CLS 224

(Basic Anatomy & Physiology)

Lecture 7: The Respiratory System

Contents:
1. Functional Anatomy of the
Respiratory System
2. Respiratory Physiology
 1. Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory System

Objectives:
Name the organs forming the respiratory
Passageway from the nasal cavity to the alveoli of
the lungs (or identify them on a diagram or model),
and describe the function of each.

Describe several protective mechanisms of the

respiratory system.
 1. Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory System
Function of the Respiratory System:
Oversees gas exchanges (oxygen and carbon
dioxide) between the blood and external
environment.
Exchange of gasses takes place within the lungs in
the alveoli (only site of gas exchange, other
E
structures passageways). ‫• يحدث تبادل الغازات داخل الرئتني الحويصالت الهوائية‬
.(‫ وممرات الهياكل األخرى‬، ‫)موقع تبادل الغازات فقط‬

Passageways to the lungs purify, warm, and

humidify the incoming air. .‫تعمل املمرات املؤدية إلى الرئتني على تنقية الهواء الداخل وتدفئته وترطيبه‬

Shares responsibility with cardiovascular system.

Organs of the Respiratory system:
A. Upper Respiratory Tract
Nose & Nasal cavity
Pharynx
B. lower Respiratory Tract

Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Lungs –
alveoli

Copyright © 2016 by mcgraw-hill

The Nose:
The only externally
visible part of the
respiratory system
Air enters the nose
through the external
nares (nostrils)
The interior of the nose
consists of a nasal
cavity divided by a
nasal septum
The Nasal Cavity:
Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa
on the superior surface a
The rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory
mucosa
Moistens air
Traps incoming is
foreign particles
rests on a rich
network of thin-walled veins that warms the air
The Nasal Cavity:
Lateral walls have projections called
conchae
Increases surface area
sik
Increases air turbulence within the nasal
cavity
The nasal cavity is separated from the
oral cavity by the palate
a. Anterior hard palate (bone)
b. Posterior soft palate (muscle)
The Nose & Nasal Cavity :

as

A
r
Paranasal Sinuses:
Cavities within bones 1. Frontal bone
surrounding the nasal 2. Sphenoid bone
cavity
3. Ethmoid bone
4. Maxillary bone

r
Paranasal Sinuses:
Paranasal Sinuses:

Function of the sinuses:

1. Lighten the skull ur
2. Act as resonance chambers for speech

e
3. Produce mucus that drains into the nasal
cavity

I
Pharynx (Throat):
0
Muscular passage from nasal
cavity to larynx or
I
Three regions of the pharynx
1. Nasopharynx superior
region behind nasal cavity
2. Oropharynx middle region
behind mouth
3. Laryngopharynx inferior
region attached to larynx
The oropharynx and
laryngopharynx are common a
passageways for air and food
Structures of the Pharynx:
Auditory tubes enter the
nasopharynx
Tonsils of the pharynx
1. Pharyngeal tonsil
(adenoids) in the
nasopharynx
2. Palatine tonsils in
the oropharynx
3. Lingual tonsils at
the base of the
tongue
Larynx (Voice Box):
Routes air and food
into proper channels
Plays a role in
speech
Made of eight rigid
hyaline cartilages
and a spoon-shaped
flap of elastic
cartilage (epiglottis)
a
j
Structures of the Larynx:
Thyroid cartilage
Largest hyaline cartilage
Protrudes anteriorly
(Adam apple)
Epiglottis
Superior opening of the
larynx a
Routes food to the larynx
and air toward the
trachea
Structures of the Larynx:
Vocal cords
(vocal folds)
Vibrate with
expelled air to
create sound
I
(speech)
Glottis opening
between vocal
cords
Bo I
Copyright © 2016 by mcgraw-hill
Trachea (Windpipe):
Connects larynx with bronchi
length (10 12 cm) to the level of the fifth thoracic
vertebra, which is approximately midchest
Trachea (Windpipe):
Walls are reinforced with C-
shaped hyaline cartilage
serve a double purpose: u
1. The open parts (The
trachealis muscle) of the rings
abut the esophagus and
allow it to expand anteriorly
when we swallow a large
piece of food.
2. The solid portions support
the trachea walls and keep it
patent, or open, in spite of
the pressure changes that
occur during breathing.
Trachea (Windpipe):
Lined with ciliated mucosa
Beat continuously in the opposite direction of incoming air
Expel mucus loaded with dust and other debris away from
lungs ru
Primary ( Main) Bronchi:
Formed by division of the
trachea
Each main bronchus runs
obliquely
Enters the lung at the hilum
(medial depression)
Right bronchus is wider,
shorter,
o
and straighter than left
After entering the lungs, the
main Bronchi subdivide into
smaller and smaller
branches (Bronchial tree )
Lungs: ‫• تحتل معظم تجويف الصدر باستثناء املنصف‬

