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Shreya Agarwal Shreya Agarwal

Akshay Thakur Akshay Thakur
AP Chemistry Cheat Sheet Unit 2: Molecular and Ionic Compound Structure and Properties

Unit 1: Atomic Structures and Properties Polar bonds:

● 2 different atoms have different electronegativities, so they have different pulls on the
Avogadro’s number — 6.022 × 10​23​ mol​-1 shared electrons, so the electrons are not shared equally → polar bond
● Aka number of particles/atoms/molecules in one mole Non-polar bonds:
Atomic mass units (amu)​ : mass of an individual atom or molecule
● Two same atoms will form a nonpolar bond since they have the same pull on shared
● Average mass of 1 particle (atom or molecule) or formula unit of a substance = molar
electrons → electrons are shared equally → nonpolar bond
mass of that substance in grams.
Polar Covalent bonds:
● quantitative connection between mass and the # of particles that the substance contains.
Mass Spectroscopy of Elements ● In a polar covalent bond, the atom that has a greater electronegativity value will have a
● The mass spectrum of a sample of a single element can be used to determine the identity partial negative charge
of the isotopes of that element and the relative abundance of each isotope in nature. ● Greater the difference in electronegativity between the 2 atoms bonded → the more polar
● An element’s amu can be estimated from the weighted average of the isotopic masses the bond is
using the mass of each isotope and its relative abundance. Covalent Bonds:
Atomic Structure and Electron Configuration ● Two nonmetal atoms bonded
● Aufbau Principle: electrons are added to the lowest subshells first ● Not a good conductor
● Hund’s Rule: Each orbital should have one electron before any are doubled up ○ Low melting point
● Effective Nuclear Charge: net positive charge experienced by valence electrons. It can be
Ionic Bonds:
calculated by Zeff = Z – S
○ Z : atomic #, S : # of shielding (core) electrons ● Metal and nonmetal
Photoelectron Spectroscopy ○ Not a conductor as a solid, but is great conductor when either melted or dissolved
● energies of the electrons in a given shell can be measured in water
● position of each peak – Energy required to remove an electron from the corresponding ○ High melting point
subshell ○ Brittle, crystalline
● height of each peak – # of electrons in that subshell Metallic Bonds:
● Photoelectric Effect: the emission, or ejection, of electron from the surface of, generally, ● Metal atoms form a crystal lattice structure with positive nuclei and core electrons,
a metal in response to incident light valence electrons are delocalized so they are free to move → good conductor
● greater binding energy = electrons are closer to the nucleus ○ Electron sea model and delocalized electrons
Periodic Trends ● Alloys:
● Zeff or effective nuclear charge is determined by the amount of protons and pulls ○ Substitutional: one element takes another's place in the lattice structure
electrons closer to the nucleus ○ Interstitial: one element fits within the spaces between another element in the
● Ionization Energy: energy required to remove an electron lattice structure
● Electron Affinity: The amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral
Intramolecular Forces: forces that hold individual molecules together
atom
● Electronegativity: ability to attract electrons towards itself and to attract shared electrons Coulomb's Law:
to itself ● Calculates force between 2 charged particles
● Higher charge and smaller radius means stronger force
● Closer the charges are to each other, the stronger the force

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Shreya Agarwal Shreya Agarwal

Akshay Thakur
Potential Energy:
● When bonded atoms separate, PE ↑ because energy must be added to overcome the
coulombic attraction between each nucleus and shared e– s
Bond Length:
● Increases as you go down a group because atomic radius increases, so the distance
between the 2 atoms is greater
Bond Energy:
● Decreases down a column because atomic radius increases, the distance between 2 atoms
increases, so coulombic attractions are weaker → less energy required to break the bond
Bond Order:
● As bond order increases, bond length decreases and bond energy increases
● To calculate, add up total number of bonding pairs and divide by number of bonds
Lattice Energy:
● How much energy is required to completely separate a mole of solid ionic compound into
its gaseous ions
○ Lattice energy increases when the charge on the ions increases and when the size
of the ions decreases
Formal charge of atom: (# of valence electrons) - (# of lone electrons) - (# of bonds)
● Formal charges closer to 0 are more stable and show a preferred distribution of e-s
Hybridization:
● Occurs when atomic orbitals mix to form “hybrid” orbitals to produce a set of equivalent
hybrid orbitals
● Hybridization only depends on lone pairs and bonds on central atom
● Central atom is least electronegative
○ A double bond or triple bond still only counts as one bond
● To determine hybridization of an atom in a molecule: Count each pairing bond(if its
double/triple bond, it still counts as one) and nonpairs
● sp hybridization - 1 s and 1 p orbital hybridizes
○ Present in atoms with only 2 electron regions
○ 180°-Bond Angle
● sp2 hybridization - 1 s and 2 p orbitals hybridize
○ Present in atoms with 3 electron regions
○ 120°-Bond Angle
● sp3 hybridization - 1 s and 3 p orbitals hybridize
○ Present in atoms with 4 electron regions
○ 109.5°-Bond Angle
Akshay Thakur
Unit 3: Intermolecular Forces and Properties
Intermolecular Forces
● Determines the physical properties(g, l, s) of molecular(covalent) liquids and solids
● “Forces”, NOT “bonds” ; WEAKER than ionic/covalent bonds
Types of IMFs
● Ion-Induced Dipole: force of attraction between charged ion and nonpolar molecule
● Dipole-induced dipole: force of attraction between polar and nonpolar molecule
● Ion-Dipole Forces (IDF): Between an ion and a partial charge on the end of a polar
molecule
● Dipole-Dipole Forces (DDF): Medium force, Between neutral polar molecules, as dipole
moment (polarity) increases, DDF increases
● London Dispersion Forces (LDF) (induced dipole-induced dipole): Weak force, between
ALL molecules and the ONLY forces between nonpolar molecules, as molar mass
increases, LDF increases. This because they have a larger electron cloud which increases
the amount of forces in the atom, so they are more polarizable
● Hydrogen bonding forces: Strong force, special type of DDF (stronger than regular
DDF), between H (bonded with F/O/N) and F/O/N (of the other molecule)
Properties of Solids
● Covalent Network solids: high melting points, insoluble, hard to break or deform, held
together by covalent bonds, usually do not conduct electricity as a solid
● Equilibrium Vapor pressure: when the rate of evaporation equals rate of condensation in
a closed container
Ideal Gas Law
● PV = nRT
● Gas Stoichiometry
○ Molar volume: volume/mole gas at STP; 22.4 L/mol
○ STP: 273 K (0.0°C and 1.0 atm); conditions of an ideal gas
○ Density: DRT/P=Molar Mass
● Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures: The pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the
pressures of the different components of the mixture
Kinetic Molecular Theory
● Postulates
○ Gases are composed of a large number of particles that behave like hard, spherical
objects in a state of constant, random motion.
○ These particles move in a straight line until they collide with another particle or
the walls of the container.
○ These particles are much smaller than the distance between particles. Most of the
volume of a gas is therefore empty space.

