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Chapter 07 - Marine Animals Without a Backbone
Chapter 07
Marine Animals Without a Backbone
1. Animals, all members of the kingdom Animalia, are characterized by all of the following
except one:
A. They can be eukaryotic and mutlicellular
B. Most are multicellular
C. Some are autotrophs
D. Some lack a backbone
E. Some are eukaryotic and unicellular
2. Which of the following type of cells and structures of sponges does not match the
function?
A. Collar cells — calcareous structures for support
B. Osculum — opening through which water leaves
C. Pore cells — opening through which water enters
D. Spongin — fibers for support
E. Gametes — reproduction
7-1
Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 07 - Marine Animals Without a Backbone
4. Sponges and all filter feeders use the following as a food source:
A. Invertebrates only
B. All particulate matter suspended in water
C. Particulate matter that deposits on the bottom only
D. Dead vertebrates
E. Vegetable matter only in the water
7-2
Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 07 - Marine Animals Without a Backbone
9. Free-floating cnidarians like jellyfish are referred to as having a ___________ type form.
A. Polyp
B. Benthic
C. Bilateral
D. Medusa
E. Asexual
11. In a bilaterally symmetrical animal, which of the following is not correctly paired?
A. Dorsal surface -upper surface
B. Anterior surface -head
C. Posterior surface -rear end
D. Ventral surface -brain
12. The development of bilateral symmetry in invertebrates has particularly influenced the
evolution of a more complex:
A. Digestive system
B. Reproductive system
C. Skeleton
D. Mouth
E. Nervous system
7-3
Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 07 - Marine Animals Without a Backbone
15. One group of parasites of fishes, seabirds, and other marine animals is:
A. Flukes
B. Turbellarians
C. Comb jellies
D. Ribbon worms
E. Segmented worms
7-4
Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 07 - Marine Animals Without a Backbone
7-5
Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 07 - Marine Animals Without a Backbone
26. The radula and crystalline style of molluscs are part of their:
A. Reproductive system
B. Defensive mechanisms
C. Excretory system
D. Nervous system
E. Digestive system
7-6
Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 07 - Marine Animals Without a Backbone
7-7
Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 07 - Marine Animals Without a Backbone
7-8
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McGraw-Hill Education.
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in the same manner. The gravity piece was held fast between two
such surfaces. None of the pieces were permitted to be touched by
hand while an observation was being made. If now one of these
pieces were loosened the millionth of an inch, the gravity piece
would slide slowly down. If loosened two millionths of an inch, the
gravity piece would descend twice as fast, and so on. I made a
design for the application of this system to the correction of the
dividing-wheel, so that a difference of pitch of one millionth of an inch
could be shown and removed, the gravity piece being made to
descend at the same rate of motion to whatever tooth it might be
applied. I thought Mr. Whitworth would be interested in this novel and
important application of his method, and I showed it to him. This was
the encouraging and patronizing reply I received: “You had better
inform yourself, sir, about what already exists. You will find a perfect
dividing-wheel in my shop. What do you want better than that?” This
wheel had divided my governor gear patterns, but spindles wabbling
loose in their holes accounted for most of their defects.
The above recital is sufficient to show the conditions by which I
found myself surrounded and the kind of man I had to deal with.
It may be supposed that when my agreement with Mr. Whitworth
was concluded, the disappointment I had experienced on the
stoppage of Ormerod, Grierson & Co. was quite relieved. But that
does not express it. In fact, my revulsion of feeling could hardly be
described. I believed that I had met a piece of good fortune that was
unparalleled. I had got into the most famous machine-shop in the
world, a shop in which in years gone by had been originated almost
everything then regarded as most essential in machine construction.
No one had ever before introduced anything into that shop. Its
business, in its various departments, was confined to the
manufacture of Mr. Whitworth’s own creations. I should never have
dreamed of such a thing as getting into it. That I was there, and had
been received so cordially, bewildered me. I could scarcely believe it.
I knew also that Mr. Whitworth’s name was a tower of strength. His
influence with the public at large respecting everything mechanical
seemed really that of a magician. I felt that the fact that the
manufacture of my engine and governor had been taken up by Mr.
Whitworth placed them on an eminence at once.