Occupy most of the thoracic cavity except

the mediastinum

D
(‫قمة بالقرب من الترقوة )الجزء العلوي‬

Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion)

Base rests on the diaphragm (inferior portion) v

20
07
Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures
1. Left lung two lobes
2. Right lung three lobes
Coverings of the Lungs

I
Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers
the lung surface
Parietal pleura lines the walls of the
thoracic cavity
Pleural fluid fills the area between
layers of pleura to allow gliding
Lungs

-
de

g
Lungs

E
442 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Intercostal muscle
Rib
Parietal pleura
Lung Pleural cavity
Trachea Visceral pleura
Thymus

Apex of lung
Left
superior lobe
Right superior lobe
Oblique
Horizontal fissure fissure
Right middle lobe Left inferior
lobe
Oblique fissure
Right inferior lobe
Heart
(in pericardial cavity
of mediastinum)
Diaphragm
Base of lung
(a) Anterior view. The lungs flank mediastinal structures laterally.

Posterior
Vertebra Esophagus
(in posterior mediastinum)
Root of lung
at hilum
Right lung

Parietal pleura

Visceral pleura
I
Left lung
Pleural cavity
Thoracic wall

Pulmonary trunk
Pericardial
membranes Heart (in mediastinum)
Anterior mediastinum
Sternum
Anterior
(b) Transverse section through the thorax, viewed from above.
Practice art labeling
Figure 13.4 Anatomical relationships of organs in the thoracic cavity.
>Study Area>Chapter 13
In (b), the size of the pleural (and pericardial) cavity is exaggerated for clarity.
Lungs
O

pop
Respiratory (Bronchial) Tree Divisions:
1. Primary bronchi All but the smallest branches
have reinforcing cartilage in
2. Secondary bronchi their walls.

3. Tertiary bronchi
J

Bronchioles: Smallest
4. Bronchioli branches of the bronchi
5. Terminal bronchioli
lead into

respiratory zone
Respiratory (Bronchial) Tree Divisions:
O

Q
p
y

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The respiratory zone:
even smaller conduits that eventually terminate
in alveoli (alveol = small cavity), or air sacs.
Includes: 2
Alveoli:
Gas exchange

1. the respiratory bronchioles, I

There are millions of the
clustered alveoli
2. alveolar ducts, resemble bunches of
grapes
3. alveolar sacs, they make up the bulk of
4. and alveoli, the lungs.

E
is the only site of gas exchange.
All other respiratory passages are conducting zone
structures that serve as conduits to and from the
respiratory zone.
The respiratory zone:

so
Respiratory Membrane (Air-Blood Barrier):
Thin squamous epithelial layer lining alveolar walls
Pulmonary capillaries cover external surfaces of
alveoli ‫• طبقة طالئية رقيقة حرشفية تبطن الجدران السنخية • الشعيرات الدموية الرئوية تغطي األسطح الخارجية للحويصالت الهوائية‬

Gas Exchange:
Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by simple
diffusion ‫• يعبر الغاز الغشاء التنفسي عن طريق االنتشار البسيط‬

Oxygen enters the blood

Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
Macrophages dust cells add protection
Surfactant coats lipid (fat) molecule, gas-exposed
alveolar surfaces ‫• يكسو الفاعل بالسطح جزيء الدهن )الدهن( واألسطح السنخية املعرضة للغاز‬
Respiratory Membrane (Air-Blood Barrier)

E
 2. Respiratory Physiology

Objectives:
Define cellular respiration, external
respiration,internal respiration, pulmonary
ventilation,expiration,and inspiration.