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Shreya Agarwal Shreya Agarwal

Akshay Thakur
○ There is no force of attraction between gas particles or between the particles and
the walls of the container.
○ Collisions between gas particles or collisions with the walls of the container are
perfectly elastic. None of the energy of a gas particle is lost when it collides with
another particle or with the walls of the container.
○ The average kinetic energy of a collection of gas particles depends on the
temperature of the gas and nothing else.
● Statements 2,3,6 are untrue in real gases as molecules have finite volume and do exert
forces on each other
● Temperature: measure of the average KE of the particles of matter; can also be thought of
as an index of random motions of the particles
● Diffusion: mixing of gases
● Effusion: passage of a gas through a tiny orifice into an evacuated chamber
Solubility
● Solute: the compound that dissolves in solution
● Solvent: the compound that dissolves the Solute
● Miscible = soluble
● Polarity: “Like dissolves Like” → Polar dissolves Polar best, nonpolar with nonpolar.
○ *This does not mean that polar cannot dissolve in nonpolar
Akshay Thakur
Unit 4: Chemical Reactions
Physical Change:
● Occurs when a substance undergoes a change in properties but not a change in
composition, ie. changes in the phase of a substance, formation/separation of mixtures of
substances
Chemical Change:
● Occurs when a substance is transformed into new substances with different compositions,
ie. introduction of heat/light, formation of gas, precipitate is formed when mixing 2
aqueous substances, and color change
● Dissolution can be considered physical and/or chemical
Percent Yield: actual yield/theoretical yield x 100%
Titration:
● Titrant - Solution of known concentration
● Analyte - Solution of unknown concentration
● Equivalence point - Point at which the amount of titrant added to analyte results in
perfect
● neutralization
● Indicator - a substance added at the beginning of the titration that changes color at the
● equivalence point
● Endpoint - the point at which the indicator changes color
Oxidation-Reduction (redox) reactions:
● 1 or more electrons are transferred in a reaction
● Oxidation: increased oxidation states (lost electrons, charge increased)
● Reduction: decreased oxidation states (gained electrons, charge decreased)
● In general, metals tend to get oxidized because they “want” to lose electrons to get octets
● Nonmetals tend to get reduced as they “want” to gain electrons to get octets
Oxidizing Agent: is reduced
Reducing Agent: is oxidized
OIL RIG: oxidation is loss of electrons, reduction is gain of electrons

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Shreya Agarwal
Akshay Thakur
Unit 6: Thermodynamics

Endothermic and Exothermic Processes

● Endothermic: substance absorbs energy from the surroundings, causing vessel to become
colder
● Exothermic: substance releases energy into its surroundings, causing vessel to become
warmer
Energy Diagrams

Heat Capacity and Calorimetry

● q = mc​ΔT
● q = heat, m = mass, C = specific heat, ΔT = change in temperature
● Heat capacity is the energy needed to raise the temperature by one degree J/K or J/C
(specific = raise one gram of substance)
● 1st law of thermodynamics = conservation of energy
Enthalpy of Reaction
● Enthalpy change represents amount of heat released/absorbed at constant pressure
● Bond energy/bond enthalpy are interchangeable
Bond Enthalpies
● The average energy required to break all of the bonds in the reactant molecules can be
estimated by adding up the average bond energies of all the bonds in the reactant
molecules. Likewise, the average energy released in forming the bonds in the product
molecules can be estimated. If the energy released is greater than the energy required, the
reaction is exothermic. If the energy required is greater than the energy released, the
reaction is endothermic.
Enthalpy of Formation
● Enthalpy of Formation (ΔHf): enthalpy change for the formation of 1 mol of a compound
from its component elements
● Hess’s Law: states that if a reaction can be described as a series of steps, then ΔH for the
overall reaction is simply the sum of the ΔH values for all the steps

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