I was conscious also that I was quite prepared to improve this
opportunity, grand as it seemed to be. The engine had been
abundantly proved. The success of the condenser I felt sure of, a
confidence that was found to have been fully justified. Everything on
my part was in readiness. The drawings and patterns for several
sizes of the engines were complete. I was certainly excusable for
anticipating that I should enter at once upon a rapidly growing and
prosperous business.
With my rude awakening from this “dream of bliss” the reader has
already been made acquainted. The causes which had brought
these works, so far as their machine-tool department was
concerned, down from such a height of excellence as they must for a
long time have occupied, to such a depth of ignorance and
helplessness as existed on my entrance into them, I never fully
knew. I heard that some years before there had been an extensive
strike in the works, and that Mr. Whitworth had discharged a large
body of skilled workmen and had filled their places with laborers.
They had a pretty large drawing-office—empty. I was told that until a
short time before my coming they had kept one draftsman employed,
but no one paid any attention to his drawings. Mr. Widdowson
regarded them merely as suggestions, and he and the foreman
pattern-maker altered them as they liked, and finally the farce of
having drawings made at all was abandoned. It was not found
difficult to run these closely shut works for a long time on their
reputation.
The state of affairs was distressing enough. The few engines that
we could manage to finish we could only build, in many of their parts,
on new lathes, which were used by them as long as they dared to,
before sending them to their owners. But I kept up a brave heart. At
any rate the personal influence of Mr. Whitworth remained. Indeed I
already saw its value in many ways. Then the pattern-shop, foundry
and smith-shop were equal to our requirements, and I felt confident
that Mr. Hoyle could induce Mr. Whitworth to have the improvements
and changes made, especially in the lathes and boring-machines,
which would make it possible for us to do the work. Mr. Hoyle had
become famous in the shop as the only man who had ever been
able to influence Mr. Whitworth. He had lately given a striking
example of his power. Mr. Whitworth was, years before, the designer
of the box frame, which gave to many machine tools a rigidity
incomparably superior to that which could be got by any method of
ribbing. This box system was then established in universal use, both
in England and on the Continent. Not long before my coming Mr.
Whitworth had been looking into the cost of the cores that these box
forms required, and concluded that he could not allow such an
expense any longer, and ordered a return to the method of ribbing.
The superintendent and foremen, to whom this order was
communicated, were amazed at so ruinous and indeed insane a
step. No one else dared to open his mouth; but Mr. Hoyle undertook
the task of dissuading him from it, and after a long struggle finally
succeeded in inducing him to rescind his order. So I confidently
looked to him for the salvation of the engine.
Then suddenly a new trouble arose. After a delay of some months,
the agreement between Mr. Whitworth and myself, reduced to writing
by his solicitor, was put into my hands for signature. I found that it
corresponded with our verbal agreement, except that Mr. Whitworth
reserved to himself the right to make alterations in the engine, in any
respect whatever, in his discretion. To say that I hesitated about
signing such an abandonment would not be true; I never thought of
such a thing as signing it. Mr. Whitworth was probably the only man
in the world who would have thought of making such a demand, and
was certainly the last man in the world to whom it should be granted.
The first thing he would probably have done would have been to
make the crank and cross-head pins run in solid bearings. I had
regarded his talk about “the perfect steam-engine” at our first
interview as idle words; but here was the provision for giving these
words effect. Indeed, he now assured me that the opening to his
scheme afforded by my engine formed his inducement for taking it
up, and that he expected me to understand that from what he then
said. Here was a situation! I knew that in the multifarious excursions
of his restless mind the steam-engine had never been included.
These excursions seemed to have led in all directions except that.
About the steam-engine and its “fundamental principles,” except
those constructive principles that it had in common with all
machines, I was sure he had not the least idea. The scheme was
childish. I could only think of the little boy who wanted a penny to go
down-town. “What are you going to buy?” said his amused father. “I
don’t know; shall see something I want when I get there.” This
seemed to me, and correctly as I afterwards became satisfied, to
represent Mr. Whitworth’s “open-mindedness” on this subject.
Now, Mr. Whitworth was the most dangerous man possible to be
entrusted with such a power. He could not work with anybody else.
His disposition was despotic. He looked only for servile obedience to
his orders. Besides this, he had no conception of the law of growth.
In his own mind he had anchored both tool construction and gunnery
where they were to remain forever, and he purposed to do the same
thing with the steam-engine, as soon as he should have time to
attend to it.
So our agreement never was executed. I confidently expected him
to yield on this point, which I was settled that I would never do, and I
found in the end that he as confidently expected me to yield, which
he was settled that he would never do. Meanwhile we got along on a
modus vivendi plan, which could only last through an emergency,
and during which, of course, nothing could be done towards settling
the business on a substantial foundation. The emergency in this
case was getting through the Paris Exposition. Before coming to
that, however, I have something else to relate.
We received an order from Pooley & Son, proprietors of the India
Mills, Manchester, for a horizontal condensing engine to drive the
machinery of their blowing-room, that in which the cotton is opened
and cleaned and receives its first carding operations. The growth of
their business had made it necessary for them to increase their
power, which they planned to do by driving this portion of their
machinery separately. This engine was interesting for two reasons. It
was the first engine ordered in England to which my horizontal
condenser was applied, and it was the first mill engine in England
from which the power was transmitted by a belt.
My business was transacted entirely with the younger Mr. Pooley,
who seemed to be the practical head of the concern. Our first
meeting has remained vivid in my recollection, as illustrating the
English brusqueness of manner.
Calling at his office in response to an invitation by post, I was met
on opening the door after the call “come in” by the abrupt question,
“What do you want?” I was not wholly unused to this kind of greeting
and so told him who I was and what I wanted, when of course his
manner changed at once. We became very good friends, and should
he be living and this meet his eye, I send him my salutation.
We had quite a discussion on the question of a belt. I urged it, and
he would not listen to it. My statement that belts were used
exclusively in cotton-mills in America had no influence. I discovered
that it makes all the difference in the world who tells a thing. After he
had, as we both supposed, made his final decision to follow the
universal custom and employ gearing, he happened to meet his
friend Mr. Hetherington, the same man already mentioned in
connection with the Harrison boiler. Mr. Hetherington had just
returned from a trip to “the States,” and had visited the Lowell and
Lawrence cotton-mills, and this was part of their conversation:
“Did you see anywhere power taken from a prime mover by a
belt?”
“I did not see anything else.”
“Is that so? This is just what Porter told me, but I could not credit it.
Did they seem to give satisfaction?”
“That is what every one assured me. They would not use anything
else.”
And so I received an order for a belt, 24 inches wide, to be
imported from America, with the clamps, rivets, and cement needed
to put it on endless, an operation of which no workman in England
had any idea, so I had to do it myself. I sent the order to Mr. Allen to
be placed, and received quite promptly a carefully selected belt, of
hides of uniform thickness, which gave the highest satisfaction.
The following is a copy of the bill for the first American belt ever
sent to England. I included an order for a side of lace leather, to
enable them to try the American style of lacing belts. This leather is
horse hide, their sheep-skin lacing would not be strong enough.
I put this belt on quite loose. The bottom side was the tight one,
and the upper side hung in a loop nearly three feet deep. This
exhibited the uniform running of the engine in a striking manner. As
is well known, variations of speed produce waves in such a loop, the
height of which waves indicates the amount of these variations. This
belt hung motionless. The most careful observations on the loop did
not indicate that it was running at all. The engine had no fly-wheel;
the belt drum, 10 feet in diameter, served this purpose also. This
showed the value in this respect of high speed, 150 turns per minute.
This absolute uniformity of motion surprised me, I knew nothing
about the equalizing action of the reciprocating parts of the engine,
to which this remarkable result was largely due. I was then absorbed
in balancing, which was as far as I had advanced, and in this case,
as previously in the governor, I “had builded better than I knew.”
The accompanying diagrams are from a duplicate of the Pooley
engine built at the same time for a Mr. Adams, a paper-maker in the
north of England. This engine was directly connected to the line of
shaft. I was called home from Paris to go to Mr. Adams’ mill and start
that engine. Mr. Adams’ mill was not yet connected, and I was
obliged to return to Paris after taking friction diagrams, of which the
following are examples.
ATMOSPHERE
SCALE, 16 LBS. TO 1 INCH
ATMOSPHERE
SCALE, 16 LBS. TO 1 INCH