Explain how the respiratory muscles cause Volume

changes that lead to air flow into and out of the
lungs (breathing).
 2. Respiratory Physiology

Mechanics of Breathing
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
Non-respiratory Air Movements
Respiratory Sounds
External Respiration, Gas Transport, &
Internal Respiration
Control of Respiration
Events of Respiration:
1. Pulmonary ventilation moving air in and
out of the lungs
2. External respiration gas exchange
EE.to

between pulmonary blood and alveoli

3. Respiratory gas transport transport of
oxygen and carbon dioxide via the
bloodstream
o
4. Internal respiration gas exchange between
blood and tissue cells in systemic capillaries
Mechanics of Breathing (Pulmonary Ventilation):
I w
Completely mechanical process cS
Depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity

T
Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which
lead to the flow of gases to equalize pressure

Two phases:
1. Inspiration (inhalation) flow of air into lung
II
2. Expiration (exhalation) air leaving lung
Inspiration (inhalation):
Diaphragm and intercostal muscles
contract
The size of the thoracic cavity increases
External air is pulled into the lungs due to
an increase in intrapulmonary volume
Inspiration (inhalation):

I
Expiration (exhalation):
Largely a passive process which depends
on natural lung elasticity
it
As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the
lungs
Forced expiration can occur mostly by
contracting internal intercostal muscles
to depress the rib cage
Expiration (exhalation):
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities:
Normal breathing moves about 500 ml of air with
each breath (Respiratory Volumes= tidal volume
[TV])
Many factors that affect respiratory capacity:
r A per on i e
Sex a
Age
Physical condition

D
Residual volume of air after exhalation, about
F I
1200 ml of air remains in the lungs
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities:

E
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
Amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over
the tidal volume
Usually between 2100 and 3200 ml
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled

0
Approximately 1200 ml
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities:
Vital capacity:
The total amount of exchangeable air
Vital capacity = TV + IRV + ERV
Else
Dead space volume:
0
Air that remains in conducting zone and never reaches
alveoli
About 150 ml
Functional volume:
Air that actually reaches the respiratory zone
Usually about 350 ml
Respiratory capacities are measured with a
spirometer
Respiratory Capacities
448 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology
6,000
5,000
4,000
Milliliters (ml)
3,000
Tidal volume 500 ml
2,000
1,000
0
Figure 13.9 Idealized tracing of the various respiratory volumes
of a healthy young adult male.
Did You Get It?
7. What is the most basic function of respiration?
8. What causes air to flow out of the lungs during
expiration?
(For answers, see Appendix D.)
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
13-7 Define the following respiratory volumes: tidal
volume, vital capacity, expiratory reserve volume,
inspiratory reserve volume, and residual air.
13-8 Name several nonrespiratory air movements,
and explain how they modify or differ from nor-
mal respiratory air movements.
Many factors affect respiratory capacity—for exam-
ple, a person’s size, sex, age, and physical condition.
Normal quiet breathing moves approximately 500 ml
of air (about a pint) into and out of the lungs with
each breath (see Figure 13.8b). This respiratory vol-
ume is referred to as the tidal volume (TV).
As a rule, a person can inhale much more air
than is taken in during a normal, or tidal, breath.
The amount of air that can be taken in forcibly
over the tidal volume is the inspiratory reserve
volume (IRV). Normally, the inspiratory reserve
volume is around 3,100 ml.
Similarly, after a normal expiration, more air
can be exhaled. The amount of air that can be forc-
ibly exhaled after a tidal expiration, the expiratory
reserve volume (ERV), is approximately 1,200 ml.
Even after the most strenuous expiration,
about 1,200 ml of air still remains in the lungs,
and it cannot be voluntarily expelled. This is the
Inspiratory
reserve volume
3,100 ml
Vital
capacity
4,800 ml Total lung
capacity
Expiratory 6,000 ml
reserve volume
1,200 ml
Residual volume
1,200 ml
residual volume. Residual volume air is impor-
tant because it allows gas exchange to go on con-
tinuously even between breaths and helps to keep
the alveoli open (inflated).
The total amount of exchangeable air (around
4,800 ml in healthy young men and 3,100 ml in
healthy young women) is the vital capacity (VC).
The vital capacity is the sum of the TV + IRV +
ERV. (Respiratory volumes of a male are summarized
in Figure 13.9).
Note that much of the air that enters the respira-
tory tract remains in the conducting zone passage-
ways and never reaches the alveoli. This is called
the dead space volume, and during a normal tidal
breath, it amounts to about 150 ml. The functional
volume—air that actually reaches the respiratory zone
and contributes to gas exchange—is about 350 ml.
Respiratory capacities are measured with a spi-
rometer (spi-rom′ĕ-ter). As a person breathes, the
volumes of air exhaled can be read on an indicator,
which shows the changes in air volume inside the
apparatus. Spirometer testing is useful for evaluating
losses in respiratory functioning and in following
the course of some respiratory diseases. In pneu-
monia, for example, inspiration is obstructed and
the IRV and VC decrease. In emphysema, where ex-
piration is hampered, the ERV is much lower than
normal, and the residual volume is higher.
Nonrespiratory Air Movements
Many situations other than breathing move air into
or out of the lungs and may modify the normal re-
spiratory rhythm. Coughs and sneezes clear the air
Non-respiratory Air Movements:
Can be caused by reflexes or voluntary
actions
Examples:
Cough and sneeze clears lungs of debris
Laughing
!

