – dilate airways
Pulmonary Ventilation or Breathing
• pulmonary ventilation: the physical movement of air into and out of
the bronchial tree via inspiration (inhalation) & expiration
(exhalation)  maintain adequate alveolar ventilation  air into
and out of the alveoli
• Inspiration: Volume of thoracic cavity increases
• Decreases internal gas pressure
• Dome-shaped diaphragm flattens (phrenic nerve); external
intercostal muscles – contraction (intercostal nerve) - raises the
ribs
• external & internal intercostal muscles function together to stiffen
the thoracic wall
• Deep (forced) inspiration – thoracic volume: rib cage s elevated by
• Sternocleidomastoid 胸鎖乳突肌, scalenes 斜角肌, pectoralis
minor 胸小肌, and quadratus lumborum腰方肌(fix the 12th rib)
• Erector spinae 豎棘肌 – extends the back
 Changes in Thoracic
Volume 2-1

5th ed. Fig.

21.15a-c

Sequence of events Changes in anterior-posterior and Changes in lateral dimensions

1
Inspiratory muscles contract superior-inferior dimensions (superior view)
(diaphragm descends; rib cage Fig. 22.14 a
Ribs are elevated
rises).
and sternum flares
2 Thoracic cavity and pleural as external intercostals
Inspiration

cavity increase in volume. contract.

3
Lungs are stretched; lung
volume increases. External
intercostals
contract.
4
Air pressure in lungs
decreases.

5 Diaphragm moves inferiorly

Air (gases) flows into lungs. during contraction.
Expiration: Volume of thoracic cavity decreases
• Quiet expiration – chiefly a passive process
• Inspiratory muscles relax – rib cage drops
• Diaphragm moves superiorly
• Elastic fibers within the lungs recoil
• The volumes of the thorax and lungs decrease; increasing the
lung pressure and pushing the air out
• Forced expiration – an active process; contraction of:
• The oblique (internal and external) and transversus abdominis
muscles 腹斜與腹橫肌 1. to increase intra-abdominal
pressure forcing diaphragm superiorly and 2. sharply depress
the rib cage, decreasing thoracic volume
• The internal intercostal and latissimus dorsi背闊肌– also help
to depress the rib cage
 Fig. 22.14 b
Changes in Thoracic Volume 2-2
Sequence of events Changes in anterior-posterior and Changes in lateral dimensions
Inspiratory muscles relax superior-inferior dimensions (superior view)
1
(diaphragm rises; rib cage Ribs and
descends because of recoil of sternum are
costal cartilages). depressed as
external
2
intercostals
Exspiration

Thoracic cavity and pleural

cavity decrease in volume. relax.
3
Elastic lungs recoil passively; External
lung volume decreases. intercostals
relax.
4
Air pressure in lungs rises.

Diaphragm moves
5
superiorly as it
Air (gases) flows out of lungs.
relaxes.
Summary
• Organs of the respiratory system
• The skeletal framework of the external nose and the nasal cavity
(lateral and superior walls; its floor)
• Nasal conchae, meatus, hard and soft palate
• Nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx (regions & epith.)
• Anatomy (9 cartilages, ligaments) of the larynx
• Structures of the trachea, bronchial tree (1st, 2nd & 3rd bronchi)
• Structures of the respiratory zone (respiratory bronchiole ...)
• Structures of alveoli (alveolar cells) and the respiratory membrane
• Structures of the pleural cavity (parietal and visceral pleura)
• Structures of lungs (location and their surfaces), lobes, lobules
• Pulmonary ventilation (inspiration and expiration)
Supplement
Innervation of the Respiratory System
• The larynx, trachea, bronchial tree and lungs are under
autonomic control
• Sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers form the
pulmonary plexus which is a weblike network of nerve
fibers that surrounds the primary bronchi and enter the
lungs at the hilum
• Sympathetic stimulation results in bronchodilation
• Parasympathetic stimulation results in bronchoconstriction
• Laryngeal muscles – recurrent laryngeal nerves (branch of
vagus)
• Pulmonary ventilation – Quiet inspiration: dome-shaped
diaphragm flattens (phrenic nerve), external intercostal
muscles – contraction (intercostal nerve) - raises the ribs;
Quiet expiration – chiefly a passive process
 Lymphatic Drainage Supplement
• Lymph → lymphatic vessels → pulmonary lymph nodes
within the lungs; → bronchopulmonary lymph nodes at
the hilum of the lung; → tracheobronchial lymph nodes →
the left and right bronchomediastinal trunks
McKinley 2nd ed. Fig. 25.14