Crying
"

Yawn
Hiccup
Respiratory Sounds:

Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope

A. Bronchial sounds produced by air ‫ تصدر عن الهواء املندفع عبر‬-‫أصوات الشعب الهوائية‬
‫القصبة الهوائية والشعب الهوائية‬

rushing through trachea and bronchi

B. Vesicular breathing sounds soft sounds of
air filling alveoli ‫ أصوات خفيفة من الهواء الذي يمأل الحويصالت الهوائية‬- ‫ أصوات التنفس الحويصلي‬-‫ب‬
External Respiration:
Oxygen movement into the blood

If
The alveoli always has more oxygen than the
blood
Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the area of
lower concentration
Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen
‫• يكتسب الدم الشعري الرئوي األكسجني‬ O
External Respiration:
Carbon dioxide movement out of the
blood
Blood returning from 5tissues has higher
concentrations of carbon dioxide than air in
the alveoli
Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon
dioxide
Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen-rich
and carbon dioxide-poor
7
Gas Transport in the Blood:
Oxygen transport in Carbon dioxide
the blood transport in the blood
Inside red blood cells Most is transported in
attached to the plasma as
bicarbonate ion
hemoglobin

j
(HCO3 )
(oxyhemoglobin
[HbO2]) A small amount is
carried inside red blood
A small amount is cells on hemoglobin, but
carried dissolved in at different binding sites
the plasma than those of oxygen
v
Internal Respiration:
Exchange of gases between blood and body
cells
An opposite reaction toFEIwhat occurs in the
lungs
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue to blood
Oxygen diffuses from blood into tissue
Internal Respiration:
External
Respiration, Gas
Transport, and
Internal
Respiration
Summary
Neural Regulation of Respiration:
‫• ينتقل نشاط عضالت الجهاز التنفسي إلى الدماغ عن طريق العصب الحجابي والعصب الوربي‬

Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted to

the brain by the phrenic and intercostal nerves

located in the medulla 0002

Neural centers that control rate and depth are
‫تقع املراكز العصبية التي تتحكم في املعدل والعمق في النخاع‬

a
The pons appears to smooth out respiratory rate
‫• يبدو أن الجسر يخفف من معدل التنفس‬

a
Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) is 12 15
respirations per minute ً 15-12 ‫( هو‬eupnea) ‫• معدل التنفس الطبيعي‬
‫نفسا في الدقيقة‬

Hypernia is increased respiratory rate often due to

extra oxygen needs
‫‪Neural Regulation of Respiration:‬‬

‫‪E‬‬
‫تؤدي النبضات العصبية املتدفقة من النخاع إلى تقلص عضالت الشهيق‪.‬‬

‫‪E‬‬ ‫‪E‬‬

‫‪o‬‬ ‫‪O‬‬
Non-neural Factors Influencing Respiratory
Rate and Depth:
1. Physical factors
Increased body temperature
Exercise
Talking
Coughing
2. Volition (conscious control)
3. Emotional factors
Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate and Depth:
4. Chemical factors
a. Carbon dioxide levels
‫• مستوى ثاني أكسيد الكربون في الدم هو املادة الكيميائية التنظيمية الرئيسية للتنفس‬

Level of carbon dioxide in the blood is the main regulatory

chemical for respiration
Increased carbon dioxide increases respiration
Changes in carbon dioxide act directly on the medulla
oblongata
‫التغييرات في ثاني أكسيد الكربون تعمل مباشرة على‬
‫النخاع املستطيل‬

b. Oxygen levels ‫• الكشف عن التغيرات في تركيز األكسجني في الدم عن طريق املستقبالت الكيميائية في الشريان األورطي والشريان السباتي‬

Changes in oxygen concentration in the blood are detected

by chemoreceptors in the aorta and carotid artery
e
Information is sent to the medulla oblongata
Respiratory Rate Changes Throughout
Life:
Newborns 40 to 80 respirations per
minute
Infants 30 respirations per minute
Age 5 25 respirations per minute
Adults 12 to 18 respirations per minute
Rate often increases somewhat with old
age
Aging Effects:
Elasticity of lungs decreases
Vital capacity decreases
Blood oxygen levels decrease
Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
decreases
More risks of respiratory tract infection
References: