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(With Introduction to Green House Effect)
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• Computer Aided Design S.C. Arora
• Statistical Quality Control M. Mahajan
\.
• Workshop Practice Manual V.K. Kapoor
• Operations Research B. Bhowmik
• Computer Aided Design A.K. Tyagi
• A Textbook of Metrology M. Mahajan
• Practical Assignments for Engg. Workshop Surendra Kumar; Umesh Chandra
• Vibration and Noise for Engineers Kewal K. Pujara
• A Course in Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation A.K. Sawhney
• A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics (for Diploma)
• Work Study & Ergonomics
• Entrepreneurship for Engineers
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• Strength of Materials
Mechanical Vibration
• Principles of Materials Science & Engineering NiJvneet Gupta & R.C. Gupta
Measurement & Metrology A.K. Sawhney & Mahajan
• Kinematics of Machines V.P. Singh
• Dynamics of Machines

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 SYLLABUS
(UPTU)
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) (ME-702)
CONTENTS

1.1 Introduction to Automation 1.1

1. NUMERICAL CONTROL 1.1-1.74

1. Introduction. Introduction to Automation and need and future of 1.2 Industrial Automation 1.1
UNIT-I

NC systems and CAM. Advantages & disadvantages, Classification. 1.3 Production Systems 1.2
Open and closed loop. Historical development and future trends. 4 1.4 Types of Automation 1.4
2. Features of NC Machines. Difference between ordinary and NC 1.4.1 Hard/Fixed Automation 1.4
machine tools; Methods for improving accuracy and productivity. 1.4.2 Steps to Implement Hard/Fixed Automation 1.5
3 1.4.3 Programmable Automation 1.5
1.4.4 Flexible Automation 1.6
1.4.5 Comparison of Types of Automation 1.7
3. NC Part Programming :
UNIT-IT
1.5 Need for Automation (Objectives) 1.8
(a) Manual (word address format) programming. Examples, Drilling 1.6 Advantages of Automation 1.9
and Milling. 4
1.7 Disadvantages of Automation 1.10
(b) AP!' programming, Geometry, Motion and Addition statements, l. 7.1 Mechanisation v/s Automation 1.10
Macro statement. 5 1.8 Levels of Automation / Mechanisation 1.11
1.9 Automation Strategies 1.12
1.10 Applications of Automation 1.13
4. System Devices. Introduction to DC motors, Stepping motors,
UNIT- III

Feed back devices such as encoder, counting devices, Digital to 1.10.1 Automated Flow Lines 1.13
analog convertor and vice versa. 3 1.10.2 Automated Machining Operations 1.14
1.10.3 Automated Assembly Systems (AAS) 1.15
5. Interpolators. Principle, Digital differential analyses, Linear 1.10.4 Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs) 1.116
interpolator, circulator interpolator and its software interpolator. 1.10.5 Automated Storage/Retrieval System 1.17
4 1.10.6 Automated Machine Tools 1.18
1.10.7 Automated Inspection Systems 1.18
6. Control of NC Systems. Open and closed loop, Automatic control
1.10.8 CAD/CAM 1.18
of closed loops with encoder tachometers, 'Speed variation of
1.10.8.1 Historical Development of CAM 1.18
DC motor. Adaptive control. 4
1.11 Introduction to Ncmerical Control 1.20
1.12 Difference between using Special Purpose Machines and NC
7. Computer Integrated Manufacturing System. Manufacturing Machines 1.22
UNIT-IV

cell, Transfer lines, FMS, CIM, CAD/CAM concept. 5 1.13 Historical Background 1.22
1.14 NC Machines 1.23
1.15 Constructional Details/Basic Composing of NC Machines 1.23
8. Robotics. NC machine vs Robots: Types and generations ofRobois. 1.15.1 Software 1.24
UNIT-V

Robot applications. Economics, Robot programming methods. VAL 1.15.1.1 Binary Coding for NC 1.25
and AML with examples. 6 1.15.1.2 Radix Conversion 1.27
1.15.1.3 BCD Codes 1.28
9. Intelligent Manufacturing. Introduction to Artificial Intelligence
for Intelligent manufacturing. 2 1.15.1.3.1 EIA Codes 1.29
1.15.1.3.2 ISO/ASCII Code 1.32
1.15.1.4 Punched Cards 1.35
 (vi)
1.15.1.5 Punched Paper Tape 1.35
1.15.1.6 MagneticTape 1.39
1.15.1.7 Floppy Disks 1.40
1.15.2 �achine Control Unit (MCU) 1.41
1.15.2.1 Sub Units ofMCU 1.43
1.15.3 MachineTools (MT) 1.48
1.15.4 Advantages of NC Machines 1.49
1.15.5 Problems with Conventional NC 1.51
1.15.6 Advances in NC Controller Technology 1.51
1.16.1 CNC (Computer Numerical Control) 1.53
1.16.1.1 Functions ofCNC 1.54
1.16.1.2 Advantages ofCNC Machines over NC Machines 1.55
1.16.1.3 Disadvantages ofCNC 1.56
1.16.2 DNC (Direct Numerical Control) 1.56
1.16.2.1 Types ofDNC 1.57
1.16.2.2 Advantages ofDNC 1.59
1.16.3 Adaptive Control (AC) 1.59
1.16.3.1 Types ofAdaptive Control Systems 1.60
1.16. 3.2 Adaptive Control with Optimization System 1.60
1.16.3.3 Adaptive Control with Constraints System 1.60
1.16.3.4 Important Constraints for ACC Systems 1.61
1.16.3.5 Advantages ofAdaptive Controls 1.61
1.16.4 Transfer Machines 1.61
1.16.4.1 Advantages ofTransfer System/Machines 1.64
1.16.4.2 Disadvantages ofTransfer Systems/Machines 1.64
1.17 Future Trends, The Machining Centres 1.64
1.18 Conventional Machine Layout Systems 1.65
1.19 Linked Line Systems 1.65
Unlinked Line Systems 1.66
1.20
1.21 Trends.and New Developments in NC 1.66
1.22 Parts Suitable for CNC Machines 1.67
1.23 Environmental Control for CNC Machines 1.68
1.24 Applications ofNumerical Controls 1.69
1.25 Economics of NC Systems 1.69
Exercises 1.71
2. CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM 2.1-2.44
2.1 Introduction 2.1
2.2 Classification Based on Feedback Control 2.1
2.2.1 Open Loop Control System 2.2
2.2.2 Closed Loop Control System 2.3
2.2.3 Semi Closed Loop Control System 2.4
(vii)
2.3 Feedback Devices 2.5
2.3.1 Velocity Feedback 2.5
2.3.1.1 DC Tachometers 2.6
2.3.2 Positional Feedback 2.9
2.3.2.1 Characteristics of Position Feedback Devices 2.9
2.3.2.2 Positioning Feedback Devices 2.10
2.3.1 Resolver 2.15
2.3.4 Digital Optical Encoder 2.16
2.3.4.1 Encoder and Software 2.18
2.3.5 Counting Devices 2.19
2.3.6 Digital to Analog Converter (DAC or ADC)
or Decoder 2.20
2.4 Classification Based on Motion Control System 2.21
2.4.1 Point-to-point Motion (Positional) Control System 2.21
2.4.2 Straight Line Paraxial M0tion Control System 2.22
2.4.3 Contouring/Continuous Path Motion Control System 2.23
2.4.3.1 Interpolator 2.24
2.4.3.2 Digital Differential Analyser: (DDP_) 2.26
2.4.4 Combined Motion Control System 2.28
2.5 Classification Based on Circuit Technology 2.29
2.5.1 Analog Control System 2,29
2.5.2 Digital Control System 2.31
2.6 NC Co-ordinate Systems (Positioning System) 2.31
2.6.1 Absolute Co-ordinate System 2.33
2.6.2 Incremental Co-ordinate System 2.34
2.6.3 Comparison ofAbsolute and Incremental Coordinate
Systems 2.36
2.6.4 Units ofMeasuring Co-ordinates 2.37
2.7 Axis Identification 2.37
2.7.1 Machines with RotatingTools 2.39
2.7.2 Machines with RotatingWork-piece 2.40
2.7.3 Machines with Non-rotating Tool and Non-rotating
Workpiece 2.41
2.8 Numericals on Stepper Motor 2.42
Exercises 2.42
3. CONSTRUCTION AND DRIVE SYSTEM OF CNC MACHINES
3.1-.1.54
3.1 Introduction 3.1
3.2 Control System Design 3.2
3.2.1 Analog versus Digital 3.2
3.2.2 PunchedTape vs. Mag Tape 3.2
3.2.3 Open Loop vs. Closed Loop Systems 3.3
3.2.4 Linear vs. Rotary Transducers 3.3
 (viii) (ix)

3.3 Mechanical System Design 3.3 3.9.2.5 Hydrostatic Nut and Screw 3.51
3.3.1 Main Structure 3.4 3.9.2.6 Rack and Pinion 3.51
3.3.2 Slide and Slide Ways 3.5 3.9.2.7 Ram and Piston 3.51
3.3.2.1 Hydrostatic Type Slide Ways 3.6 3.9.3 Tool Holders 3.51
�.3.2.2 Anti-friction Type Slide Ways 3.7 3.9.4 Tool Changing Arrangements 3.52
3.3.2.3 WearResistant Slide Ways 3.9 Exercises 3.53
3.3.3 Spindle 3.9 4. TOOLING FOR CNC MACHINES 4.1-4.27
3.3.3.1 Spindle Mountings 3.10 4.1 Introduction 4.1
3.4 Drive Systems 3.13 4.1.1 Design Features ofCNC Tooling 4.1
ines 4.2
3.4.1 Drive 3.13 4.1.2 Factors Affecting the Tooling for CNC Mach
3.4.2 Drive System Based on Electrical Principles 3.13 4.2 Cutting Tools for CNC Machines 4.2
3.4.2.1 Choosing the Correct Industrial Motor 3.14 4.2.1 Preset Tools 4.3
3.4.2.2 Three-phase AC Induction Motors 3.17 4.2.2 Qualified Tools 4.5
3.4.2.2.1 Reverse in 3-phase Motor 3.19 4.2.3 Semi-qualified Tools 4.7
3.4.2.3 Single-phase AC Motors 3.19 4.2.4 Solid Tools 4.8
3.4.2.3.l Reverse in Single-� Motor 3.21 4.2.5 Brazed Tools 4.8
3.4.2.4 DC Motors 3.22 4.2.6 Inserted Bit Tools 4.8
3.4.2.4.1 Speed Control of DC Motor 3.24 4.2.7 High Carbon Tool Steel 4.9
3.4.2.4.2 Electronic Control of a PM de Motor 3.25 4.2.8 High Speed Steel (H.S.S.) 4.10
3.4.2.4.3 Reverse in DC Motors 3.27 4.2.9 CastAlloy 4.11
3.4.2.5 Special Purpose Electrical Motors 3.27 4.2.10 Cemented Carbides 4.12
3.4.2.6 Servomotors-DC and AC 3.28 4.2.11 Ceramics 4.12
3.4.2.7 Stepper Motors 3.29 4.2.12.1 Sialon (Si-Al-0-N) 4.13
3.4.2.8 Synchros and Resolvers 3.32 4.2.13 Diamond 4.13
3.4.3 Drive Based on Hydraulic Principles 3.33 4.2.14 Boron Nitride 4.14
3.4.3.1 The HydraulicRotary Drive 3.36 4.3 Tool Holding Device 4.14
3.4.3.2 Reversal 3.39 4.3.1 Spindle Tooling 4.14
3.4.4 Pneumatic Drive 3.39 4.3.2 Flexible Tooling 4.17
3.4.5 Comparison of Hydraulic and Pneumatic Drive 3.40 4.4 Work Holding Devices 4.17
3.5 Recirculating Ball Screw and Nut Assembly 3.40 4.4.1 Multi Pallet Machines 4.18
3.6 Location Transducers 3.42 4.5 Automatic Tool Changer (ATC) 4.19
4.5.1 Turret Head 4,21
3.7 SwarfRemoval 3.43
4.5.2 180-DegreeRotation 4.21
3.8 Safety and Guarding Devices 3.45
4.5.3 Pivot Insertion 4.23
3.9 Methods for Improving Accuracy and Productivity in CNC 3.47
4.5.4 Multi-Axis 4.24
3.9.1 Control of Translational (Linear) Movements 3.47
4.5.5 Spindle Direct 4.25
3.9.2 Control of Rotational Movements 3.49
4.6 Tool Change Cycle 4.26
3.9.2.1 RotatingSpindles 3.49
Exercises 4.27
3.9.2.2 ActuatingMechanisms 3.49
3.9.2.'3 Screw and Nut 3.50
3.9.2.4 Recirculating Ball Screws 3.50
 (x) (xi)

5. FUNDAMENTAL OF PART PROGRAMMING 5.1---5.69 6.4 Macros 6.22

5.1 Numerical Control Procedure 5.1 6.4.1 The Features of Macro/Parametric Programming 6.24
5.2 Part Programming 5.4 6.4. 1.1 Computer-related Features 6.24
5.2.1 Mp.nual Part Programming 5.4 6.4.2 Variable Techniques 6.24
5.2.2 Computer Aided Part Programming 5.4 6.4.2.1 Arguments from the Call Statement 6.25
5.3 Procedure for Developing Manual Part Programming 5.5 6.4.2.2 Local Variables 6.26
5.3.1 Type of Dimensioning 5.5 6.4.2.3 Common Variables 6.27
5.3.2 Axis Designation 5.6 6.4.2.4 System Variables 6.28
5.3.3 NC Words 5.6 6.4.3 Example Parametric Program showing Call Statement,
5.3.4 G and M Codes (G-Codes) 5.9 Variables and Arithmetic 6.28
5.3.5 Tape Programming Format 5.15 6.5 Mirror Image 6.31
5.3.5.1 Word Address Format 5.15 Exercises 6.33
5.3.5.2 Tab Sequential Format 5.15
5.3.5.3 Fixed Block Format 5.16 7. AUTOMATICALLY PROGRAMMED TOOLS (APT) 7.1-7.28
5.3.6 Machine Tool Zero Point System (Datum) 5.16 7.1 Introduction 7.1
5.4 Method of Writing a Part Program 5.18 7 .2 Programming Languages 7.3
5.5 Part Programming Point-to-Point Machining 5.18 7.2.1 APT 7.3
5.6 Part Programming of Drilling Operation (Point-to-point) 5.20 7.2.2 ADAPT 7.3
5. 7 Part Programming for Machining along Straight Line 5.22 7.2.3 AUTOMAP 7.3
5.7.1 Linear Interpolation 5.22 7.2.4 EXAPT 7.3
5.8 Part Programming for Machining along Cu rved Surface 5.25 7.2.5 PROMPT 7.3
5.8.1 Circular Interpolation 5.27 7.3 The APT Language 7.3
5.9 Part Program for Lathe Operation 5.33 7.4 APT Programming Sequence 7.4
5.10 Part Programming for Milling Machine Operations 5.39 7.5 Part Geometric Definitions in APT 7.5
5.10.1 Cutter Radius Compensation 5.39 7.5.1 Defining a Point 7.5
Some More Solved Exercises 5.46 7.5.2 Defining a Linc 7.7
Exercises 5.56 7 .5.3 Defining a Circle 7.8
6. ADVANCED PART PROGRAMMING 6.1--6.37
7.5.4 Defining a Plane 7.9
6.1 Introduction 6.1 7.6 Miscellaneous/Auxiliary Statements 7.9
6.2 Standardised Fixed Cycle/Canned Cycle 6.2 7.6.1 Spindle Speed 7.10
6.2.1 Drill Cycle (G-81) 6.3 7.6.2 Feed Rate 7.10
6.2.2 Dwell Cycle (G-82) 6.4 7.6.3 Tool Change 7.10
6.2.3 Basic Mill Cycle (G-79) 6.4 7.6.4 Tool Definitions 7.10
6.2.4 Peck Drill Cycle (G-83) 6.5 7.6.5 Motion Statements of Tool 7.11
6.2.5 Bore Cycle (G-85) 6.5 7.6.6 Auxiliary and Post Processor Statements 7.14
6.2.6 Tap Cycle (G-84) 6.6 7.7 Macro Statement in APT 7.21
6.2.7 Cancel Cycle (G-80) 6.6 7 .8 Manual Data Input (MDI) 7.22
6.3 Non-Standardised Fixed Cycles 6.12 7.9 On-linc EditingofPrograms 7.23
6.3.1 Do-Loops 6.12 7.9 . 1 Setting Tool Offsets 7.25
6.3.2 Parametric Subroutines 6.17 7.9.2 Job/Workpiece Setting 7.26
6.3.2.1 Nesting 6.19 Exercises 7.26
6.3.2.2 Defining Subroutine 6.19
 (xiii)

(xii) 9.3 Trnnsfer Lines 9.4

9.4 1"M8 (Flexible Manufacturing System) 9.4 .

8.1 Industrial Software 8.1

8. MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL TOPICS IN CNC 8.1-8.33 9.5 Components of FMS 9.5

8.1.1 Computer Aided Design (CAD) 8.1

9.6 Advantages ofFMS 9.7

8.1.2 Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM Software) 8.2

9.7 CTM (Computer Integrated Manufacturing) 9.7

8.1.2.1 Modules of CAM Software 8.3

9.8 Modules ofCIM 9.9

8.1.2.2 Tool Path Generation 8.4

9.9 CAM in India 9.9

8. 1.2.3 Optimization of NC Tool Path 8.5

9.10 Robots 9.11

8.1.2.4 Verification ofTool Paths 8.10

9.11 Historical Background of Robot 9.12

8.1.3 Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE) 8.11

9.12 Definitions of Robot 9.14

8.2 Operation Cost of CNCs 8.12

9 .13 Characteristics of a True Robot 9� 14

8 . 2.1 Preparation Cost 8.12

9.14 NC Machines V/S Robots 9.15

8 . 2.2 Machining Cost 8.13

9.15 Laws of Robotics 9.16

8.2.3 Miscellaneous Cost 8.13

9.16 Robot Anatomy and Manipulator 9.16

8.3 Economics ofCNC 8.13

9.16.1 Types of Joints 9.17

8.4 Economics Batch Production 8.14

9.17 Degree of Freedom of Robot 9.18

8.4.1 Economic Order Quantity 8.14

9.18 WorkEnvelope 9.20

8.4.2 Periodic Order Quantity 8.16

9.18.1 Work Volume 9.21
8.5 Cost Analysis CNC Operations 8.17
9.19 Robot Conf).gurations 9.21
8.5 . 1 Payback Period 8.19
9.19.1 Cartesian Co-ordinate Configuration (3P) 9.22
8.5.2 Present Worth Method 8.20
9.19. 1.1 Gantry Configuration 9.22
8.6 Practical CNC Machines 8.21
9.19 . 2 Polar Configuration (2RP) 9.23
8.6.1 Machining Centres 8.21 9.19.3 Cylindrical Configuration (R2P) 9.24
8.6.2 Turn ing Centres 8.23
9.19.4 Articulate or Jointed Arm Configuration (3R) 9.24
8.6.3 CNC Punching Press 8.23
9.19.5 SCAI'.{A Configuration 9.24
8.6.4 CNC Grinding Machines 8.24 9.19.6 Comparison of Configurations 9.25
8.6.4.1 Surface Grinding 8.25 9.20 Robot Control Systems 9.25
8.6.4.2 Tool and Cutter Grinders 8.25 9 . 21 Limited Sequence Control or Non-Servo Control 9.26
8.6.4.3 Cylindrical Grinding/Centrcless 8.25 9.21.1 Non-servo Hydraulic Eobots 9.27
8.6.4.4 Profile Grinders 8.25 9.21.2 Non-servo Pneumatic Robots 9.28
8.6.5 CNC Wire-cut EDM 8.26 9.21.3 Non-servo Electric Robots 9.29
8 . 6.5. 1 Equipment 8.26 9.21.4 Characteristics 9.30
8.6.5.2 NC Control ofEDM 8.28 9.22 Point-to-point Servo Control or Playback with Point to Point Control
8.7 Material Handling in CNC 8.28 9.30
8.7. 1 In-Feed and Work Ej ection for Centreless Grinder 8.29 9.23 Continuous Path Control with Playback 9.32
8. 7.2 Milling Loading Device 8.30 9.23.1 Characteristics of Playback Control 9.33
Exercises 8.32 9.24 Intelligent Robot Controls 9.34
9.25 Methods of Teaching Robots 9.34

9.1 Manufacturing Cell 9.1

9. CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.1-9.70 9.26 Performance Specifications of Robot 9.35

9.2 Strategies of Malting Manufacturing Cell 9.3

9.26.1 Geometric Configurations 9.35

9.2. 1 Process-defined Cells 9.3

9.2.2 Cells Defined by Part Geometry 9.3
9.2.3 Cells Developed Around Product 9.3
 (xv) ·
(xiv)
9.33 Cylindrical Coordinate Robot 9.68
9.26.2 Degree of Freedom 9.36 D.34 Spherical Coordinate Robot 9.68
9.26.3 Payload or Load Carrying Capacity 9.36 9.3G Jointed Arm Coordinate Robot 9.69
9.26.4 Speed of Motion 9.36
9.36 SCARA-Type Robot.. 9,69
9.26.5 Spatial Resolution 9.36 9.37 Parallel Robot 9.70
9.26.6 Positional Accuracy 9.37 9.38 Pick and Place Robot 9. 71
9_27 Basic Robot Elements 9.39 9.39 Point-to-point (PTP) Robot 9. 73
9.27.1 Controller 9.40 9.40 Controlled Path Rohot 9.74
9.27.2 Manipulator 9.42 9.41 Continuous Path (CP) Robots 9.74
9.27.3 End-Effectors 9.42 9.42 Robot Programming 9.76
9.27.3.1 Grippers (Hands) 9.44 9.42.1 Manual Method 9. 76
9_27.3.1.1 Mechanical Grippers 9.45 9.42.1.1 Programming Pick and Place Robots 9.76
9.27.3.1.2 Vacuum Grippers 9.47
9.42.2 Walk-Through Teaching or Pendant Teaching 9.77
9.27.3.1.3 Magnetic Grippers 9.47
9.42.3 Lead-Through Teaching or Physical Arm Leading 9.78
9.27.3.1.4 Adhesive Grippers 9.48 9.42.4 Off-line Programming or Computerised Programming
9.27.3.1.5 Piercing Grippers 9.48 Language 9. 78
9.27.3.1.6 Hooks, Scoops 9.48 9.43 Robot Languages 9.78
9.27.3.2 End-of-arm Tooling (EOAT) 9.49 9.44 VAL (Versatile Algorithmic Language) 9.79
9.27.3.3 Gripper Mechanism 9.50 9.45 AML 9.84
9.27.4 Sensors 9.51 9.46 Generations of Robot Programming Languages 9.88
9.27.5 Energy Source 9.54 9.46.1 First Generation Languages 9.88
9.28 Classification of Robots 9.54 9.46.2 Second Generation Languages 9.88
9.29 Manipulation Robot or Handling Robot 9.54 9.47 Robot Applications 9.90
9.29.1 Autonomous Robotic System 9.55
9.47.1 Processing/Manufacturing Applications 9.92
9.29.1.1 Zero-generation/Non-Programmable Robots 9.5 6
9.4 7.1.1 Material Handling 9.93
9.29.1.2 First Generation/Programmable Robots 9.56
9.47.1.2 Assembly and Inspection 9.94
9.29.1.3 Second Generation/Adaptive Robots 9.57
9.47.2 Non-Industrial Applications 9.95
9.29.1.4 Third Generation/Intelligent Robots 9.57
9.48 Economic and Social Significance of Robots 9.96
9.29.2 Remotely Controlled (Tele) Robotic Systems 9.58
9.48.1 Economic Significance 9.96
9.29.2.1 Command Controlled Manipulators 9.59
9.48 . 1.1 Investment Cost Operating Expenses and Evaluation of
9.29.2.2 Master-slave Manipulators 9.60
Economy 9.97
9.29.2.3 Semi-automatic Manipulators 9.60
9.48.2 Social Significance 9.98
9_29_2.4 Supervisory-controlled Robots 9.60
Chapter 10. CAPP, MECHATRONICS AND MEMS 10.1-10. 74
9.29.2.5 Interactive Robots 9.61 10 .1 Manual or Conventional Or Traditional Process Planning
9.29.2.6 Hybrid Robots 9.62 (Manual or conventional Approach to Process Planning) 10.1
9.29.3 Manual Manipulators 9.62 10.2 Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP) 10.2
9.29.3.1 Balanced Articulated Manipulators 9.62
10.2.1 Types of CAPP Systems (various Approaches to
9.29.3.2 Exoskeletons (Human Extremity Boosters) 9.62
CAPP System) 10.4
9.30 Mobile Robotic Systems 9.63 10.2.2 Planning for CAPP System 10.9
9. 3 1 Data Acquisition and Control Robotic Systems 9.65
._ 10.2.3 Machinability Data Collection System (MDCS) in
9.32 Rectangular Coordinate Robot 9.67 .
. CAPP 10.11
 (xvi)

10.3
10.4
10.5
10.2.4 Benefits/Advantages of CAPP (Process Planning) 10.13
Economic Regions for Process Planning 10.15
Role of Process Planning in CIM 10.15
Process Planning Systems 10.16
1 Numerical Control

rODUCTION TO AUTOMATION
10.6 Implementation of CAPP 10.17
10.7 Mechatronics 10.18 l ial
10.7.1 Definitions of "Mechatronics" 10.18 Production is a transformation process that converts raw mater
marke tylace . The produ cts are
10.8 What is Mechatronics 10.21 into finished product�t havevalue in
tools. All
10.9 Introduction to Mechatronics 10.21 �ad� by the combined efforts of man, machine, material and
elements
10.10 Systems 10.22 work requires both energy and information, and these two
a huma n or any substi tute.
10.7.1 Electrical Actuation System 10.23 must be provided by some source, either
higher it
10.7.2 Mechanical Switches 10.23 More the human attributes, if performed by a machine, the
10.7.3 Solid-State Switches 10.24 has "automaticity". Automaticity is thus defined as..§el[-acting
capability
10. 1 1 MEMS Overview 10.51 of the device in general terms.
10.12 Introduction to MEMS 10.52
1 .2 INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION
10.13 Various Categories of MEMS Technology 10.55
10.3.1 Bulk Micromachining 10.55
mean
10.3.2 Surface Micromachining 10.55 The word Autom ation was first used in early 1940's to
installed
10.3.3 LIGA 10.56 automatic material handl ing. Most of the companies have
finds its three stages of
10.3.4 Deep Reactive Ion Etching 10.56 automated systems. Termed as a revolution,
10.3.5 Integrated MEMS Technologies 10.56 development :
10.14 Processes of MEMS 10.56 ed
(i) First Industrial Revolution, began with the advent of power
.!.0.15 MEMS Applications machine tools and the creation of factori es but contin uously
10.15.1 Defense Applications of MEMS 10.70
moved towards Mechanisation rather than labour muscl e
10.16 MEMS Materials 10.71
power.
10.17 Current Challenges in MEMS
t of
1 0.17.1 Limited Options 10.72 (ii) Second Industrial Revolution, began in 1900s with adven
mass production and assembly lines. The large autom ated
10.17.2 Packaging 10.72
10.17.3 Fab1·ication Knowledge Required 10.72 Mate rial Hand ling Mech anism s and tra nsfer lines were
10.18 Future of MEMS 10.73 developed. This type of automation is, these days, called as
Exercise 10.74 fixed automation. Specifically, Automation as a term was.
Definitions of Technical Terms 1-10 coined by D.S. Ha;der of Ford Motor Compan.y in 1947.
Index (i)-(iv) (iii) Third Industrial Revolution, evolved in recent years is flexible
B. Tech. Exam. Paper (i)-(xxxviii) in contrast to second. In this, computers are used to control,
processes as well as the informati�n�system i.e. both muscle
as well as brain work of production.
ical
Automation means application of mechanical advantage, electr
- -
amplification .� nd computer processing etc. It guiaes
(1.1)
the operat ions,
1.2 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING NUMERICAL CONTROL 1.3

maintenance, i r:spection with p:iinimum use of humi,ins. But it does not
mean that automation leads to retrenchment. In fact, more _jobs are
created every year, than we eliminate with automation. Factory of future
wjll have superior information system and simpler manufacturing
;,.ocesses/system. Hence, finally we conclude that,
'--iiu tomation, is a technology in which the mechanical, electronic,
computer based systems are used to operate and control production.
Or
�utomation, is a pro_cess which is carried out partly or fully according
to a previously set programme, without the intervention of human activity
for its operation or control.
Therefore, "Automation" implies that manual efforts shotild be
replaced by mechanical, electrical machines and computers . Automation,
broadly includes following :
* Automatic Material Handling (MH) and Storage systepl.
* Automatic machine tools to process parts.
* Automated transfer and assembly lines.
* Industrial Robots.
* Automatic feedback for process control.
* Automatic inspection systems for Quality Control (QC).
* Computers for planning, designing, data collection and support
decision ma king processes .
1 .3 PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
A manufacturing systeni is a collection or arrangement of operations
(ii) Converter, takes output of basic producer and transform into
intermediate products .or some consumer items e.g. converting
steel ingot into sheet metal or paper mill convert wood pulp into
paper. An important feature of converter's product is that it has
very much simplified physical form.
(iii) Fabricator, transform and assemble final products e.g. plastic
made by converter from petroleum products is fi nally
transformed and assembled into auto-body parts or so.
Another way of classifying production activity is according to
qnnntity o roduct made. These are
(a 'Job Shop, is of low volume of small lot sizes, usually made for
meeting specific customer orders. Here mostly wide variety of
jobs come and hence production equipment must ·be very flexible
and general purpose. The machines are collected by their
functions, such as all lathes together and all milling machines
separately together. Hence, shop _is also called sometimes
fun tion oriented layout. For example, an aircraft is such job.
orkers should be highly skilled.
Batch Production, is for m�dium sized lots of same items produced
\ at some regular interv·als of time. Here also equipment used is
general purpose but for higher production e.g. turret l athes can
be used, with jigs and fixtures to increase production rate.
Foundaries, text-book publishing, plastic moulding industries
come under these categories.
Receiving Heat
A 1-----4-----+-....,
deportmen Lathes Grinders treatment
r -- 1
8 ------- --, '
I

and processes used to mahe desired product(s) / component(s). It includes, c \ I

the equipment and arrangement of processes. Whereas, a Production \ i

-------
---
\
System, includes all aspects people, money, equipment, material supplies,
I ,,
i
sales, management and also the Manufacturing _System.
L_
I

The manufac_turing companies, can be one of the following

types, forming chain of transformation i.e. Natural resources
three
(Raw L_ __ __ _/
/ ,,\. ___ _
material) to consumer goods Plat.ing
Milling and
(i) Basic Producer, takes natural resources and transform these Sows machines pointing Assem bly Storage
into raw material to be useµ by another industry e.g. Steel
Producers, transform iron ore, into steel ingots:
(a) Job shop
 1.4 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
NUM ERICAL CON'l'ROL 1.5

Row 111' lever, screw, pulleys etc. or by integration of many operations. It cr

materials ---tr'I_________
Energy --� Process / r==== 11IH0 be done by co-ordination of many complex operations into one
r111tchine or at one place.
"-----___)
<'ha racteristics :
(a) Justified/used where production rates/volumes are high.
(b) High initial cost due to tailor-made equipment.
Process (c) Normally cannot accommodate product changes.
(cl} Depends largely on skill to organise the operations.
Gos
By products 1,:,mmples :

L
Oil (a) Mechanised assembly lines.
(b) Machining transfer lines.
1 .4.2 Steps to Implement Hard/Fixed Automation
(b) Mass production (Continuous)
Fig. 1.
There are following six steps towards 1mplementation of fixed
roduction, i s a con tinuous flow type specialised
1111t omation :
manufacture of identical products. Equipments as well as entire
plant also is designed exclusively for the production. Hence (i) Form a structured m a nufacturing, or assembly cell by
equipment is rather special purp·ose and special toolings is used'. systematically restructuring and reorganising the manned cells.
Automobiles, light bulbs, bewerages, soft drinks, bolts, nuts Workers can run more than one process at a time.
manufacturing industries come under this category. Another (ii) Reduce changeover time, by Rapid Exchange of Tooling And Dies
category may be continuous process such as oil refineries or (RETAD), thereby reducing/eliminating set-up .
food processing where product really flows. (iii) Integrate quality control, by giving every worker responsibility/
�rom above, it is clear that level of automation depends upon the authority/QC tools to make product right first time and every
quantity (volume) of product being made. time.

\.JK'TYPES OF AUTOMATION
(iu) Iategrate preventive maintenance by giving responsibility to
each worker for cleanliness of workplace and equipment.
Manufacturing automation can be put into following three basic (u) Line balance final assembly i.e. each process made to produce
types : same amount of work to reduce waiting time.
(af }!ard/Fixed/Manual/Skill based Automation (ui) Reduce work in process (WIP), to reduce inventory.
1 .4.3 Programmable Automation
(bJProgram mable Automation
(e) Flexible Automation
[n this type of automation, �reduction machines,_assembly lines
1 1 1 • designed with capability to chang� the_sequence of operations to
1 .4.1 Hard/Fixed Automation , n t ,•r different types of product changes. This sequence is changed by
This type of automation is hard wired or fixed, in a way that all 11'1 of instructions galled. Program, for--;:;-w .12roduct§. This is applicable
the
seque nce of opera tions or proce ssing or· assem bly is fixed � 1•11crally in Batch production, where set-up (tool loading, fixtures
' bY th e
. of equipment itself.
con f'1gurat10n 11 t I nchment) is to be changed and reprogramming takes place.
1]J e operations are simplified by use
 1.6 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING NUMERICAL CONTROL 1.7

Characteristics : A graph showing product (Variety u,s Volume) for different types of
(i) Costly, but general-purpose machinery. automation as shown in Fig. 2 .

(ii) Low production rate/volume.

Number of
different
(iii) Little flexibility to suit change in product specifications .
\
parts

(iv) Suitable for batch-product. Programmable

High automation
Examples :
(i) Numerically controlled (NC) machines.
(ii) Industrial robots. QI
·c
0
> Medium Flexible
1 .4.4 Flexible Automation -
0
::,
automation
-0
It is the latest type of automation which is an extension of
progra mmable one, where no time is lest for the change-over from one Manual Fixed
product to next one. Virtually set-up (tooling, fixture and machine setting) methods automation
is reduced to zero level. Low
Low Medium High Parts per
ln other words. zero physical set-up and zero lost production time year
in changing the part-progra mme (NC), because it is done off-line i.e.
Production volume

away from production on a computer located remotely . The finished Fig. 2. Three types of production automation variety vs variety.
first part is moved at a p lace as different next part and tool comes into
1 .4.5 Comparison ofTypes of Automations (Table 1)
p osition for processi ng.
Table 1.
Cha1·acte1'istics :
SL.No. Type of Automation AdvantaJ{e.� Disadvantages
(1) Suitable for continuous p roduction of variety of products. .l . Manual/Skill based * Easily taught * Fatigue prone
(ii) Highly i n i tial cost for tailor maJe CNCs.
* Adaptive * Less repeatable
* Lit tle Tooling * Slow
(iii) Medium to production rnLe/volume. * Self inspecting * lncreasing cosL
2. Hard/Prngrammable * Repeatable * Expensive
(iu) Highl y flexible for product changes. * Reliable * Inflexible
* Fast * Single purpose
Examples : * No tiring * Long lead times

(1) Use of Pallets fixtures for holding parts. 3. Flexible * Easily taught
* Adaptive
· (ii) Pallet or honey box-typo tool holders in CNC. * Little tooling
* Self inspecting
(iii) FMS ( Flexible Manufacturing Systems) and Machining Centres. * Repeatable
* Reliable
(iu) Automated Guided Vehicles (AGV) for material handling. * Fast
* No tiring
* Short lead time
* Multi purpose
x· Encouraged product
* Innovation.
 1.8 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURIN
G NUMERICAL CONTROL 1.9
�ED FOR AUT
OMATION (OBJECTIVE S) (UPTECH D2003) 1 0 . Competitive Production
Automation is undertaken, as a pro The benefits of automa t ion are intangible for a short period. But
ject i n companies for following
una void able reasons : n rc visible in long terms with improved quality, better relatio1: s wi�h
1. Hig h Pro duc tion Requirements l11bour, market status of company and higher sales. Hence, rn th1s
_
11 ·cnario of competi t ive produc t ion, not automa ting can cost more m
Product i v i ty, which means greater outp
. . ut per hou r ofla bour input, t t•rms of prestige, cus tomers and employees instead of money.
1s mcr eas ed. Hence, hig her pro duc
tion rates are ach ieve d to mee t
increase d req uire men t . 1 .6 A1)VANTAGES OF AUTOMATION
2. Red uce Lea d Time The progression from manual to automa t ed systems, takes pl� ce
If any production has a considerable an logical, economically justified steps. But the a �vantages of automat10n
amount of time lost in customer n 1·c more intangible, which are visible in a period of one to three years
ord er a � d deli ver y, the n this lead
tim e can be red uce d thro ugh 1 wriod. The automation offers the following advantages :
automa t10n .
3. Bet ter Qu alit y I . Reduced Lead Time
Con sist enc y i n dim ens iona l and Mat erial handling, causing Line Imbalance, is greatly reduced. It
fin ish spe cifi cati ons of all 1·auses the machines to have lesser waiting or lead time and hence
com pon en ts prod uce part s with better _
qua l ity.
4. Costly Raw Mat eria l
11 noother, faster flow of products through m anufacturing operatwn.

2. Set-up Time Elimination

Ver y high cost of raw mat eria l aris
es the nee d of au t oma t ion so The set-up time for the job/machin'e is reduced to almost zero level
tha t scra p is re d uced t o min imu m.
or sometimes even eliminate d .
5. Safety in Ope rnti ons
Som e ope rati ons say . mat eria l han dlin :l. Better Products with Lower Price
g of bulk y ma teria l or som e
haz ard ous env iron men t (e.f{. risin g of In automated ind ustries, pro d uc ts are known to be of better quality
poisonous fumes), rais es the nee d
of auto mat ic equ ipm ent to reclt we the which cost more than 100 times lesser t han t h e cost of produc t
d ang er posed to wor ker
and safety. hea lth manufacture d with conventional general-purpose manual mach i nes. 'l�he
6. Lab our Sho rtage 1 •lcctronic in d ustry such as TVs are the best example in terms of quality
.ind cost.
. M � n y develope d coun trie s hnv c scarcity
oflabour an d they have to I . Safer Working Cond itions
imp ort it from other cou ntri es. I l ence
, auto mat ion is a sub stit ute for
labo ur. Since there is less direc t physical par t icipation of worker in
7. Hig her Labour Cos t production, there is lesser chance of injury or even for working in
Som etim ei:;, com par ing of ever i ncre asin ha:lardous (poisonous environment) co n d i tions.
g labo ur cost to auto mat ed
equ ipm ent , sho ws t h at la t ter i s mor fi. Lesser Working Hours
e eco nom ical ly feas ible .
8. Shi ftin g of Ma npo wer to Se 1·vic lt has been noted that as the industry shifts towards automat10n,
c Sector lesser labour hours are required for same prod uction throughput. 'l'here�y,
Most of the persons thin k i t better
to be in gov ernm en t serv the working hours red uce from 48/week to almost 35-42/week. t hus lea�lmg
sec tor, than to be in industry, which ice
they think to be of I0we1· leve l. towards a high quality oflife.
Hen ce, aut oma tion is the solu tion for
indu stry lead ers.
9. Red uce Work-In-Process (WIP) 6. Employment Opportunities
WIP is the loss in money terms, due
... A recent survey has shown t hat there was 1 0% decline i n mannal
_
to inven tory a t mac hine s. labour due to automation, but at the same �ime there was a 32% mcrease
Auton_i atio n can requce t he inte rme
diat e mac h i ne's wai ting time for in new jobs such as programmers, operators and engineers. Hence, more
some Job to come from previous stage.
job opportunities.
 1.10 COMPUTER AIDED MANU
FACTURING NUMERICAL CON'rROL 1.11
7. In cre ase d St an da rd . . .
of Living Mechamzed � ev1ces on the o ther hand are truly autom ated when
Pr o du cti vity c an only be .
inc rea sed by be tte r and feedback informat10n automatica l ly cause�, the m achinery to adjust to
m a chin ery. Also if
wages ofl ab ou r are increm au to m ated .
ented without. productivity re ac h1e ve th e no r m s . Henc e Auto m a t 1011 i·s the achieve m ent of
increased, it will cause inf . '. · . .
lation an d the standard of
liv ing will decrease. self-directi n g produ c tive_ act i v1 ty a s a re su l t of c o m bmat1on o f
So productivity m us t increa
se for a better society. Mecha1 . zati on & com putat10n.
1 .7 DISADVANTAGES OF AU
TOMATION 1 ...8 �ELS OF AUTOMATION / MECHANISATION
Altho ugh there are eno r m �oll ? w i n g l O �:v:�� f a ti on des c ri be all the present
ou s advantages in favour of �
t
but still the re are people wh au tom ati on . m achmeries and tho c ,�ri i�nvented in future (Table 2) :
o arg ue against auto mation.
con sid era tio ns , the re are Besides econom ic
som e c o nst rai nts o r dis ad Table 2. Levels of Automation
auto mati on , wh ic h restr ict va nta ges wi th
its i m plem entation. Thes
1. System Changes ar e are : Order of I-luman!lttribute Replaced Examples
e Difficult and Slow to
Ch anging the entire m an Im ple ment Automation
hu ge job . Th is req uir es mo ufacturin g system i s rathe
re of an altitude cha ng e tha r slow and a Level 0. None : Lever, screw, pulley, wedge Hand tools, manual machine
ch an ge d. W orkers are rel n the machinery
uctant to it. Level l . Energy : Muscles replaced Powered machines and t ?ols,
2. Hi gh Co st an d Long
T..erm Pa yb ac k Whitney's milling machme
A co nvors ion wi ll req uir e Dexterity : Self-feeding
exp en dit ure in equ ipm en t Level 2. Single-cycle automalics
em ployee tra ini ,1g an d the mo dif ica tio n,
l ong-term pa yb ack o f au t Level 3. DiliJ!ence : No feedback Repeats cycle ; open-loop
hig h-r isk s itu ati o n, i n mi o ma tio n poses a
nd s of de cis ion -m ak ers . n u merical cont red . or
3. Lo we r Sk ill Le ve ls of automatic screw maclune ;
Workers transfer lines
The ma nu al work leftover
by automation requires low Judg<'ment : Positional feedback C l osed l o o p ; numerical
The skil led workers job i er skill level s . Level 4.
s reduced to sim
routin e , monoto nous j ob ply a m u sc le work. He nc conlrol ; self-measuring and
sh o uld be au toma e, a adjusting
4. Re tre nc hm en t or Un ted .
employment Level 5. E[)ctluation : Adn pLive <'onlrol ; Computer control ; model of
lt is l ogical to ar ue tha
t au tom ati on will c ause un deductive analysis ; feedback process required for analysis
bec au se i L wi ll increase pro
g
em ploym en t, and optimization
ductivity by a large ma rgi
from the process
the j obs. n as com pa red to Level G. Leaming : I3y experience Limit sr.lf- p rogramm ing
5. Re du ce d Pu rc ha sin some arlificial intelli gence
g Po we ,· (AI) ; expert systems
As the m ach ine s replac
e wo rkers . they arc no t
required wa ges an d they wi ab lo to get the Level 7. Rea.r nning : Exhibits intuition ; T n cl u ctive l'eas o n i n g
l l have lesser power to purch
ma rke t. Co nversely, stock ase products in relates causes and effecls Adva nced Al i n control
in ma rket wi ll cau se pro du
But as we can ourselves ction to stop. soft ware
sec that argum ents agains Level 8. CreativPne.�s : Performs design Originality
are overstated. Clearly, inv t automation
olvement of worke
rs an d education is needed
unaided
to o vercome these c ons tra
ints/disadvanta es . Dom inance : Supermachine,
1 . 7 .1 Mechanisation v/s
Level 9. Machine is master
Automation
g
commands others
The original ind ustrial rev For example, zero (0) lev e l re presents hand tool s and manua l
lvlechanization was the use olution was ba sed o n 'Me
of ma chi nes to talie ove r som cha niz ati on '. m ach i nes.I t d oes not replace human-energy but ocrives mechanical-
.
muscle jobs performed by e of the previous advantage. Similarly, level l 1s powe ed m achin e or to ol. But the act10ns
either hu ma ns 01 9-n im als .
La ur ie (19 79) em ph asi � . and controls are complete}� <lep n; t u o perator Windmi l l and
s on tha t : "W he n we ap � :? j��
production techniques the ply o rd ina ry electric mo tor _a re the·e·x� mp l s. f xplanator � . The level 7 is
applic ation ofleverage an d ;
we are m echanizin it." power Lo a process, making m achme Art1f1cia lly nt_e ��g��:�AI) which shows "Intution"
.
pro perty and fina l ly machme 9 gives '' C om m and" as a "dictator".
g
 COMPUTER AIDED MANU NUMERICAL CONTROL
1.12
FACTURING 1.13
Presently, the level of
ab.o automat'rnn has reach ed 9. Plant Operation Control
� still in its infancy ancl d evel opm ent. at 6 . Level 7 and
Attempt to manage and control the operations at plant or aggregate
I UAUTO T MATION STRATEGIES
. A few strategies can
be .
level is made. Usually computer networking at factory level helps in
achieving lesser Tno, T1•
automation . These ten are ap pli ed to t-r� cluct10n: for
stepping towards 10. Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
as follows, w IC can be
auto mation : imple mented through Computer can also be used in design, CAD/CAM, CAPP (Computer
1 . Comb ined Operation Aided Process Planning) in addition to production and inventory database
s
Sin ce each ma ch ine inv controls.
se t - u p . Hence, it ca n be olved in a sequence of .
rie ' opera trnn requires a
· t d to com b me several op era t'rnns on
ma ch me
1 .10 APPLICATIONS OF AUTOMATION
, thereby red uc ing Nm . a single
� no. of machm
es · Tno � non-operatrnn The automated equipments can b e used to produce discrete parts
t·ime ; TIt � material . '
.
handl ing t'ime . D omg m�re than one op erations in large volumes. Their applications may vary from Automated Flow
a ma ch ine , reduces the n on Lines for material handling to Robot and Process control technology .
o. of separate mach i nes
2. Simu ltan eous Oper Automation can also be applied to the mental work such as Process
ations
In th is strategy two or more Planning, Design and Data Collection. A few are categorised as follows :
p ocessm . gs or
can be performed pa;a llely assembly operations
o n a s . n � e p art at a s 1. Automated Flow Lines
redu ces op eration tim e (T ) . � ing le workstati on. I t
o Ill a d cl1_1trnn to Nm' Tno' T,, .
Automated flow lines consist of several machines linked through
3. Inte gratio n of Work automatic transfer devices that carry raw workpart at one end and as
statio ns the processes are done on it, parts are moved from one \'.'.Orkstation to
Linki ng of several work '
stati ons into smg . . other an d finally the finished poduct is taken out at end of line. These
by auto mated work . le mtegrated mecha nism
hand li ng equip ment, incre lines can be of two types :
system. N T T e . ases overal l outpu t of
m' h ar 1ed uced . (a) In-line. This type of arrangement follows straight-line movement
4 . Speci' a 1·ised Mach inery and at the most a turn of l;}0° due to factory layout limitations .
11 0 ,

Inste ad of gene ral-p urpo (b) Rotary. Workparts are kept on rotating table at fixed locations.
. se
. ' usin g s l ) oc tal . -pu rp
desig ned for greatest, effic· os e eq u ipm en t This type of equipment is known as dial-index machine.
iency im pro ves productivit
operation tim e . y and red uces T The automated flow lines are incorporated at places such as
5. Flex ibili ty - Where product is stable, unlikely to change .
0'

. .Flex ible auto ma tion atto m ts to ac - High demand of product.

hiev
' e ma x im . . .
equip ment for job-o rder . um utilis
ancl me dP ium volu me .
pro d uctrnn
ation of - High rate of production.
l ead time (7�). set-up · . It has lesser The advantages of automated-flow lines are as follows :
time ( Ts) and Wor Ic- I n- p
roces s (WIP) .
6. Imp rov d Mate rial (i) It minimises the distance moved between operations.
� Hand llng
Mate n al han dling is tho (ii) Specialisation of operations can be done, especially m aterial
necessar non-prnd . uct1v . e .
transfer mac hines redu time. Autom ated handling.
ce 7�, WIP anf T
7· On -li ne ln sp ec tio n 110 (iii) Operations can be integrated into one cell.
Auto mation also invol (iv) Lesser Work In Process (WIP) .
ves incor� ora�i. ng ms . pc ct1. on wi th in the
man ufactu ring process (v) Lesser material handling labour cost.
as th e pi.od uct 1s berng ma .
scrap (Q) and rncreasing _d e, there_by reduc111g (vi) Increased production rates .
quality of Produc t to requi
< •
• •

8. Proc ess Contro l
A wi d e range of control
sche mes can be apph
for optim ising the each
step of process. Reduces
<
red specificatio ns . . A linear transfer mechanism, with piston and slider mechanism
. ·: can be used for stock handling and rotary transfer mechanisms with
od through automation
chain conveyer can be used on both sides for forward and return utilisation

T0 Q. as shown in Fig. 4 .
'
 o) 0. H 'ti (). t..) , J.,,c• f ,.0
. ,,pv
I

1.14 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTU NUMERICAL CONTROll 1.15

RING

3 . Automated Assembly Systems (AAS) ()

Row material/
AAS use automated methods at workstations rath er than human
beings. Automated asse mbly syste m also sometim es helps i n Line­
workport Finished

Halancing. Line Balancing problem is to arrange the individual process

in port out

and ass embly task at different workstations in such a fashion that the
0 0 0 0
t otal time requi red at each workstation is approxima tely sam e . Because
Automated Automated Automated Automated

wh en the workstation times are unequal, the slowest station determines

process process process process

l he overall production rate. A method of Largest Candidate Rule, is

Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5

used where l argest element tim e TC is selected and another feasible

F:ig. 3. Configuration of an fl utomated ulement is placed in place of i t . Feasible element is one which maintains
t he operation sequenc e and docs not incr ease the cycle time T .
flow 1 me.
·

The AAS are c lassifi ed by the type of work transfer system , used i n
Work
Fixed roil
iystem a s follows
- Continuou s assembly line e.g. bever age bottling.
- Synchr onous line e.g. press work or progressive dies.
- Asynchronous lin es e.g. pow er-and-free syste ms .
Slide r

- Stationary bas e part e.g. Aeroplanes .

Pisto

The basic elements/components of automated assembly lines consist of :

{Cl)

(a) Hopper, a conta in er into which component s are loaded a t

workstation.
(b) Parts feeder, removes component from hopper one at a time for
delivery to assembly workhead. Hopp er and parts feeder are
oftcnly combined into one mechanism .
(c) Feed trach, are either gravity driven or power driven us ed to
(b) tra nsfer c o mponents from hoppe r to assembly location
Fig. 4 . Wa11�mg maintaining pa rt's orientation.
(cl) Escapement devices, remove components from feed track at regular
· beam transfer syst em • showing va 11ou
.· s s Lages

time intervals e qual to cycl e time of assembly.

. g transfer cycle.
cl Ul'1n
2. Aut om ate d Ma chi nin g Op era
tion s
A u tom ate d m a c h i n es p e r fo r m
a seq ue n � c of ope ra t ion s
Ports improperly
sim ul tane ous ly on different workpa
r t.s. Th
oriented fed
. · csc mac hmc s are
- D 1 a l t· n cl cxm ·
back into hopper
· g mac hi n es.
- Tru nni on mac hin es
.
Assemb l y
- Transfer Jine s
.
workhead
· In Dial Indexing mac h · 1 e par· ts a
t roek
dial and is i n cl cxe·d betw een1 s1ucce, _ re f'i� ecl on a circular table called
ss1ve statwns.' whe reas , trunn ion
. are
. g a vertical dru m call ed tr �mm.
l,avm
? on which several fixtu res are
m oun ted , whi ch hold parts d r
- at.�fr ren t �recesses . The vertic
arrangement, help s bas ical ly t: �� 7' al
. P orm ? erat1ons on opposite sides of
the workpa rt • Tra ns"e P
carrier
n""ach ines are high
I' r mi ' .
pall ete fixtures. A typ ical transfe . ly versa t'J
i e mach mes with
.

; m achme can acc omm oda te even 33

works tations with buffe r (t e o a
) storages. Tpols are automa tically
Estjopement
selected, par ts are transpor:� �e? ween workstations and set-ups a r
and
_done aut oma tica lly e placement
. Fig. 6. Elements of the parts delivery system at an assembly workstation.
1.16 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING NUMERICAL CONTROL 1.17
Rotary
index tabl e (a) Wire-guided AGV: Cables 'buried' in.rectangular channels under
the floor guide these AGVs. Small magnetic plates, fixed to floor
at some junction places give signals to AGV during its motion.
These junctions are usually at the sharp bends in the network
of cables. These cables can be :
Steering cables
- Communication cables.

"'
0

Junction

Horizontal Feed
delivery track 0

c� Steering Frequency
Generator
(a)
1
0 0

Ports
0 0

�
� 0 9 Co mmunicotion point
Vertical �
delivery � Feed track Fig. 8.
� These AG Vs are fair�y reliable but have two disadvantages :
�
� (i) The cost of erecting cable into ground is very high and is also
labour-intensive.
(ii) AGV paths are difficult to alter because steering cables are buried
�
Pockets in into channel of 3 mm width and 1 cm depth. .
rotary index (b) Painted-line guided AG Vs : These AGVs have two photosensors,
table which detect the i ntensity of fluorescence of ultra-violet light
(b) reflected by a guide-line painted by fluorescent dye. Both these
Fig. 7. Various escapement and placement devices used in automatic sensors give signals which are amplified and compared to obtain
assembly systems : (a) horizontal and (b) vertical device for placement of error correction signal to bring AGV back on the paint'ed line.

4. Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs)

parts onto dial indexing table. The advantages of these AGVs are :
(i) Quickly erected and cheap.
AGVs are material handling systems that use independently (ii) Alterable easily.
operated, self-propelled vehicles that are guided along defined underground Disadvantages are :
pathways or reflective paint on floor surface. These are usually driverless (i) It cannot support complex networks due to difficulty in managing
trains which move loads along predetermined routes. The traffic in the junctions.
route is checked by the on-board sensors mostly optical or ultrasonic (ii) Painted lines can be obstructed by objects thus disabling AGVs
sensors and vehicle stops to avoid collision. guidance.
The advantage of AGV over conveyor system is that they can be
(iii) The dye point can be erased due to wear & tear and is to be

5. Automated Storage/Retrieval System

programmed to travel i.e. flexible and also cost beneficial. Currently we
have fixed path AGVs but new free rangi p.g AGVs are in final stage of
development, which would need only supervisory computer to control
and monitor it. There are two types of AGVs :
repainted.
It. is a combination of equipment and controls which store, handle
and retrieve materials with ease, precision and speed under automation.
 1.18 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING NUMERICAL CONTROL 1.19

These consist of aisles, that have racks to hold bins which contain
continuous-production classification.
l 795 was the world's first automatic factory. This, of course, falls in the
either unit loads or materials. There are one or more places from where
the material can be placed or taken out known as pickup-and-deposit The roots for automation of discrete-item production are firmly

6. Automated Machine Tools

(P and D) stations.
embedded in the ma·ss production concepts developed by Henry Ford
early in the twentieth century. The rate of production (cycle time) for an

Numerical Control (NC) is a sort of software control of a machine tool

This is a sort of programmable automation for batch production. automobile might be such that a finished automobile comes off the line

by means of alphanumeric characters recorded on punched tape or card.

every minute and a half. The length of time required for actual assembly
of an automobile is, of course, much longer. Assembly tasks are comined

Such groupings are often called stations, and many stations (assemblers,
·
Computer NC (CNC), is advancement of NC that it uses computer so that groups of tasks can be accomplished in less than the cycle time.
for (re) programming the new job operations. NC technology is applicable

a nalogous to group technology, a technique, as being the key to realizing

· to machine tool applications such as turning, milling, drilling etc. as robots, etc . ) are required along the line. This grouping of tasks is

many of computer-aided manufacturing's objectives for job-shop

well as non-machining such as welding, drafting and inspections. The
movement of tool/welding torch/Pencil is controlled by the program with

7. Automated Inspection Systems

reference to workpiece/paper etc. production.
Logically, the digital comp uter is the key to computer-aided

been used to control manufacturing function for more than 30 years.

Automated inspection involves automation in one or more steps manufacturing as well as computer-aided design. Digital computers have
involved in inspection procedure. It can be :
- Off-line, performed away from man ufacturing process. Programmable automation uses information technology and
- On-line, performed during manufacturing process. numerical engineering to provide coordination, machine control and

(a) Provi d i n g feedback control <la ta, to m ake compensating

It can be utilised in two ways : communication through computers in the most effective way. It attempts
to bridge the gap between consistency and fl�xibility. The principal

Table 1.3.
programmable automation technologies are shown in Table 1.3.

(b) Sortation, means separating rejected parts from accepted (usually

adjustments to bring process in control (on-line system).

'rhc of - line inspec tion use con tact inspection methods for
off-line). Computer Aided Design &
f
DraHing (CADD)
co-ordi nate/ finish measuring. But on-line inspection, generally uses laser A. Computer Aided Design (CAD) [
system scanning or optical or ultrasonic devices for sensing faults.
Computer Aided
8. CAD/CAM
Engineering ( CAE)

uses computer to create, modify or print an engineering design. It uses

Computer Aided Design/Drafting (CADD) involves any activity that
Com puter Numerically COntrolled
Machine Tools (CNC)
ICG (Interactive Computer Graphics). CAM on the other hand aids Direct Numerically Controlled
manufacturing with Robot technology or CNCs. CAD analyses the Machine Tools (DNC)
design and CAM applies the design to manufacturing. Sometimes both B. Computer Aided
combined with planning is called
. computer Integrated Manufacturing Manufacturing ( CAM) Robots
(ClM). .
Flexible Manufacturing Systems

The roots for the autorpation of a complete factory could be shown

8.1 . Historical Development of CAM (FMS)
Automated Materials Handling
to hav,e come from wany different sources, thoµgh it has been claimed Systems (AMH)
that a mechanical flour mill patented by Oliver.Evans of Philadelphia in Automated Storage and Retrieval
I . :
Systems (A'S/RS)
 1.20 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
Manag,ement Inform'ation System
(MIS\
C. Computer Integrated
Manufacturing ( CIM)
Computer Aided Planning (CAP) and
Computer Aided Process Planning
(CAPP)
The concept of compactness in programmable automation permitted
to machine tool builders to desi gn the CNC control panel as an integral
part of the machine tool rather than as a separate stand-alone cabinet.
This reduces floor space requirements for the m achirt e. Fewer
components in the controller means it is easier and less expensive for
the machine tool builder to fabricate, and reduce the burden on the uses
for maintenance and repair (it is because due to the use of fewer circuit
boards which are replaceable in nature).
The evolution of CAD and CAM has taken place over a relatively "
short time span. The technological capabilities are awesome. Machines
have long had the capability of changing their own tools, thus allowing a
diverse grouping of parts to be produced automatically.
1 . 1 1 INTRODUCTION TO NUMERICAL CONTROL
Efficiency is the term associated with every business, resulting in
profit making. If is defined as the ratio of output to the input. To increase
the profits, stress has to be laid on maximising the output with keeping
input to the lowest possible level. But at the same lime the quality and
reliability has also to be ensured. The feedback given by the market
survey can be utilised for improving the design of product, its production
process and other ·related things.
If we ask a machinist to remake a part on machine tool, he will
ne\d .
the compiled information about part, such as detailed sketch or a
drawing blueprint. If he is skilled worker then he will plan the type of
'
material, machining processes, cutting speeds, feeds and tools etc. in
ady ance. Complexity of a product increases the time to produce a
component, as more time is consumed by operator in reading the drawing
,' and checking dimensions. Moreover, today industry demands faster
production i n harder and toughter material to··unprecedented tolerances.
NUMERICAL CONTROL 1.21
these
Conventional machine tools (manual or automatic) cannot meet
demands.
The solution to this problem is, Numerical control as it supports
and are
85% of the market demand. These machines are highly flexible
in
most economical for producing a single or a large number of parts
ely new proces s of
bat,che s. Nume ric contro l is nothin g, but relativ
autom ati n.
organizing the information required for a process resulting in ?
tion process may be achiev ed by one of the followi ng
Automation in produc
HLrategies : ·
(a) Industrial Process Control (IPC). It mainly involves sensin
g
re etc. by sensin g
physical quantities like temperature , pressu
s by actuat ors.
devices (transducers) and controlling a proces
Most common examples are automatic control of boilers, control
of oil refinery, air-conditioning of buildings etc.
(b) Computer Aided Data Processing (CADP). Computer is finding
its way into every walk of our life. It lessens the burden of
excessive data, to be processed in no time. The types of data
processing may range from Computer Aided Process Planning
(CAPP), Material Requirement Planning (MRP) etc. to making
NC programs which can be directly converted to tape for Input
to NC machines.
{c) Special Purpose Manufacturing Machi1ies (SPMM). To make
the product, within close tolerances and with least wastage,
one requires special purpose or automatic machines. It is also
called fixed automation and is feasible only for long mass
productions, such as automobile, home appliances, newspapers
etc. It may use machines like autom.atic lathe having fixed
sequence of operations and hence named.
(aJ Numerical Control (NC). It is a form of digital control of a
machining process. It is a flexible method of automation
which can change itself according to the product design
changes. An NC machine is the combination of a machine tool
and a control system. No doubt that these controls use
characters and symbols. NC technology can be applied to
a number of operations such as assembly, inspection, spot
welding etc.
 1.23
1.22 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING NUMERICAL CONTROL

1 .1 2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN USING SPECIAL PURPOSE MACHINES rise to CNC, DNC, AC (explained later on). Nowadays NC machines can
AND NC MACHINES make si�ple as well as complex shapes and are even capable _of doing
non-machining operations like drafting, spot ,�ding, flame cuttmg, tube
_
bending etc. These days, punched tapes or ma �1\et1c tapes a: e us ed as a
_
S.P.M. N.C. Machines mean of storing information for giving speed, feed and direct10ns to
1 . They have fixed sequence of This is a flexible method in which the machines for complex shapes or directly a dedicated computer is used to
operations with l i ttle or no sequence ofoperations can be changed control on-line functions of an NC.
variation to machine a part. to machine a new part.
1 .4. NC MACHINES
2. Suitable for mass production This can be applied to short/batch automation, where
having identical parts. production runs or even a single part. NC machines, as explained earlier, is method of
n is done by some
3. The machine requires more time Complex set.ting up procedures are auto mati on of medi um and smal l volume productio
ous definitions of NC
for setting up. almost bypassed in these machiens. controls under the instructions of a program . Vari
'1. The programme or sequence of In these machines the programme is are :
ope rations i s built . into the stored as the software.
* given by EIA (Electronic Industries Association) is "A systeh� in .
hardware. which actions are controlled by direct insertion of Numerical
5. It has less scope for vanat10n as Data at some point. The system inust automatically interpret
These machines have large scope for
it is too costly. at least some portion of this data. "
variation of different products without
involvement of high costs. * The control of a machine tool by mea;,,,s of recorded information
on punched tape or cards is known as Numer;ical Control.
1.13 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND * Numerical Control is defined as a forin of software controlled
autonwtion, in which the process is controlled by alphanumeric
There are many things, very necessary in the modern world but characters or symbols.
are required in smaller quantity say one, two or so. For example, it is
According to these definitions, a programme is prepared which
unusua] for more than hundred Aeroplanes to be made of a single design.
consists of blochs; blocks consisting of combination of characters and
They r_nny be of differe nt lengths, different speeds and different passenger
numbers in sequence describing the position of the tool and job, the
capacity. As a result, the number of identical components is quite small.
cutting speed and feed etc. The data converted into coded i nstruct� ons
Copying profiles from master templates, was not a reliable method, to _
produce accurate identical parts also. This was felt by U.S. Air Force in which is called a "part programme." As the job changes, the instructions
19'10, after World War II, to design an equipment which could ensure of part program are also changed. The other instructions whi� h can be
quality in production of complex component of curved surfaces. Also to included may be for tool changing or coolant ON-OFF etc. It 1s easy to
take care of variety, it has to be flexible. Mr. J'ohn 'l'. Parsons used encode a new programme than to change the machinery for flexibility,
pu nched cards, containing X and Y co-ordinates recorded, to control a thus arising the need of an NC machine tool.
machine tool to manufacture helicoptor rotor blades. The machine ·was 1 . 1 5 CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAI LS/B ASIC COMPONENTS OF NC
able to move in small i ncrements, under the punched card instructions. MACHINES
In 1948, he demonstrated this.to U.S. Air Force at MIT (Massachusetts
Institute of Technology). In 1952, Alfred Herbert Ltd. made their first In. the very beginning, when the NC machine tools were added to
co_ntrolled machine · i.e. NC with three axis control. After 1952-53, the the conventional machine tools they used to control only the position of
Air Frame industries started developing their own NC prototypes. job relative to cutting tool. The cutting process and finishing largely
Ferranti Ltd. developed a continuous path control system. At MIT also, depended on the skill of the worker and the cutting speed, feed and the
the research work resulted in development of programming language tool selected by him . Later on, as the developments took place, the
APT (Automatically Programm e d Toolst which had English like other system variables such as feed, speed, depth of cut etc. were also '
statements. In 1964-65, Japan entered scenario and dominated it till controlled by NC itself. For a functional NC system doing all the above
Russia became the largest manufacturer of NC machines and have given operations, we need the following basic elem ents/components :
 1.24 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING "l lJ MERICAL CONTROL 1.25
(a) Software Then these instructions are punched on the control tape. Tape
(b) Machine Control Unit (MCU) , 1•nder reads the co� es and sends it to MC� which conversely converts
_
(c) Machine Tools (�T). I hem into the machme movements of mach ne tool.
1
1 .15.1 Software The Part Programme, is written in coded form, which is punched
1 1 1 1 tape in Binary format. No complete standardisation of codes has yet
As explained earlier, an automatic lathe, if is made to
produce a lu•cn achieved but more or less all codes use Binary Numbers. Let us
different part, then the tool and other controls are requi
red to be reset du,cuss Binary Coding for NC before proceeding.
for new sequence of movements. But in case of NCs,
the sequence of
movement can be changed simpl y by changing the 'softw
are'. 1 .1 5.1 .1 Binary Ceding for NC
The programs or set of instr uctions, languages, punc
magnetic tape, punched paper tape and other such inform
hed cards The normal decimal number system used, has a radix of 10 as its
items ar<' referred to as 'Software. '
ation processing lmse, because it has ten digits O to 9 for the formation of any number.
This software controls the sequence of movement of an l•'or practical representation of one decimal digit will require a ten contact
NC. That (decade) switch e.g. to represent a three digit no. 287 will require switches
is why these NCs are sometimes called software contr
olled machines ,1H shown in Fig. 10.
(see also tape controlled) and the skill required in produ
cing a part by
NC lies entirely in the progr ammi ng. The study of Nume This system is bound to introduce errors as in electrical circuits,
rical Control
is, therefore, largely the study of information progr ammi t ho positions, may be selecting different numbers of transformer winding
ng routines.
Programmi ng of a numerical operation is executed mostl t 11ppings for representing the value of-that digit. Voltage fluctuations
y manually. ,
The transformat,ion of t,his software from Drawing to Mach 111ny result. in wrong interpretation of data. Moreover, it is difficult to
ine is as shown
in Fig. 9. 1 opresent this ten position data on input media.

The programmer plans the operations and their seque

nce from
seein g the draw ing and writes instructions in tabul
ated blocks of
information, known as Part Programme or a program manu
script. 1 0 0 Ns 10 Ns
5
1 NS
0 0 �
4 4 4 5
3 0 0
0
5
,>6 30 0 CJ <:J 3

�:
0
2� 01 20 07 20
,o (:)
08 10 �8 ,o
-o<> 09 f> 09
¢9 f>

Fig. 10. Shows 287 figure.

Binary number system on the other hand, uses only two digits 'O'
.rnd 'l' which may be represented by a simple 'OFF'/'ON' switch or simply
hy 'hole' or 'No hole' on punched tape. It has a radix base of '2' because
ti has two digits. Some standard notations in Binary number system
Machine
11rc :
Control Unit

- 'BIT ' is a Binary digit which represents 'O' or 'l'.

'Chara�ter' is a combination of holes punched to represent a
symbol, letter or number.
Machine Tool

Fig. 9. Process Layout.

 1.26 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING N UMERICAL CONTROL 1 . 27
- Byte is a combination of 8 charact · . .
ers. Byte is used to represen� The ·values equivalent m dec�a} l and b'mary are as shown below :
one 'character'.
- Row '.i s a line of holes perpendicu Decimal Binary
lar to the length of tape.
To understand binary number sys 0000 0000
tem, let us first understand how
numbers are counted in dec ima l. Let 0001 0001
us take an example of Automobile
spe edo meter, which starts with I O 0002 0010
jO j O j O j.
After 1 km the rea din g changes 0003 OOl l
to : 0004 0100 1,

I o I o I o I 1. 0005 0101
1
As the vehicle moves more, the rea 0006 0110
dings change to :
O 0007 Oll l
j O j j O j 2 , , j O j O j O j 3 j upto O O O
j j j j9j 0008 1000
After this the unit digit turns (or rese 0009 1001
ttled to 'O' and the tens digit
is advanced by 1 i.e.
0010 1010
OOll lOll
IO IO I 1 IOI 0012 1 100
Similar is the case with binary counters having only 'O' and '1' two 0013 1 101
digits instead of ten digits. It starts with : 0014 l l lO
0015 1111
I O I O I O I O I.
The next increment gives rea din
g as
1 .15.1.2 Radix Conversion
: (a) Binary to Decimal Conversion. As eac h d 1g1 · al number
' ·t of a d ec1m
has a place value or weight as
IO I O IO I 1I 8
- , ::-,
- -3 - 9 - 5: i
-
As soon as the vehicle covers one more km, then the units digit is �
I - \ - \i - I -;::-'\ -: l
6 -,-
reset back to zero (0) and the second wheel advances by 1 i.e. 104 103 102 10 1 10°
Can be calculated as :
.
e . (6 X 104) X (8 X lQ3) + (3 X 1 02) + (9 X lQ ) + (5 X lQ 0)
� 60 000 + 8,000 + 300 + 90 + 5 = 68,395
l

The third increment result in Similariy, Binary nos. have place values in the weights of powers
of '2' i.e. base.
. / ., IO IO I1 I 1I J 1 \ o 1 o \ 1 l
\ \
e.g.
Because, the Jnits wheel can be incremented to '1'. Again for next 24 23 22 21 20
increment, the unii is reset to 'O', second digit also to 'O' and the third
i.e. (1 X 24) + (0 X 23) + (1 X 22) + (0 X 2 1) + (1 X 20)
digit is incremented to 'l ) i.e. + 0 + 1 - 21
= 16 + 0 + 4
It can be written in other way also as
IO I 1 IO IO I · (10101) 2 = (21) 10
The subscripts given tellthe base used for representing that number.
 1.29
1.28
NUMERICAL CONTROL

Out of t�1ese . EIA is the most po ular, but ISO codes are slowly
getting more importance than others. �
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

(b) Decimal to Binary Conversion. It is converted by 'Double-dabble'

method, in which the decimal number is successively divided by '2' and )
1 · 1 5 · 1 · 3· 1 EIA Codes
quotient and remainders are noted at each stage of division, till the
Th e EIA (Electronic Industry Associa · t'10n) , and AIA (Aerospace
remainder becomeR '1 ', with a quotient 'O'. The remainders are read in .
I ndustries Association) used th . w . d e1y accepte d code for the mac 1une
the reverse order giving the 'equivalent binary number'. For example, h s eight track organi sed with
models RS-244 and RS-273. Thl�is co i de �
the decimal no. '2 1 ' of previous example is converted as follows
l'!cven bits of inform ation codes as shown m Fig . l l (a).
Divide '21' by 2, quotient = IO and remainder = I
again Divide ' I O' by 2, quotient = 5 and remainder = 0 Binary Code
Track or channel number
again Divide '5' by 2, quotient = 2 and remainder = I
f 8 4
23 22 21 20

0 CH 4 Code
again Divide '2' by 2, quotient = 1 and remainder = 0
7 6 5 3 2 1
rm 8 2

again Divide 'I' by 2, quotient = 0 and remainder = i

1
• • EOB
If the remainders are taken in reverse order, the numb • �
er becomes
1010 1, which is the same binar y equiv alent of (21) •
0

as in previous
•
example. •
1
•
Example 2. Convert (27\ to (?)z, binary equiv alent
10

• • •
2

.
•
•
3

where, Q = Quotient
0
•
27 •
4
Q-R
R = Remainder
• • •
2 • • •
5

13-1 •
2

2 • • • •
6
7

3-0
&-,:._ I
= ( 1 1 0 1 1 )2
••
f •
8

2 1-1 • ••
2
9

0-1 Fig. ll(a). Arrangement of EIA codes.

The numbers 1 to 8 on the top of the tape represent onl th ?er

For paper tape, the 'Binary Coded Decim al' (BCD) codes � :o�t
of track and have no relationship with the holes punched. 'lhe �
owmg
1 . 1 5. 1 .3 BCD Codes

are used
as adapted by EIA (Electronic Industries Association). standards are followed :
It is having a small . .
difference from Binary, in the sense, that in it each (a) The 'sprocket holes' between 3 and 4 are offset and eqmhspaced
digit of the decim al
numb er is represented by four holes in one row. For holes used to advance or rewind the tape through reader.
exam ple,
27 will be represented as 00 1 0 01 1 1 for 2 and 7 (b) Channe 1s/Trac lrn 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 are used for numerical data such
and not as 11011 binary equivalent of2 as dimensions, speeds and feeds etc.
Simil arly, a binary patte rn code js assig ned for
all possi ble (c) Track 5 marked as CH is a parity check channe l. .
chara cters 'A' to 'Z' and 'a' to 'z' and for some speci · .
space ,( ), comm a (,), and full stop (.) etc. The NC mach
al characters like Even though the tape punchr. ng equ1pm ent 1· 5 very reliable , still
. . . .
of codes :
ines use two types there is poss1b1hty o_f an unpunch ed h le or hole blocked by debris. An0th er
case may be punchi ng of an extra . I10�e. w·1th the EIA system there must
- EIA codes ' r . If the numbers of holes are
be odd numbers of ho les for eac h c haracte
- ISO/ASCII codes
 I
1.30 NUMERICAL CONTROL 1.31
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

not odd in a row then a n additional hole is punched in 5th column thus
making it odd as shown in Fig. l l(b). If one of the holes fails to be

ii
REPRESENTATION IN
BINARY !� PUNCHED TAPE
punched, then an even number of holes would result and the tape reader �� REPRESENTATION
NAME OF
u� Bw 8 6 p 4 F 3 2. 1 CHARACTER
designed to check the odd parity will automatically stop, reading the·

. .
b, b, b• b, b• b, b, b, b, b, b, b, b, b,

. .•.
(.)

•
..
tape. A simple hand punch as shown in Fig. 15 can be used to correct 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SP Sf:.ACI§
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

.•
errors or even cello tape for closing holes. This odd parity check looks 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2

.
for any errors or mechanical failures in the tape preparations. 3 0 0 0 0 0 • 3

. ••.
I 1
4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4

. . .
• 5

'"'" ' " ' " f

5 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

. ..• ..•
6 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 • • 6

.• . .•
8 7 6 5 4 J 1 1 -lrock n o -8 7 6 S 4 7 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 7
P i 1 z' 2•--eina,y volut --- 21

.• . ..
1
8 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 8
1 of halt in track 9 0 0 0 0 0 1 9

.
1
for ni.,mbcr codt
11 0 0 0 1 0 EOB END OF BLOCK

.
0
1 1

i
0
16 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

.•• •• •••
0
Ho!,s intro. I OPTICAL BLOCK
-o
0
O 17 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 •3 1 0 1 0 s
18 0 0 0
• •
. .•• •
0
Track no. 5 _ -o •S o �; All volucs in
,10 mo1nt01n ,
00 0
19 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 T
: 0 •I. } connnltonol 0 0 u
20 0 0 1 0 1
OOD PARITY •
•
. .
•
.. .• . •..
0 0 U 0 •6 0 0 � 0 :q numbers
21 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 V
•
0

.• .• .•
•8 00 •8 22 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 IV

.
•
00° 0
0
23 0 0 1 0 1 1 X

..
0 1
0
24 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 y

.• .. .• •• .•
0
25 0 0 I 1 0 0 1 z
26 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 BS BACKSPACE

. ..
27 0 0 1 1 0 COl,1MA
•
1 1
29 0 1 1
-
TAB TABULATE

.
0

. •.•
•
..
0 f
1
MINUS SIGN

.. .
32 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
:n 1 0 0 0 0 1 • •
. ..
0 J
K

.
34 0 I 0 0 0 1 0
(i) With odd parity (,:i)·Withoul odd parity 1 o ·o I L

.
•
35 0 0 1

.
36 0 0 0 0 M
•
1 0 1
Fig. 1 1 . (b). Numerical value of holes in punched Lape. 37 0 0 0 1 0 1 N
• •
. .. •..
•
.
1
38 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
• •
. ..
• •
f
39 0 1 0 0 p
(cl) A single hole punched in track 6 represents a 'zero'. Some
• . .
1 1 1
40 0 0 1 0 0 0
•
.
1 0

.• ..
alphabets also use track 6 for coding. 41 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
•
A

.. . .•.
43 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 •1. PROGRAM START
48 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 • • • PLUS SI GN
(e) Track 7, marked X, is used to code alphabets to identify various • • •
..
+
49 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
• •
A
machine op9rations (a lo z). e.g. drilling, bcring, rea m i ng etc. so 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 . B

. .• .. .• ... •. ..
51 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 C
When channels G and 7 are pu neh.e<l in conjunction with channel •
.. • .•
52 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 D
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 E
l , 2. 3 or 1, operations a to i are selected. Letters } Lo r from
53
54 0 1 1 0 1 I 0 • �

.. .• .. •.
•
.
55 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 G

..
•
,,
Lhe 2nd group of alphabets using an X punch (channel 7). The 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 H
•
.. • .
•
.. .. •• ••
!:6

Ietten; s to z will be selectecl if only channel 6 is punched in 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1

se 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 LOWE RCASE
conjunction with channel l , 2, 3 or 4. 60 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 UPPERCASE
6'.l 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 • DEL DELETE
([) Track 8, marked EB represents the end of block or a encl 64 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 • • CA CARRIAGE ACTliflN
•
of reco rd ancl sometimes is used at the beginning of a
punch ecl Lupe. The N C m achine takes no action on the Fig. 12. ETA Codes.
information read from the tape until it reads this Carriage Example 1. For recording the numerical value of � , a hoJe should
Return holes. he punched in track 4 and 1 because track 4 has a numeric eqmvalent of
_
A TAB code, punched in tracks 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 indicates the tape H and track 1 has a numerical equivalent of l.
rewinding, in the tape reader, ready for next, to be stopped. 23 (i.e. 8) + 2° (i.e. 1) = 9
 1.32 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTU
RING NUMERICAL CONTROL 1.33
Sin ce there are even num ber of .
holes, hen ce an extra hole should
be punched in parity check trac k · . A punched tape shown m _ p·ig. 13 (A) co�taining one complete block
num ber 5. . . . t'nefrif ,
Example 2. Operation G would of mformation cons1s 1 0 o:-Iive complete words, the information puncJ:ied
be recorded by punching holes 1
2, 3, 6, 7. 1, on the tape is .as follows from left to nght :
DELETE is represented by pun
ching all seven hol es on the tap
When the wrong code is punche e.
d into the tape, then the error is
by this cod e. The tape rea der sim clea red
ply ignores the previous character
passes over to the next one. The and
chart showing all the codes are
Fig. 1 2 . giv en in

1 .15. 1 .3.2 ISO/ASCII Code

This is also a seven bit code hav
ing 8 tracks. This code is getting
more popularity and is being foll
owed internationally these days
it readily permits information because
exchange with the computers.
(International Standards Organis The ISO
ation)/ASCII (American Standards TN'E FEED
for Inf orm atio n Int erc han ge) Code
are shown as in cha rt app end
Fig . 13 (b) . ed in Fi . 13 (A). A complete block of information punched on a tape.
British standards are based on ISO 1 . In c�annel 8, a hole is punched :-"'hich represents_the end or the
recommendations and are given beginning of a line or block of information.
in BS- 363 5. Some manufacturers,
supply NC machines capable of rea
this code. Numbers are coded in ding 2 The first word of the block represents the . num b er of th e
BCD form on the first four trac :
previously explained but in additio ks as operat10ns. In th's 1 , N 001 represents the first operat10n on the tape .
n, all numericals values have hole The letter N is recorded by punching holes m · ch anne 1� 4 , 6 and 7.
tracks 5 and 6. The sprocket hol s in .
es between cha nne l 3 and 4 do not The two zeros are recorded by punching chann�l 6 m two succes�1v
a part of coding. All alphabet cha form
racters hav e a hole in track 7 and rows . The 1 is recorded by punching channel 1 wh1ch has a numer-1ca�
parity check is a hole in track 8. the
to produce an eve n num ber value of 1.
Example 1. To record the ·ntt� . -
punched in track 4 (Bin ary equiva
erical val ue 8 : The holes are to
be 3 . The TAB is used to separate each word mto a block or-m£ormation . .
lent'Qf (2 3), holes in 5 and 6 (nec 4 The second word in the block represent� th.e type of operat10n to
for num ber s) and a hole in track ess ary
8 or 'P ' for pro duc ing an even num b e periorm
; ed · G81 is a drill cycle on Cincinnati Milacron NC system.
Ex am ple 2. Operation B wou ld ber . . .
be recorded by punching the hol The letter G is recorded by punchmg m channe1 s 1 1 2 ' 3 ' 6 ai:d 7.
in 2 and 7 tracks. DELETE cha rac e
ter is recognised by punching hole The 8 and 1 are recorded by punc�ing channels 4 and 1 respective1Y
all the eig ht tra cks (Why '?) Bec
even for parity che ck.
ause to mak e the num ber of hol
s
es as
in
which have a corresponding numerical value of 8 and L
5. The third word represents the distanc: of t�e ta�le shde �u
So far , we have discussed the typ
e of info rma tion which is in the move from the x axis . The information contamed m th1rd wora is �
end form use d by the mac hin e 1 2345 as sh own m . p·ig. 1 5A · As standard tapes on closed-loop systems
' Wor d' is the unit of information mad e ·
up of som e bits. A com plete gro. P�ogram all dimensions to ten thousandths of an me · h , the mach'neI will
up of information wor ds makes a
These informations are given in 'bloch'. move 12345 inch from the X .
. -axis.
different formats e.g. fixed block, . . .
seq uen tial or word address form Tab 6 The fourth. word represents the distance the table slide t
at (exp lain ed late r. on), nee ded
ma chi nin g a com pon ent , throug for move from the Y- axis. Here in this Fig. �.5A, Y06789 represents a ��� a e
h a n inp ut me dia . Eac h blo ck
info rma tion mu st contain five com
plete words or pieces of informa
of m.oven{e.nt of 0.6789 i_n ch from the Y-axis. . .
tion . . 7 . The fifth word represents a -miscellaneous r_nachmmg . .
If five complete words are not ; function .
included in each block, the tap . . .
will not. rE)cognise the information e rea der .
M51 would se 1ec. t the proper cam so that the hole m the work p�e.ce is
on the .tape and so there will not . .h h d
�ny actu atio n of control uni t. l.:!e drilled to �he required de th. Wit l ment of NC a variety 0£
input rned�a has been use� to presen \:he �:;o��ations from Drawing . �f
. . : .·
1.34 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
NUMERICAL CONTROL 1.35
the � roduct to MCU . Most N/C machines used following
types of input
media : t .1 5.1.4 Punched Cards
/
(a�Punched cards Joseph M ari a Jacquard, fwas the first person to use cards with
(b) Punched paper tape 1111nched holes, as an input medium on Automatic Weaving machine for
(c) Magnetic tape 1111iding threads through holes. Different patterns of weaving were
(cl) Floppy disks. 11Pnerated by using different cards. Later on, Dr. Herman Hollerith,
,·nmmerically used punched cards for business tabulators. The two types
,if punched cards, (i) Univac and (ii) IBM, have different information

ii
_, REPRESENTATION IN er
< :,: BINARY PUNCHED TAPE
:::. -
ua REPRESENTATION
p 7 6 5 4
NAME OF
, "des used by them. A standard punched card approximately equals in

.• ••.
F 3 2 1 CHARACTER
�w
b, b, b, b, b• b, b, b, b, b, b, b, ,b b, 3 .1
t½e to an Indian post card or 7 " x 3 ".
,

8 4
0 0 0 b 0 0 0 0
8 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 • NUL
BS
NULL
BACKSPACE
9 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 • TAB
It has 80 columns and 12 rows, where the data is punched in the .·
10 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
• • • •
TABULATION

• • • LF ENO OF BLOCK

. .
13 0 0 0 1 1 10
• • CR lorm of rectangular holes or no hole. Sometimes a 120 column card is

.•. •.. • •.
0 I 0 0 0 0 0 a • CAA RETURN

.
._32 SP SPACE
37 0 1 0 I) I 0 I • 1 I Ho used. The cards are made of fairly stiff paper and with a careful use,
40 0 1 0 I 0 0 0 • % PROGRAM START
I hey can be processed through a mechanical card reader for a number of
• I CONTROL OUT

.
41 0 1 0 1 0 0 I
• CONTROL IN

• • • • .
1 1mes. The arrangement of rows as shown in Fig. 14 is designated as 12,
)
43 0 1 0 1 0 I 1
•• • • -
+

.
PLUS S G N
45 0 1 0 I 1 0 1
47 0 I 0 1 I 1 1 • • MINUS SIGN
I I and then O'to 9. The punching positions are marked with a number
• • •
.
I OPTIONAL BLOCK SK

. ••
48 0 1 1 0 0
, 11presenting its row which is helpful in easily identifying the position by
0 0
•
.
• • 0

.
49 0 1 1 0 0 0 1

.
• • •'
.• .• •
I
50
51
0
0
1
I
I 0 0
1 0 0
1 0
1 1 • • 2 11nked eye. Normally, an instruction is punched in spaces 1 to 7 2. The
52 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 • • 3
, ,,maining 8 spaces can be used for card identification. On card is used
• •
. •• •
4
53 0 1 I 0 1
l 1 1 r punching 72 characters. However, if a line of instruction is so long
0 I
54 0 1 1 0 1 1 ·o • • • • 5

• • •
. •• •• •. • •
55 0 1 I 0 1 1 1
• • 6
I l i nt it cannot be accommodated on one 9ard, then it may be continued
56 0 1 I 1 0 0 0 •
• • • 7

1111 succceeding cards, punching the last character on each card as '$'.
8
fi1 0 1 1 1 0 0 I
• 9

. ••
68 0 I 1 I 0 1 0
65 1 a 0 0 0 0 I • • : ALIGNMENT FUNC.
They are best suitable for controlling machine tools used for cutting
66 I 0 0 0 0 1 0 • • A
l 11 rge and complex parts, because each card can store a large amount of
• •
.• ••
67 1 0 0 0 0 1 I • • B

• .
68 I 0 0 0 1 0 0 • C
tin La. A typical card reader is capable of reading 120 cards per minute.
• • 0

• • • •
69 I 0 0 0 I 0 1 -
l'he only disadv antage of the card system is, that they are bulky and
• .
E
70 1 0 0 0 1 I 0

.. .• • •
F
71
't2
1
I
0 0
0 0
0
1
I 1 1
a 0 0 •' ' • • • G '" 1 re bent clue to carelessness or the sequence of cards may get changed.
• ' H

.•
73
74
I
1
0 0
0 0
I 0 0 1
1 0 I 0 • • I ,. l'he sequence of cards can be ensured l:y punching some redundant
• i nformation, such as serial number on each card.
• • • • J

.
75 1 0 0 1 0 I 1
• • • K

• • . •
J
76 1 0 0 I 1 0 0
n
• • • . •
' • L
1 0 0 1 1 0 I • • •
78 1 0 0 1 1 0 • M
1 .15.1 .5 Punched PaperTape
• • N

.
79 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
• As there were different types.of input media requfred by different
.
• • 0

.
00 1 0 1 0
0 0 0
• •
. ••• ••. ••• •• • ••
B1 1 0 1 0
0 0 I
• • • • p
a 111achine tools, the Electronic Industries Association ( EIA) decided to
82 I 0 1 0
0 I 0 •
.
1 a 1 0
0 1 I landar<lise the input media for most of the NC machines. Hence, a 25.4

• . •
et s
1 0 1 0
1 0 0
tnm and 8 channel punched tape was chosen as a standanl input media.
• .
T

• • • . • .
1
_Q_J 0 I 0 1 u
� T0 1 0 1 I 0 • •
C

Previouslx, five hole tape was also used, but it could represent
• V

• . .
07 T-0 0 1 1 •
• • .. .•
1 w
•
1

-.
BB I 0 I I 0 0 0
r only 2 5 i.e. 3 2 different values and 8 hole tape can represent different
.
• X
0
�1 0 1 I 0 0 1·
00 '"1 0 I 1 0 I 0 • y ==
'l 56 values or in other words we can say 8 times the information as .
127
'--
1 1 I .1 1 1 I • • • • • • • • z
OEL DELETE represented by 5 hole tape. Moreover, the computers also use the 8 bit
,·odes, henc·e the 8 channel tape was standardised and became popular
Fig. 13(B). ISO Codes. for the use in industrial applications.
1.36
1.37
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
NUMERICAL CONTROL

The punched tape is one inch wide an/4mes in a roll of 8" diameter.,
. .

I t can accommodate 10 lines of holes per fn�h of length and one roll can
1 "cord up to one lac characters. It is necessary to have a leader and a

I miler space to accommodate the·tape to be wound on spool and loaded

1 1 1 1 the tape reader. The tape has a line of equally spaced drive sprocket

holes, which are punched at the same time as the data. The sprocket
holes are offset to one side of the tapes so that the tape i s not inserted
wrongly into the reader. The punch tape are manufactured from a number
111' different materials as
(a) Paper tapes : There are the cheapest tapes made of paper
,vailable in different colours, s·o that, if required, the colour coding is
possible. Again these are of two types : (i) Oiled and (ii) Non-oiled. Oiled
I 1pes help lubricating the punches in the perforating typewriter and are
nmmonly used. A blue paper tape can be used for about 500 times and
white for 300 ti.mes. These are generally not recommended for a shop
llnor as it tears easily. But at the same time, this same quality is helpful
1 1 1 editing or modifying the tape. The paper tape is cut with a razor blade

l 11 Lween the holes and a new portion can be inserted, joined with cello
l 11pc. The paper tapes have advantage of not being bent, no need of reel
1

t11r short length and are used for keeping a permanent record for file
pllt'pose.
(b) Mylar tape : Mylar is a plastic material, which is used to make
V,

1110re durable punched tapes. These are also of two types : (i) Paper
C
0

Mylar and (ii) Solid Mylar tape.

:;;
0
C

The Paper Mylar is a laminate of thin piece of plastic, between two

c,,
"iii
Q)

I rips of paper making it hard to tear. Solid mylar, is the strongest tape
0

material available, which is not affected by oil or water.

C
E
::,

(c) Foil tape : The aluminium foils are used as tape materials
0

where optical readers are used. But they are very expensive and are
(J

�
hnrd to punch.
0

It' is preferred to make a duplicate. copy of the punched tape which

' (J

, nn be used in case of loss or damage of originaf copy of it.

The information on a punch tape is recorded by using one of the
111cchanisms as follows :
(i) Simple hand punch.
______ (ii) Tele typewriter.
V (iii) Flexo writer.
\,.
.________
,.. _,.
,/

(i) Simple hand punch : A simple hand punch can be used to

punch short tape!'l or correct any errors in a tape already punched.
��
0 0
'", �· .
Fig. 15 below shows a simple hand punch which has pins to fit the
(.) O::·

Fig. 14. Punched card. Hp rocket holes and a slot for cutting the tape. A handle is used for punching
1.38 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING NUMERICAL CONTROL 1.39

operation. An experienced operator can punch 60 characters per minute
by using hand punch.
As the information being recorded mostly comprised of the ..
'numerals' which represent the dimensions. Hence, the number keys
and X, Y, Z keys are located on the right side of the key.board. The zero
key is a bar, because-it is used frequently. Only few alphabet keys like
E, R, T, U, P and A, S, D , F, G, H and C, B, N, M are there on the key­
board. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 16.
(iii) Flexo writer : Flexo writer is also an electric type writer and
have a facility for reproducing a tape as shown in Fig. 1 7 . It can handle
an 8 hole tape. The paper tape is threaded through the tape punch and a
tape is punched character by character, as the keys are struck. The
information punched is at the same time typed on the sheet of paper,
with the help of tape reader provided inside the flexo-writer. We can
compare manuscripts with the original to check for errors.

Punched
Taoe

Fig. 15. Hand punch.

(ii) Tele typewriter : A Tele typewriter is used as an off line device
which also provides a typed copy alongwith the punched tape.

Punched
Paper Tape

Fig. 17. Flexo writer.

This was the first information medium, used with the first NC
1 .1 5 . 1 .6 Magnetic Tape

machines i n 1958. Magnetic tapes are made of plastic material and are
coated with brown colored gamma ferric oxide layer, which can be
magnetised and demagnetised easily. These are usually 25.4 mm wide,
with a capacity of 2 characters per mm and are available in the speed
range of 10-40 mm per second. These are also available in 6 mm. width.
It has usually seven channels on which the data is recorded in the form
Fig. 16. Tele typewriter. of small magnetised spots . The data can be accessed in sequential form
 1.40 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING I/M ERICAL CONTROL 1.41

i.e. one after the other, from it. The advantages of magnetic tape over 1 111 1 various types of floppy disks available are :
other mediums are : Specifications Capacity
l'hysical Size
(a) Greater information storage capacity.
(b) Information can be erased and used again. DSDD
1 Double Sided
5-" 360KB
(c) Directly compatible with computer information codes. 4 Double Density
(d) Best suitable for complex contouring system due to large
data. 1 DSHD
5-" Double Sided 1.2 MB
O n the other hand the disadvantages of it are : 4 High Density
(a) Codes are not visible by eyes, hence the only way to correct it
i s to reprocess through the computer. 1
3-" DSHD 1.44MB
(b) More expensive as compared to punched tape, cards. 2
(c) Not suitable for shop floor, because is affected by dust and
If the data recorded is not to- be chang�� again, an� is only needed
dirt. I , reading, then the 'Write Protect Notch 1s closed with a tape. The
(d) Magnetic fields, generated by resistance welders and induction 1 1 •,,·autions while using a floppy are :
generators, de1:;troy the data on them. (a) Never touch R./W ( Read/Write ) area.
(e) It cannot be filed and is always to be kept on spools to avoid (b) Never bend it.
bending or stretching. (c) Never press it insid� a book etc.
(d) Avoid placing in magnetic fields.
1 .1 5. 1 7 Floppy Disks (e ) Always keep in a protective paper cover.
Floppy disks have brought a revolution in compl!ter technology. (f ) Avoid du�t and,.dirt near it.
These are made up of Mylar and are also coated with magnetic
I 1 6.2 Machine Control Unit (MCU)
oxide.
Every NC machine tool has a main unit, which is known as MCU,
1111Rists of some electronic circuitry (Hardware) that reads the NC
S pindh? for job Coolant unit
I'
Jack<! .... , , __writc"P16ftc1
.f· I
' natch

Holes for J....--.,<-;- Tronsporent

spin di� S'hu11er
mo1or
lnspettion
window

Fig. 18. Floppy disk.

These are random access media means that data can be accessed from
anywhere on the disk and in any f�,hion. The data on the disk is organised
on tracks and sectors.
Fig. 19. Housed MCU.
1.42 . COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURIN. NUMERICAL CONTROL I' 1.43

program, interprets it and conversely translates it for mechanical action

of the machine tool.
MCU

The MCU may be of three types

(i) Housed MCU D
(ii) Swing around MCU
(iii) Stand alone MCU
(i) Housed MCU : This MCU, itself, may be mounted on th
machine tool or may be built in the casing of the machin
shown in Fig. 19.
(ii) Swing around MCU : This MCU is directly mounted on th
Fig. 21. Stand Alone MCU.

machine which can 'swing around' it and can be adjusted a

per requirement of the operator's position. This arrangement A typical MCU may consist of the following units
1 . 1 5.2.1 Sub Units of MCU

shown in Fig. 20, provides large working space around the

(A) Input/Reader Unit
machine.
(B) Data Buffer (Memory)
(C) Processor
(D) Output channels and actuators
(E) Control Panel
(F) Feedback channels and transducers
(A) Input/Reader Unit
@

Input or Reader unit consists of electro-mechanical devices used to

collect the input media (punched tape, cards, magnetic tape and disk),
Machine

drive it through the system under a reading head, interpret the coded
- Tool

information and collect it again for reuse. Spools are used for punched
tape, magnetic tape and a bin for cards.
Swing Type
MCU

Various program readers available on .the basis of type of input

media are :
(a) Card readers : The card reading equipments consist of a box to
keep all the cards in a sequence in the form of a pack, pressed
by a weight. The other part consists of a reading mechanism
and a collecting tray, to which the cards are passed
automatically by a lever. The reading is done either by brushes
or by a matrix of Peckers (fingers) or by a series of photoelectric
cells. Visual inspection permits the errors to be detected easily.
(iii) Stand alone MCU: This MCU is enclosed in a separate cabinet
Fig. 20. S�ng around MCU.
A typical card reader as shown in Fig. 22 can read up to 500
which is installed at some remote or same place near to the cards per minute. Cards were mostly used for point to point
machine as shown in Fig. 2f systems.
1.44 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACT:URING
NUMERICAL CONTROL 1.45

20-120 lines · of codes per second. These are nowadays used in

Point-to-p�int systems. The scanner mechanism is shown in
Fig. 23.
(ii) Pneumatic Type reader : This type of reader pushes a
compressed stream of air through eight jets over the tape. The
other side oftli.e tape has eight number of contacts, which are
made easily by the forced air passing through a hole as shown
in Fig: 24. An open contact implies 'No hole.' These scanners
are somewhat faster than Mechanical types.

·. . r, Compress td

;� "'' '"'
Air-through tape hole makes No air through tape no hole makes
Fig. 22. Card Reader. the circuit on. the circuit off.
(b) Punched tape reader : The punched tape contains a description Fig. 24. Pneumatic Type Reader.
of geometrical shape, as well as the technical data for (iii) Optical reader : These readers/scanners consist of a light source
manufacturing a work piece. The punched tape is passed and a series of light sensing 'photocells' as shown in Fig. 25. A
underneath the readi ng head with the help of a sprocket wheel beain oflight is transmitted on to the punched tape and sensed
which has conical teeth on its periphery which seamer fits into by photo-electric cell thus converting light energy into electrical
the sprocket holes of the tape. The function of mechanism is energy. These are very fast scanners and can read from
to detect 'Hole', or 'No hole'. Different types of scanning 400 to 100 characters/rows per seco fd. Hence, these are best
mechanisms employed are·: suitable for continuous control syster1s where large data is to
(i) Mechanical Type reader : It has a sprocket wheel and eight be read. .. · 1
peckers or star wheels or metallic brushes which make or break
eight contacts by pushing or dropping it through the holes
present. These are very cheap but have a slow spe�d pfreading Punch tape

., ..�
(a) No hole
.l . . - -·:·
·.:"

(b) Hole
Fig. 23. Mechanical Type R��der. FiJ. 2i. Pri11iiple of optical tape scariner.
1.46 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING IIM ERICAL CONTROL 1.47

(iv) Magnetic Tape reader : The information on ma gnetic tape can , t'l' 'hard-wired' that means they had always a fixed number offeatures,
be in one of th� two forms : h111rlions and operations. So later on, software based processor such as
111ini computer, were used giving the concept of CNC (Computer
Recording hcod umerical Control). But still the conventional hard-wired processors
NI, have the advantage of using lesser storage sp;lce, fast working and
"'' expenditure. The function of it is to co-ordinate and control the
111l'tions of other units, by giving ready signals to them at appropriate
1111t of time.
ti> Output Channels and Actuators
The data stored in the buffer is converted into actuation sign al and
1111plied through output channels in the form ofp�es. These channels
1 11 l\othing but pins on IC or wires from the processor. The pulse signal
Mox. magnetic force 111' very small voltage.and current, which is amplified by electronic or
I, 1 tro-magnetic amplifiers or thyristors. These amplifiers alongwith
11H' circuitry, which drive (actuate) the servo/split field/stepper motors
1 wme hydraulidpneumatic power unit for positioning and contouring
1

Ill' machine tool, are known as Actu�tors.

I,) Control Panel
The control panel permits the operator to interfere the· machine
-

111·ration manually. It may be an emergency stopping machine's

Fig. 26. Magnetic tape reader.
Data representation similar to paper tape but packed with
higher density. 1ttvcment or Manual Data Input (MDI) instead of tape or to change the
Having more data represented like for curved path etc. 11,I speed. These interrupts given, override the data being fed by tape.
The latter type needs a simple type of scanner, as shown i n
I t lllay also have the switches, indicators and dials for providing
Fig. 26. Magnetic tape recording head and replay head, which are similar 11l11rmation to the operator.
in construction to heads fitted in tape-recorders except that NC magnetic
reader heads have narrower magnetic gaps and allow multiple heads.
The magnetized spots can be recorded as data 'l' and if de1na,gnetised,
1
)
\,,,,l 1111l11,,1.'•
'

then the data recorded is 'O'. These readers are. fast and expensive,
IGO TO, �0000,000IOOO�·OOC
,OSM ANO 1[0 HMIIIJ
•,..,.,A

extensively used these days because oftheir erasing and reusing facility.
• 0000·,ooo
Z 0000·000
0000
0
CNTL
(B) Data Bu ffcl' (Memory)
A complete block of information, consisting of words, is read from
tape and stored into temporary memory called buffer. One logical block
may contain one complete set of instruction words in se4 uencc, like
locating the tool on job and then doing the operation at that position.
Different words arc stored in specified memory locations. The function
of this memory is to keep on storing the next block of words, when the
machine is doing processing of previous block.
(C) Processor
Previously the processor or controller used vacuum tubes, then
transistors and later on now, IC (Inte �ated Circuits) technology. These
Fig. 27. Control Panel.
 NUMERICAL CONTROL 1.49
1.48 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURIN

(F) Feedback Channels and Transducers

12. NC Spark erosion machine
13. NC Electron beam machine
To check whether the operations are done in the way we want t
14. NC Laser tool machine
the feedback (mostly position and velocity) is sent through feedbac
channels. Position and displacement measuring are known a 15. NC Rivetting machine
Transducers. Transducers convert one form of physical quantity in 16. NC Inspection machine
another. They may be resistive, inductive, capacitive or optical devices 17. NC Stretch forming machine
Sensors may be Digital for sensing 'ON' or 'OFF' or Analog for positio 18. NC Ultrasonic testing machine
ofjob or tool. Another categorisation of transducers for positioning ma 19. NC Tube bending machines
be :
20. NC Contour mill
'Rotary' connected directly to lead screw.
21. NC Laser cutting machine
'Linear' which indicate the position of slide which moves ove
22. NC Laser drilling machine
stationary bed.
All of the above components may or may not be present in all N 1 . 1 5.4 Advantages of NC Machines
machines. The same are discussed in details in Chapter 2.
The advantages to be gained by the use of NC machine tools are
1 . 1 5.3 Machine Tools (MT) enormous and of many different kinds. Some of them are listed below :
(i) Smaller batches. Single parts or limited production in smaller
It is· the main component of an NC system, which executes- th
batches runs can be made with minimum cost and efforts, thus
operations. It may consist of a simple drilling machine to the most flexibl
machining centres. making it suitable for the parts where the design changes take
place frequently.
It includes different parts/sub-assemblies
(ii) Increased flexibility. Engineering changes in production of parts
Work table are less costly and more rapid, since changes with NC are
Cutting tools quickly accomplished by changing a tape rather then building
Jigs and fixtures new jigs and fixture. A single machine can perform many
- Motors for driving spindle and tool operations such as drilling and milling on it.
- Coolant and lubricating system (iii) Production of complex parts. These are capable, to produce
Although NC machines are mostly used for chip-cuttin complex parts that could not be made by conventional machines.
requirements. still there are some special applications where N (iv) Reduced s_e t-up time. The time required for setting up and
machines are finding their way such as locating the job is greatly reduced. From the number of setups,
1. NC Drilling machines often only one is required.
2. NC Milling machines
3. NC Lathes
' - (v) Elimination ofspecialjigs and fixtures. Special jigs and fixtures
usually required for positioning are eliminated since the
machine can locate positions quickly and accurately.
4. NC Boring machines
(vi) Machine utilisation. The NC machine is utilised for the 80% of
5. NC Grinding machines time as it requires a little of the operator's attention. Hence,
6. NC Punching mi,l��ii!&•s . ,,' ,··. . the operator in the mean time·, is free to do the non-productive
·7: · �c Welding macli)i�� activities while the machining is going on, such as presetting
8. Nt:: Filament wirtding machine ', of tools and setting of other jobs.
g_ NC Wire processing machine (vii) Machining accuracy. A consistent and high degree of accuracy
10. NC Knitting machine of machining is achieved. The consistent products, lead to better
11. NC Textile cutting machine assembly and reduced fitting costs. The use of cutter diameter
1.50 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
compensator in part programming permits the finer finishes
irrespective of the off size cutters.
(viii) Lesser scrap. The reliability of the system eliminates most of
the human error associated with manual operation, e.g. in
correct hole location errors arc entirely eliminated. This
reduces the cost of scrap by more than 50%.
(ix) Reduced inspection. Inspection costs arc greatly reduced
because of the reliability of the NC system and do not need full
inspection. Hence the cost to transport parts to inspection site
is also reduced.
(x) Longer tool life. According to the material of the work piece,
the speeds and feeds of the tool can be selected accurately.
This reduces the wear and tear of the tool giving it a longer
cutting life.
(xi) Tool storage cost. As the tools arc more readily located in a
computer controlled tool index system, hence there is no need
of separate storage system of the tools, causing reduction in
tool storage cost.
(xii) Lower Labour Cost. One operator ca,1 look after several
machines at a time or multi pallet machines resulting in
reduction of labour cost.
(xiii) Cost of modification. The production is not stopped while a
modification is introduced because a new tape can be quickly
prepared with very less cost.
(xiv) Reduced fioor space. Although the floor space occupied by an
NC machine is usually,.¥reater than a conventional machine
but it will do different 1fr'achining operations in a single set up
i.e. the output of one NC machine is equivalent to the output
from several conventional machines. Hence, it requires an
overall lesser floor space.
(xv) Lesser human error. The possibility of human error is greatly
reduced as the management instructions are converted on a
paper tape or card and this paper tape controls the machine
hence there is no change for the human emotions or fatigue to
come in effecting the quality of product.
(xvi) Easy and effective Production -planning. The production
planning is easier and more effective with NC _equipment
because manufacturing capacity is more constant, predictable
�nd efficient. Cost estimates are improved because of the
reliability and efficiency of NC machines.
�IJMERICAL CONTROL 1.51
(xvii) Reduction in transportation cost. The machining centre reduces
the number of times a component has to be moved from machine
to machine, thus reducing the transport cost during the
production. The time spent in awaiting the availability of the
machine is also eliminated.
There are a number of problems lying i n the conventional N C which
I .1 5.5 Problems with Conventional NC
lt11ve motivated machine tool manufacturers to get improvements in
I he basic NC systems. The problems arise in the conventional NC systems
ll'l' the following
(i) Part programming mistakes. In preparing the punched tape,
pnrt programming mistakes (either syntax or numerical errors) are
, 11mmon. Another related problem in part programming is to achieve
1 he best sequence of processing steps.
(ii) Punched tape. The tape itself is the another problem related
I o programming because paper tape is especially fragile and its
11:;ceptibility to wear and tear, causes it to be an unreliable NC
, omponent for repeated use in the shop.
(iii) Tape reader. The tape reader is generally acknowledged
11nong NC users, to be the least reliable hardware components of the
1111tchine. When any breakdown is occurred on an NC machine, the
11111intenance personnels usually begin their search for the problem with
I l l e tape reader.
(iv) Controller. The controller of convention NC machine is hard­
wired and it cannot be easily altered to incorporate improvements into
1 he unit.
( v ) Nonoptimal speeds and feeds. In conventional NC
111nchines, the control system does not provide the provision to change
I he speeds and feeds during the cutting operation.
(vi) Management information. The conventional NC system is
IHIL equipped to provide timely informations (such as piece counts,
111achine breakdown and tool change) on operational performance to the
111nnagement.
To solve the above problems, the machine tool manufacturers and
, ontrol engineers have been continually improving NC technology by
, 1 designing the systems.
1
The hardware technology has changed dramatically over the years
1 .1 6 ADVANCES IN NC CONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY
111 NC controls. The following generations of controller hardware can be
hl<mtified
 1.52
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
(i) Vacuum tubes. I n early days, NC proto-type machine built in
Circa 1952 in the ,MIT Servo mechanism Laboratories used vacuum
tubes for the controller hardware which were so large that the control
unit consumed more space than the machine tool.
(ii) Electromechanical relays. The first NC machines were sold
to the commercial market in about 1955. In these machines, the vacuum
tubes were replaced with the electro-mechanical relays. the problem
again arised in the relay based controls due to their large size and poor
Teliability.
(iii) Discrete semi-conductors. I n the next generation (around
_ 1960) of NC controllers, the use of transistors was based on discrete
semi-conductor technology and almost all electro-magnetic relays were
replaced by the transistors. Accordingly, this increased the reliability
because use of transistors avoided the wear problem. Although due to
the use of transistors, the size of NC controller was greatly reduced, but
on the other hand, the electronic devices were sensitive to heat, and
fans or air- conditioners were required in the cabinet to operate under
factory conditions. ·
(iv) Integrated circuits (IC). In 1965, integrated circuits were
introduced for the use in NC controls. This change oftechnology brought
significant improvement in size and reliability, and reduced the cost of
NC system considerably.
At the same time another development in NC control marked the
intr.oduction of digital computers in NC controller technology. In this
system the functions were programmed into the computer memory and
could be changed by altering the program.
(v) Direct Numerical Control. This was the first of the computer
control system introduced around 1968. The computer used in this
system was quite large in size and expensive . The single computer was
capable to control number of machine tools simultaneously on a time­
shared basis. The advantage of DNC was that it established a direct
control link between the computer and the machine tool, hence
· eliminating the necessity for using punched tape input. The tape and
tape reader were turning out to be the least reliable components in the
conventional NC system.
(vi) Computer numerical control. The first commercially·
introduced, computer numerical controls (CNC), in 1970 which were
easily programmable through their own softwares. The computer used
smaller in size and less expensive with the machine tool. One standard
computer control unit c9uld be adapt�.d to various types of machine
tool� by programming the control functions into the computer memory
for that particular machine. ,
· of a part to be manufactured and the computer · automaticall1 generates
. I he part program for the loaded part.
.
'
1.53
NUMERICAL CONTROL
(vii) Microprocessors and microcomputers. With the
1•ontinuous advances in computer technology or programmable
,,utomation technology, most compact digital control devices have ·
developed with greater working speeds and capacity at lower costs around
1975.
Now that we have crossed the evolution of NC controls from the
1,cginning to the l,llodern micro computer-based controls, we will examine
I he technology of following in more details :
(i) Computer Numerical Control (CNC)
(ii) Direct Numerical Control (DNC)
(iii) Adaptive Control (AC)
(iv) Transfer Machines (TM)
(v) Machining Centres (MC)
(vi) Conventional Machine-layout system
(vii) CAD/CAM
1 . 1 6.1 CNC (Computer N umerical Control)
As discussed earlier, i n CNC, a mini computer is used to control
machine tool functions from stored in informations or punched tape
tnput or computer terminal input. A CNC is specifically defined as-
- 'It is a self-contained NC sys�for a single machine: tool which
uses a dedicated mini computer, controlled by the instructions stored- in
,ts memory, to perform all the basic numerical control functions.
- As given by EIA, 'The numerical control system where a
dedicated, stored program computer is used to perform some or all ofthe
l, asi� numerical control functions in accordance with c@ntrol programs
lo!_ed in read I write memory or Random Access Memory (RAM of the
,·omputer.'
- An NC system with a microcomputer or microprocessor using
oftware to implement control algorithms.
The control unit and panel of a CNC as shown in Fig. 28, is somewhat
�imilar to the NC controls . Only differ.e;nc.e..heing..tha.t..il.Y'lQrks in ON­
line mode and NC works in batch processing mode. It can be mounted or
Htanc alone type as in NCs.The day by day lowering of the prices of the
f
computers has increased the demand of CNCs . The latest CNC units
have more memory, processing speed and more intelligence built into
I he computer. A typical CNC may need only the drawing specifications
 1.54 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING NUMERICAL CONTROL 1.55

3. Improved Programming and Operating Features. The soft

wired control has permitted the introduction of many convenient
programming and operating features. The main features are as follows :
Tope­
reader
Minicomputer or
microcomputer
Computer
hardware - Editing of part programs at the machine.
for
initial
for
software functions
interface
and
Graphic display of the tool path to verify the tape.
program port program storage Servo system. Provision of various types of interpolation ; circular, parabolic,
and cubic.
entry

Support of old customary units and new metric units.

Fig. 2s,; ·Computer Numerical System (CNC).
. _9NC offers flexibility and computational capacity along with optio�.
New system options can be incorporated into the CNC controller simply
by reprogramming the unit and due to this characteristics of the CNC
machine, it is also termed as "soft-wired" NC machine as shown in
Fig. 28.
Functions of CNC
Tpe principal functions ofCNC are :
'::: Machine tool control
- In-process compensation
[ subsystem would automatically disconnect the faulty component from
- Improved programming and operating features
Oiagnostics
1 . Machine tool control. It is the prime function of tho CNC
system to control the machine tool. This involves conversion of the part
program instructions into machine tool motion through the computer
interface and servo system.
2. ln-proces·s compensation. It is closely related function to
machine tool control. This involves the dynamic correction of the
rnachine tool motions for change or errors which occur during processing.
The main options are as follows
Adjustment for errors sensed by in-process inspection probes
and gauges.
Recomputation of axis positions when an inspection probe is
used to locate a datum reference on a workpart.
Offset adjustments for tool radius and length.
Adaptive control adjustments to speed and/or feed.
Computation of predicted tool life and selection of alternative
tooling when indicated.
Use of specially written subroutines.
Manual Data Input (MDI).
Local storage of more than single part program.
4. Diagnostics : Presently, CNC machines are equipped with a
diagnostics capability to assist in maintaining and repairing the system.
The main features of this provision are as follows
- to minimisation of downtime.
to give warning about imminent failurity of a certain component.
- to contain a certain amount ofrcdud:mcy of components which
arc considered unreliable.
When any of these unreliable components fails, the diagnostics
the system and activate the redundant component in place of faulty one.
Thus, repairs could be accomplished without any breaks in normal
operations of the CNC machine. After getting repairs, the redundant
component comes out from the system automatically so that newly
installed component can perform its function.
1 .Ja.G Advantages of CNC Machines over NC Machines
In addition to having advantages of NC machines, CNC machines
possess following advantages :
(�ility : It is more flexible in the sense t � at
modifications can be made to the program rather than making
a complet�ly new tape as with older conventional NC systems.
&,,,Reditced data reading error : The weakest link is least used i.e.
_ _
the tape is read only once and the program 1s stored m the
memory for repetitive machining.
!:i),(Jii line editing ofprogram : If there is any mistake in dimension,
cutting conditions, and cutter compensation then it can be easily
modified by the part data stored in computer memory, rather
 WMERICAL CONTROL 1.57 .
1.56 · COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

than sending the tape for re-processing.

(d:V1Jiagnostic : It can diagnose program, and can detect the
machine malfunctioning even before the part is produced.
(e) -Conversion of units : If the tapes are prepared in the units of
inches then the same system of units can be converted into
S.I. units within the computer memory. ,. -- --.
if) Integration with DNC systems : It can be integrated with DNC
systems in highly sophisticated manufacturing systems.
: SC :
... T ��
r - . ·-.
: SC ;
N C M C T t--""""'===11
� -r : -·
11"-�'*"'==-, N C M C T '

(a) High initial cost : The initial equipment cost and its installation
1 . 1 6. 1 .3 Disadvantages of CNC

cost is higher than the conventional machine because it uses a

complex electromechanical technology.
r- --- ·.

Higher maintenance cost : Personnel, trained in electronics

1 SC �:-_·

(b)
alongwith mechanical and electrical, are required to service
•. .. .. .. ..I

and maintain these complex machines.

(c) Skilled CNC personnel : It is very difficult to find a skilled
programmer and operator for a CNC, hence existing personnel (SC = Satellite Computer,
must be trained in the programming and operation. NC MCT = NC Machine Tool)
Not suitable for long run appl ications. Fig. 29. DNC .(Direct Numerical Control).
(e) Machines have to be installed in air-conditioned places. The communication network can be done either through connecting
(d)

1 he r'emotely located comEuter, with 1engt.J2y cables to the compu�er

wj thasmall computer at individual operator's station known as satellite.
Direct N umcrical Control can be defined as, 'A type of manufacturing_ 1·omputer. •
1 . 1 6 .2 D N C ( D i rect N u merical Control)

system in which several NC or CNC mr1, chines are controlled re,notely

7rom a main /iwne computer.'
DNC hanclles scheduling of the work and bypasses the need of a There are two types ofDNC , depending upon the communication
1 . 1 6.2.1 Types of DNC

machine control unit, a punched tape and tape perforation equipment.
These systems operate in real time and time sharing mode.J n a DNC
sys ten!.! th<till·ocessing and Q_ost_proccssing of �rt program is performej__
in a centralised com puter. This facilitates the easy modification and
""ed iting of part programs. The basic DNC system, as shown in Fig. 29.,
requires following basic components
link between the computer and the machine tool :
( t ) �icated Machine Control Unit
In this configuration, regular NC controller is replaced by a special
MCU�hich is hard-wired to make it almost equivalent to CNC.
The second approach is also known as Behind T_fil)e Reader interface
Ul) Behind-Tape-Reader (BTR)

Main frame computer ( BTR). In this design, the data of all parts is stored in the central comp2te2:,
Memory and the satellite computers:as shown in Fig. 29 by dotted block,. are
Comunication Network required only fo receive and store the part program of the parts to be
_
NC Machine tool. manufactured on individual NC machine tool or a gro up of 111achrne
lools. Since a large memory system is required and substantial cabling
1.58 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING NUMERICAL CONTROL 1.59

work is involved interlinking the NC machines to the c�mputer. DNC

system is expensive and is preferably used in large organisations. Digital 1. The computer can program simultaneously many NC Machines.
1 .1 6.2.2 Advantages of D N C

computer is used both in DNC and CNC. 2. The tape preparation, the tape reader and the control unit are
The second type of interface is very cheap and can be easily not needed.
implemented to any NC machine tool, because it requires only the tape 3. The computer can be remotely located, even a thousand miles
reader unit to be taken out and adding the communication link of DNC away
to that machine. This is conversely true, if we want to take DNC out
and use it as a stand alone NC machine.
It is another step towards true automation, wherein the vital
aptive Control (AC)
�

The principal functions of DNC are : element of decisi ?n making i � added. When component is beih ?.
Functions of DNC

NC without punched tape manufactured, the important van ables are measured and then if needed :
NC part program storage be, certain variables are altered within programmed limits, to get as
Data collection, processing, and reporting accurate finished part as possible.
Communications So, J:! is tl�e t'eclu1ique of automatically adji;,sting of cu tting
parameters such as· speeds, feed�d ggpJh...!J.f cuts e.tc, t.Q_an opJim.:.um
satisfaction leve[during machining operation, and the maximum metal
The combined DNC/CNC system provides the opportunity to add
removal wluc7 w1.ll result in minimum machining cost. It involves the
Combined DNC/CNC System

new capabilities and refine the existing capabilities is these computerised

in-_process meas�e�nt of cutting parameters, together-with an on line
L

man ufacturing systems. Tho main advantages of combination of

DNC/CNC systems are as follows :
(i) The Combination of DNC/CNC makes possible to eliminate the
use of punched tape as the input media for CNC machines. The DNC
computer downloads the program directly to tho CNC computer memory.
This reduces the amount of communication required between the central'
computer and each machine tool.
(ii) The combination of DNC/CNC systems created redundancy. If
the central DNC computer fails, this will not necessarily cause the
i l)dividual machines in the system to be down. It is possible to provide
the necessary backup to permit the CNC machines to operate on a stand
alone basis. This backup capability consists of two elements such as (a)
computer fed with information about the cost of running the machine
tool.
Whereas in the NC systems, the cutting speed and feeds are
prescribed by the part programmer. The determination of these cutting
parameters depends upon the experience and knowledge of part
programmer about tho workpiece and tool materials, coolant conditions,
radius of cutter and other related parameters.
Actually adaptive control is a feed back system as shown in
Fig. 30 in whfch the cutting speed and feed automatically adopt
,-------� D R I V E S C O M M A N D

a file of punched tapes which duplicate the programs contained in the

TAPE NC MACHINE
NC SYSTEM

DNC computer files and (b) a tape reader which entered the program
TOOL

from the punched tapes in the CNC machines during ·the failurity of
central computer of DNC system.
(iii) It improves the communication between the central computer ---
and the shop floor as digital computers located on both ends of
M E ASURED PAR A M E T E R S
C ONS·T RAINTS

commun ication links. Mainly, this system removed many of the

SENSORS
PERFOR M A N C E INDEX

constraints in the design of powerful fa<:_tory rnanageme�t information

S T RATEGY

systems. Fig. 30. Block diagram of AC System.


1.60 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
,themselves to the actual conditions of the machining process and these
are varied according to changes in the work conditions as cutting
progresses.
After analysis of all the measured machining parameters and given
parameters such as machining constraints, appropriate strategy and
performance index etc., the whole system is adjusted towards its optimum
conditions to improve the performance level of the system.
1 . 1 6 .3.1 Types of Adaptive Control Systems
The adaptive control systems can be further classified as under
- Adaptive control with optimization (ACO)
- Adaptive control with constraints (ACC).
1�Adaptive Control with Optimization System
In this system, the performance is optimised according to the given
prescribed index of performance. The index of performance is usually
an economic function e.g. maximum production rate or minimum
machining cost. It is the most delicate closed loop control system which
optimised the conditions automatically.
The adaptive control optimization systems attempt to maximize
the ratio of work material removal rate to tool wear rate, known as
index ofperformance. The same mathematically can be expressed as
MRR
IP =
TWR '
where IP = Index of performance
MRR = material removal rate
TWR = tool wear rate
1 .1 6.3.3 Adaptive Control with Constraints System
In this system, the machining conditions .such as feed rate or/and
speed are maximized within given limits of machine and tool constraints
(e.g. maximum force, torque or power).
The adaptive controllers are fed by signals of following two sensors :
Tool Vibration Sensor.
Spindle Torque Sensor.
(a) Tool Vibration Sensor. The vibration of the tool is measured
by two meters, mounted on the machine spindle housing,
known as accelerometer. · ··
(b) Spindle Torque Sensor. The torque of spindle is measured by
strain gauges mounted on the machine spindle.
NUMERICAL CONTROL 1.61
The above d�ta, which is sensed by ·sensors, is fed to the adaptie
conttQL_ system which calculate new feed and speed and adjusted to
optimize metal removal rate (MRR) within the limits of a set of
constraints.
1 .1 6.3.4 Important Constraints for ACC Systems
There are some important constraints, which are taken into
considerations during setting of parameters at the time of the
operation of machine, given as under :
l. Maximum and minimum sp(ndle speed :
. 2. Maximum allowed torque
3. Minimum and maximum allowed chip load
4. Maximum permitted feed rate
5. Impact chip load
6. Maximum allowed vibrations.
The above constraints are always experimentally determined
on the machine manually before starting the machine for machining
operation and the setting of these constraints gives the permitted
operating range for the Adaptive Control with Constraints System
(ACCS).
1 .1 6.3.5 Advantag·es of Adaptive Controls
Following are the main advantages of adaptive controls given
as :
1. Increased production rates.
2. Increased tool life.
3 . Greater part protection.
4. Less operator intervention.
5. Easier part programming.
6. Less time is required to generate part program.
1 .1 6.4 Transfer Machines (UP TECH D2003J
In these machines, the processing equipment 'is arranged i n
order o f the sequence of manufacturing operations based on the part
to be manufactured. The . production lines may be manual operated,
semi automatic and automatic. These machines are also known as
special purpose machines (SPM).
 1.63
I ! M ERICAL CONTROL
1.62 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
a straight line.
So, the transfer machine can be defined as, "A large installation In. Fig. 3 1 , the mach ining head s are arranged in
consisting of several individual machining heads or units which are Machining
Heads
attached together by conveying units."
In these machines, work pieces are loaded at one end and are
automatically transferred alongwith their fixtures, from station to
station. Machining operations are performed at each station on the
work pieces and the completed work pieces leave at the other end of Work piece
the machine. So, a transfer machine is a combination of material
handling equipments and material processing machines. These
machines arc most suitable for the manufacturing of identical or
very similar parts in mass production. For continuous production of
a work piece, these machines become most economical.
These machines are provided with some automatic mechanism
for moving workpieces from one station to another to carryout the Fixtures
various operations. The transferring of workpieces usually is carried (Pallets)

(ii) Rotary Transfer System. In rotary transf� r system the

out by the following two methods Fig. 31. In line transfer machine.
- In-line transfor system

( i ) In-line Transfer System. In this in-line system, the

- Rotary transfer system
workpiece is held in a special pallet or fixture which depends upon
the size, rigidity and design of the workpiece. The pallets or fixtures
are located and clamped in proper in line position and workpieces
are automatically transferred from one machining station to the next
by one of the following methods :
By �oving the workpiece by an overhead chain conveyor
which lifts and puts the workpiece at the machining station.
By pulling the workpiece along supparting rails by using
of an endless chain conveyor.
By pushing a l o n g continuous raise by hydraulic or
pneumatic pistons.
In-line transfer machines, with various geometric arrangements
of machining heads are used as :
Straight line
L-type
U-type
Square type
Rectangular type
workpieces are held in fixtures in a continu ? usly rotatm� t�ble. The
1 11 t,ating table brings the workpieces under different machmmg heads
_
1111 shown in Fig. 32. The method is quite compact and perm1: s the
workpiece to be loaded and unloaded at a single � ocation without
hnving to interrupt the machining. In this system , six to ten °� fewer
111achining stations need to be employed. This type of system is very
1•ompact and there is saving in floor space.
Machining
Heads
Work Pieces
Indexing
Table
'
Fig. 32. Rotary Transfer Machine.
 1.64 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
The selection of workpieces transferring system depends upon
the following factors : · �tdvantage of maci1ining centres is that it can do all the machining
Shape of workpiece
Weight of workpiece
M�chine tool layout
Type of manufacturing process.
. 1 .1 6.4.1 Advantages of Transf�r System/Machines
1. Less floor space is fequired.
2 . . Fewer operators are needed.
3. Less number of operations are required.
4. The machining operations are speeded up.
5. The quality of the products is quite improved.
6. A chip conveyor can be used for the removal of chips.
7. Higher production rate are achieved.
8. The alignment of the workpiece at each machining station
is simplified and automized.
9. Manual handling of the workpiece is avoided except
loading and U:nloading.
1 .1 6 .4.2 Disadvantages of Transfer Systems/Machines
1. Initial cost of these is very high. . according· to the product design in a particular order. These systems
2. Much time is required to cha.nge over the mac4ine to handle
a different shaped compone.qt.
3. A breakdown of one machine means stoppage of whole of
production line.
4. The whole set up is to be changed if the design of the
component changes.
5. The electrical system is very complex.
6. This system is justified only for high · production of
components.
1 .17· FUTURETRENDS,THE MACHINING CENTRES
The latest development in the NC machine tuub is the versatile
machining centre. This is a single machine capable of doing a number of
operations such as drilling, reaming, tapping, milling and boring. All
types of tools are mounted on a drum/chain or Egg box type magazine
which are put into the spindle by Automatic Tool Changer (ATC) under
the control of'Tool Selection Instruction:' Thus enabling the machine to
·change itself for any type of above mentioned processes. The major
NUMERICAL CONTROL 1.65
operations in a sinlge setup of job i.e. without down-loading the job. But
nt the same time it is the most expen·sive rirnchine tool in use . .
Most of these machines are numerically controlled, which consist
of a single or two machine tools with the specific feature of an
nutomatic tool changer and capable · of performing a number of
operations such as drilling, tapping, boring, turning and milling etc .
on a workpiece. In. these machines, the job · rrceds clamping on the
workholding surface only once; the machine then performs a variety
of machining operations oh all the job's faces except the base.
A machining centre is mainly used for batch production of main
components of a product which are usually small in quantity but
t•xpensive in cost because they have considerable material value and
require a large amount of machining. For such components,
machining centres become highfy economical. The high degree of
nccuracy and multi-operation in the same set up, make the machining
centres highly versatile and increase the productivity.
1 . 1 8 CONVENTIONAL MACHINE LAYOUT SYSTEMS
In these systems, all the required machine tools are grouped
(e.g. turning, grinding, boring, milling, gear hobbing machines etc.)
are mainly used for batch production. Each machine is operated by
individual operator and work has to be fed continuously to each
machine to achieve its full utilization. The di sadvantage of,this
system is the high cost of work handling and temporary storage of
products.
1 . 1 9 LINKED LINE SYSTEMS
In this system, the general purpose (GP) and/or special purpose
machines (SPM) are linked together by a powered belt conveyor.
The workpieces a re transferred from the conveyor and loaded �nto
the machine to complete operation to be performed on the machme.
When the operation is completed then work is transferred to the
next machine through the conveyor. The transferring and loading of
the workpiece can be done automatically or manually. This system
is more flexible than the transfer machines and can easily be changed
into straight or curved routes depending upon the workpiece. In th � s
system, production is not interrupted if one machine break s down, it
_
is because as each machine is working as independent urnt.
1.66 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURTNG
During layout and setting up a linked line, one of the following
methods can be used :
When each machine is working at its own rates between
each machining station wi th a b uffer stocli * . After
consideration of the cost of storage and effect of breakdown,
the size of the buffer stock should be carefully decided.
Fig. 33 shows a linked line.
---1- Bu'FFER
---+-----+----l STOCK i-------+----
Fig. 33. Linked line.
When every machine is working approximately at the same
time so as to red ucc the cycle time. In this case the
provision of buffer stock is kept almost negligible and line
becomes almost balanced.
In this system, the general purpose machines are laid out in
1 .20 UNLINKED LINE SYSTEMS
the main operation sequence. The different machines operate at their
own rates w i th buffer stock of components between each machine.
This system mostly used for small batch production of medium
component. The same is shown in Fig. 34.
BUFFER
STOCK
Fig. 34. Unlinked line system.
Now, we will conclude the previous discussion on numerical
1 .21 TRENDS AND NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN NC
control by . discussing some of the important trends and new
developments in NC technology. The most important general trend
*Buffer-A temporary small storage space.
NUMERICAL CONTROL 1.67
in NC involves the expanding use of computer technology in part
programming procedures (e.g., computer-assisted programming,
i nteractive graphics and voice programming). The control of NC
machinery has also been dramatically enhanced through computer
technology (e.g., CNC, DNC and adaptive control). There are other
important factors given as under, which greatly influence the future
evolution of NC systems.
(a) Replacement of Punched Tape and Tape Reader.
Punched tape and tape readers are being replaced by the magnetic
tape cartridge which are made compatible with computers used with
modern NC machines.
(b) Use of ln-process Inspection Probes. The use ofln-process
inspection probes is becoming more common in modern NC machine
tool systems. The use of these probes causes time saving and get
improved accuracy during production. There is no need of inspection
of the products during in-process and after the process. When these
probes used for in-process measurement with resu1ting compensation
in cutter position, these inspection probes represent a form of adaptive
control. The errors dcvelope<l due to the tool wears etc. arc also self
adjusted by the system.
Despite the fact that there are many successful NC machines,
1 .22 PARTS SUITABLE FOR CNC MACHINES
some users are still confused of just what profit can be achieved by
using CNC. The generally profitable applications where the CNC
machines can be best suitable are summarised as follows :
(a) Where the operations or set-ups are very large or costly.
(b) For small to medium batch quantity.
(c) When the part geometry is so complex that the quantity
production of it, involves possibilitity of human error.
(d) The operations to be performed are very complex.
(e) For parts subjected to regularly design changes.
(f> Where close and repetitive operations are required on the
work parts.
(g) Where the tooling cost, forms significant part of unit cost.
(h) Where tool storage is a probl�m.
(i) When the inspection is required 100% i.e. inspection cost _
represents a major portion of total cost.

1.68 ·. COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
(J) 'Yhen the machining time is very less as compared to down
· · · source near to the CNC machines.
time.
(k) When lead time does not permit the conventional · tooling
manufacture.
(l) Where very much metal needs to be removed. .
· _ I t is not necessary that all of the above facto�s should be
· person.
cons1d_ere � while making a part on a CNC machine. However, the
_ (xi) Ground floor should remain cleaned free from oily or
ful lo"".mg mdustnal parts, are usually made in practice on the CNC
machmes :
(a) Aerospace Equipments. Aerospace industry is one of the
first and greatest users of the CNC machines because of
the small batches of complex parts are needed by it.
(b) Printed Circuit Board (PCB). The electronic industry uses
CNC to manufacture and assemble component parts on
PCBs.
(c) Coil Winding. The electrical industry uses NC to wind coils
for different types of motors and transformers.
(d) Automobile Parts. This is the second largest industry to
use CNC machines.
(e) Draw �ng and Blueprint of Complex Shapes. The drafting
machines also use CNC equipments where complex
drawings are to be made of the parts to be man�factured.
1 .23 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL FOR CNC MACHINES
As the_se machines are very costly and complex in design, so
great c�re is necessary for these machines in handling as well as
upkee �mg._ There are various f1;1ctors, which are very much important
to ma � ntam proper environmental conditions. Actually the NC
ma clu n e s ar � t h e � �sembly -of n umber of sophi sticated
electrome chamcal dev1ces with very high degree of accuracy and
. be costly.
compl � x m �ature. For proper working of these machines, the
followmg environmental conditions are to be maintained.
(i) Dust free floor space and �nvironm.ent.
(ii) Wor �jng temperature should be within control limits. For
keepmg the controlled temperature of the NC machine's
space there must be a provision of air-conditioning unit.
(iii) Well air circulation.
(iv) Space should not be congested but should be quite open.
(IJ) Electrical power supply should b · e regulated.
(vi) There should be proper disposal point for scrap, if any.
NUMERICAL CONTROL 1.69
(vii) There should not be presence of any vibrating and no: ,J
·
(viii) There should not be the use of harmful chemicals ·near_ ,to
the machines which give bad effects oh the niachines.
(ix) There must be proper lighting and air ventilation system . .
(x) The machine should be operated by only . trained/skilled
greased materials.
(xii) There must be provision of sufficie.nt _supply" "of coolant
·
required during machining.
(xiii) The machines should be protected from the moisture.
1.24 APPLI CATIONS OF NUMERICAL CONTROLS
(i) To minimise the 'lead time' in manufacturing.
(ii) To m a n u facture such p arts which are complex i n
construction and i t will not be possible to manufacture them
accurately on conventional machines due to human and
machine error involved.
(iii) To give flexibility to machine tools to adapt such parts to
manufacture which are frequently subjected to change the
designs.
(iv) Repetitive and precision quality parts which are to produce
in batch quantity. The batch may be small or medium in
quantity.
(v) To cut down the investment on tooling and fixture
inventory as required when parts are-made on conventional
machines.
(vi) It is an expensive part where mistakes in processing would
(vii) The manufactured part require 100% inspection.
(viii) Excessive metal needs to be removed.
(ix) The manufactured part having very close tolerances.
(x) Large number operations must be performed on the part
in its manufacturing.
1 .25 ECONOMICS OF NC SYSTEMS
Economics of NC systems is obviously of great importance.
Although automation and higher quality of production are decided,
but rentability must be taken into account. Because the NC system
 1.71
1.70 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING NUMERICAL CONTROL

�equires a high investment which saves manpower increases of
capacity and quality of production. By using these Ne' systems;
- A high quality of manufacturing and a reduction of waste
by 75% to 80%. No jigs and nearly no instrumentation of
measurement is required.
Manpower per workpkce is very much red uced upto 10%.
Actual cutting time Cc.Jr_ l��! reduced upto 40%.
Down or non-productive time caa be reduced.
system is economical for smaller batch s i� e and NC system � s
economical for both small and medium batch productions. Automatic
system is preferred for medium and large size batch productions.
The transfer machines are preferred for large size batch productions.
Numerical Control Machine
� Mechanical Machine
Machine

l
0
totGI

Saving of total space upto 15%. Transfer Mochine

Saving of lot of work time as compared to conventional
machines.
By considering all above points into mind, manufacturing cost
of manufactured parts· can be calculated as follows :

P = I �, + "i. Po + " n I: Pd
L,r + --
//1/ul
N .n n C
n
where, P," 1 = total price per workpiece
'i.P,, = Sum of all initial costs such as programming, planning
,,

------ n ·
1

etc. f

P,, = Sum of alJ costs on repeated orders

Fig. 35: Diagram for tolal cost verses batch 3ize for dif erent machines.
I
2..Pr = Sum of production cost of each workpiece EXERCISES
LP" = Sum of follow up expenses
ence of opera tions .
1. Fill in the blanks :
N = number of orders (a) _____ mach ines have fixed sequ
n = number of pieces per order (b) _______ industry was the first to use
NC mach ines.
P, is the product,ion cost which is further the sum of machining (c) For a functional NC systems ____ __ , ·--- and
cost (P,,) and tooling cost (P,). ___ arc need ed.
(d) ____ num ber system is follow
ed for codin g all of
pr = pm + p = R(T + Tl ) + .!.._ (R X T + S) Lhe part programs.
T2 (e) BCD stands for ______ .
I

where, R = Total machine and operator rate

· ;j

({) N C machines use two types of codes __________ and

T = Machining time per component
T1 = Loading and unloading and tool advance and withdraw! mation.
(g) EIA code s consi st of ____ bits of infor
time and __________
(h) Punc hed card s has _______ ___ rows
T2 = Tool life columns.
_ and
T3 = Tool changing time (i) Punc hed tapes are made of ____, __
S = Cost of sharping the tool. materials.
As shown in Fig. 35 the manufacturi�g cost per workpiece (P ) (j) Flopp y disks are of _______ inch and ·--- inch
depends largely on batch size (n). It is clear from Fig. 3 5 that man'��l size.
1.74 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

29. Explain the construction and working of a punched tape.

(HSB 97 J) 2 Classification of
30. (a) Differentiate between CNC machines and DNC machines.
NC System
(b) Give merits and demerits of CNC machines.
31. Write short notes on
(i) Transfer machines To achieve the maximum benefit from the use of NC system, it
2.1 INTRODUCTION

(ii) Machine centres is necessary to realise that it is not "just another metal cutting
(iii) Conventional machine layout systems technique". It is a technique of discipline which is applied correctly
(iv) Unlinked/linked line systems before installing a NC machine. Various factors which affect the type
(v) CAD/CAM technology.
of NC machine to b e installed, depend upon the following :
- Variety and complexity of geometry of the components.
32. What arc the applications of Numerical Control ? Describe
them briefly. - The tolerances to be maintained.
33. Describe the economics of Numerical Controls. - The skill of personnel or workers selected for NC training.
- The availability of funds for purchasing the NC machines.
In present era, a large variety of components are being manufactured
UDO in ind ustries and have different mach ining requirements. Su, it is
not feasible to purchase a highly versatile "Machining Centres" for
meeting most of the machining requirements, due to its high cost.
By considering all above factors, the machines are designed
accordingly to meet different requirements within the cost constraints.
These machines are broadly classified as the fo1lowing :
l . Feedback Control : Open loop and closed loop.
2. Motion Control : Positional, Paraxial, continuous path.
3. Power Drive : Hydraulic, electric or pneumatic.
4. Circuit Technology : Analog, Digital.
5. Positioning System : Absolute positioning and incremental.
6 . .A,'<is Identification : 2-axis, 3-axis, 4-axis, 5-axis.

In the CNC machines, it is feasible from control point of view to

2.2 CLASSI FICATION BASED ON FEEDBACK CONTROL

relate the behaviour of a particular variable (vel ocity/position of tool

or job) to one corresponding variable.
To control the position/velocity of a machine slide, a group of
electro-mech anical, pneumatic or hydraulic components are used

(2. 1 )
 2.3
2.2 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

which are collectively known as Servo mechanism. The output from

CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM

Translation motion of lead screw = Lead x nos. of revolutions

the data handling equipment (one data for each axis of machine
motion) is passed through separate channels to servo system which = no. of starts x pitch of thread
x no. of revolutions
in turn drive the machine slides. This servo system, based on feedback
control, can be approached in three ways = npN
where n = no. of starts
- Open loop system
p = pitch of thread
- Closed loop systein
N = no. of revolutions
- Semi- closed loop system

Open loop control systems are best suitable for following

�n Loop Contr ol System Applications of O.L.C.S.

npplications
t\ control system, i!i whichJhe final output value is not directly
Where light duty machinery up to 5 kW and with a torque
measured and checlied again st the desired value, is known as Open
Loop control syst.em . The final value may, howev er, be implic
itly of 200 Nm
known provid ing there has been no ma] function.
- Where less money can be spent.
In open loop control system, there is no feedback device to
measure the actual position of tool slide or work table. Hence, ii - Not much accuracy required.
cannot be compared and verified with the positional value given in - Less maintenance is required due to absence of monitoring
command. devices.
So, the system appears to be 'open' in the sense that it does not
respond depending upon the position value of tool/work. The Major drawbacks of open loop control system are as follows :
Drawbacks of O.L.C.S.

indication, that the desired location has reached, is the end of input Backlash errors are introduced in lead screw due to wear
command signal to servo motor� The open loop control system is and tear and change in external conditions.
shown in Fig. I. It may appear to the operator that the slide has moved say
100 mm, bL1t in actual it may be only 99.6 mm.
Periodical adj ustments are required so as to compensate
the changes in the tool geometry or drive mechanism of
work table.
SERVO·
TRANSLATOR MOTOR

- Less accurate.
To avoid some of the above drawbacks, a stepping motor known
A stepping motor is used to drive the machine slide which
Fig.. 1. Open Loop Control System.

as SLO-SYN is employed which runs in �xact synchronism with its

responds in incremental steps. For each pulse signal, the stepper
input pulse signal, and is not sensitive to load variation within its
motor rotates precisely by 1.8 degree. Thus, for moving a whole
capabili y.
rotation (360 degree) 200 pulses are required. Hence, if a lead screw
of 25 t.p.i. (25 threads per 25.4 n1m) is driven by this motor then a
resolution of 0.001 inch (0.0 254 mm) is obtained for the movement of
2.2 Closed Loop Control System
,._
A control system in which the displacem.E3:.t of machi�e sl!S!:!., is
slide by using following formula : balanceaw. r.t. inp-ut signals mainly by the signal received fro,n
feedback devices, is known as closed loop . control system. In this
_
( UP TECH D 2003)
 2.4 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
system, as �hown in Fig. 2 there are two input signals to drive a
_
m..9tor. One 1s c2mmand signal due_!o which the servo motor is driven.
_
As soon a s t�e displacement takes place, another signal is generated
_ i t gives a feedback. for displacement but "not closed" i n the sense
by the ��s1tion sensor known as Tra·nsducer, to know that whether
fed to the �omparator device known as !) ifferential Analyser which
�he position h as been a chieved 01:'Iiot.� his actual position sign al is
!:?m par;s it with the command si gn al and produces an electrical signal
_proportional to the difference between the two. This signal is fed to
ee� vo motor through an amplifier to move the machine slide in a
��ct1 �n to reduce the difference. This loop i s followed again and
!¥am h11 tbe difference between the two signals (input an d feedback)
At this point, the output of comparator
. becomes of zero a mplitude.
becomes zero and the machine slide comes to rest in the correct
p�sition. This mechanism takes care of the inerti a effects of machine
slide.
C O M P. / TECHO
OIFF"(REN T I A L GEN
TAPE
R E A O ER
-----i P OS,I T I ONAL t---------J
TRANSDUCER D ISPLACEMENT
FEED BACX
Fig. 2. Closed-loop Control System with tachometer and encoder.
In a�dition to above, another feed back tra nsducer is used to
control the velocity of motor i n the case of continuous path system
It is essential to ensure that the cutter follows the path as required
by the profile.
Such a control can h ave cap a bilities ofupto 0.0001 mm resolution
Applications of Closed-Loop Control System
and speeds up to 10 rn/min.
(1) It is used for getting higher degree of accur a cy during the
machining operations.
(2) Most of the contouring controls a re closed loop systems.
2.2.3 Semi Closed Loop Control System.
In t� ese syste ms, a transducer is n·ot used for measuring the
: to shaft speed in r.p.m. This num erical value represented, is . in the
exact position of the m achine slide, but is derived from the rotary
1 'J,/\SSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM 2.5
1110Lion of the lea� screw by a pinion and gear arr a nge ment. Thus
1 he linear displacement of the machine slide is directly proportional
l o the rotary displace ment. This syste m is "closed" in the sense that
I hat it gives a feedback for displace m ent but "not closed" in the
wnse that it largely depends upon the accur acy of lead screw or the
l{ear arrange m ent. These systems reduce the bulkiness by removing
one part i.e. position al transducer.
2.3 FE�ACK DEVICES
/2ost of industri al control applications use electrical or electronic
h ardware co m ponents for converting one physical quantity (speed,
d isplace ment etc. in c ase of CNC m achine) into an electrical signal
used for the feedback. The device that carries out this conversion is
k nown as a "transducer".
The tr a nsducer may be analog or digital type depending upon
t he signal generated by them. An analog, generates a continuous
Hign al such as voltage and current usually in milli volts and the Digital
on the other hand, generates signal in the form of a series of electrical
Types of Feedback Devices
pulses or combination of some p ar a llel bits (bin a ry digits ).
There are two typl:lS of feedb ack devices, required for closed
loop system, as follows
- Velocity feedback
- Position feedb ack
2.3.1 Velocity Feedback
As already discussed, velocity feedback is usually required in
contouring applications. These can a lso be a nalog or digit al type. A
'tacho generator' is an 'anal og' output feedback device, which
gener ates an electrical output voltage th at is directly proportional
to speed of the sh aft. The magnitude of the voltage directly represents
the magnitude of the speed. It is generally fitted on the servom otor
sh aft itself and is built i n the case of servomotor.
Another 'Digital' output feedback arrangement is usually m ade
as shown in Fig. 3 for me a suring the velocity (r.p. m .) of the shaft. A
sm all m a gnet is fitted on the coupling periphery, which makes an�
bre aks t.he contact of a sm all m icro-switch (Cont a ct Braker). This
will give a n umber of electrical pulses per minute directly proportional
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING 2.7
CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM
2.6

form of 'digital ' feedback, to monitor the motor s�eed.

lachometer supplies little if any current to th e rest of the servo
system, the output power requirement of the device is minimal. Thus
it hardly makes sense to use a motor in this application and a smaller
device is quite satisfactory.
C.B. Point
Magnetic
Mlcroswltch

It is found that' a permanent-magnet ·iron-copper armature

Piece
\ r--i•JB
�I
tachometer will satisfy the above-mentioned characteristics. The
>--
speed-voltage curve of this analog device is quite similar to that
shown in Fig. 4. The underlying principle of the tachometer can be
Command

understood by recalling that a wire moving in a magnetic field will

Signal for

induce a voltag� across the wire that is proportional to its velocity

Speed

and the sine of the angle between the magnetic field direction and
_Fig. 3. Digital output feedbak system.

the coil 's plane. This angle is 90 ° when the wire 's plane and the field
2.3 . 1 .1 DC Tachometers
It is well known that rotating the shaft of a de motor will produce are perpendicular to each other and results in the maximum voltage
an anal �g voltage that increases (or decre ases) with increasing (or being developed.
decreasmg) shaft angular velocity. In effect, the motor becomes a de
generator a �d can therefore be utilized to measure the shaft speed.
_ _
Although it is possible to use almost any de motor in this application.
Output

DC tachometers arc usually specially designed devices. There arc a

number of reasons why this is so. ·
The first and perhaps the most important one is that the
Ideal Characteristic

tachom ter ("tach") should produce a de voltage that not only is

�
proportio,:a � to the shaft speed but also has a voltage versus speed
charactcn �t1 � th �t 1s ideally linear over the entire operating range.
(Some deviation from linearity is usually acceptable at speeds below
_

100 rpm, however ; see Fig. 4. This permits the tach to be most
_
Nonlldeal Characteristic

stly used as a velocity sensor in control applications. Normally,

�:
c generated v? lLage produced by a de motor will not possess the
_
100 Shaft Speed

degree of hneanty required in these cases.

(angular velocity) RPM

A second reason for not using a motor in such an applicatio� i s

Fig. 4. Output voltage versus speed transfer characteristic of an analog

t �1 at t�e tach ' s output voltage should b e relatively free o f voltage

tachomeier. At low speeds, the actual device (nonideal characteristic) is

nppl � m the operating (i.e. speed) range of the device. Although a . In practice, the armature's copper (or aluminum) coils are wound
not linear.

longitudinally on a cylindrical piece of iron as shown in Fig. 5. ·It can

tarn amount of ripple is permissible and can usually be handled
:r _ be seen that the ends of the coil are connected to a commutator,
..., . t � a lo ':-pass filter, too much may produc e unwanted jitter in the which is a segmented ring. Here only one coil is detailed, but normally
devic e bemg controlled. This would be particularly offensive in the
-<" .

there will be many (e.g., 1 1 ) spaced equally around the circular cross­
ase of a �obotic manipulator. In general, a de motor will produce too
� section. The corresponding commutator will . then have twice as maI)y
ar�e a nppl � for most control applications, so a specially designed segments as coils. The sliding electrical contact is usually obtained
_
device 1s preferable. by a set of two or four carbon brushes which touch the various
The � nal reason for not using·a de motor as a tach is that volume segments of the commutator.
a n ?10 r weig� t 1s _
often an important system design consideration . Based on the above, the operation of the "rotary iron" de tach
_
This 1s certamly the case for the axes of an industrial robot, where
can be understood. As any single coil rotates in the field of the
the actuator must often be carried along in the joint itself. Since the
permanent r.nagnet, the induced voltage varies sinusoidally with
 2.8 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
angle. Thus at constant velocity, the voltage will also b e sinusoidal
in time. The brush/commutator assembly will_ act as a rectifying
element by reversing the coil connection for each half of a complete
revoluti on. , In this manner, a pulsating de voltage is produced. All
other ar� ature coils will also produce a sinusoidal voltage of differing
p � as_c with respect to the first one. Since the coils are evenly
dlstnbuted around the armature's cross-section , the net voltage output
by the brushes is very nearly constant (i.e. , de). The small ac
component of the voltage that is present is referred to as ripple.
Tachometers currently being manufactured usually produce ripples
of about 3 to 5% of the de output.
Permanent Permanent
Magnet Magnet
Pole Piece Pote Piece
Iron Core
Rotating
Carbon Brush Carbon Brush Coll
Commutator
Fig. 5. Analog tachometer showing one coil (of many) mounted on an iron
core.
A more costly alternative to the rotary iron design described
above is to use a moving coil for the armature. In this instance a
significant reduction in weight is achieved by employing a holl�w
"cup" whereby most, if not all, of the armature's iron is removed.
This is accomplished by fabricating a rigid cylindrical shell out ofthe
copper (or aluminum) coils or skeins using polymer resins and
fiberglass. In addition, it is possible to utilize more coils (e.g., 19 to
23). Also, because the moving-coil design allows more coils to b e
utilized, the low-speed performance of the tachometer i s improved
over that obtained by the rotary iron version.
It should be clear that if an analog tachometer is used in a
robotic application the moving-coil version is quite probably the more
attractive of the two designs because of the red uction in weight. On
a,xes where the actuator is not carried and hence weight is not a
consideration, the rotary iron design may be preferable due to the
.
CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM 2.9
reduced cost.
As of this writing, the most common class of industrial robot
I hat makes use of an analog tachometer. is the SCARA. The primary
reason is that the configuration of such a robot does not require the
nctuator to be lifted against gravity. Recall that the major axes of a
8CARA move perpendicular to the gravitational field, thus the added
weight of the tach does not present a significant additional burden
(i.e. , torque load) to either the servomotor or the mechanical structure
of the manipulator.
2.3.2 Positional Feedback
Actually, it is very difficult to measure the position of the tool
edge with reference to the machine slide due to the presence of burrs,
j igs and fixtures, coolants and sometimes due tq complexity of the
component shape. So, a compromise is done by measuring the position
of machine slide by not taking into account the tool wear etc. In this
case, one part of transducer is fixed to machine tool structure and
the other part to moving machine slide. The measurement of the
position of table may be obtained also in 'analog' or 'digital' form.
2.3.2.1 Characteristics of Position Feedback Devices
The characteristics by which these devices can be utilised in a
better way 'arc as follows
(a) Accuracy : The degree of accuracy l argely depends upon
the measuring device chosen for use and its mechanical
nature. Two different degrees of accuracy are possible. For
greater accuracy linear motion of slide is measured directly
and for lesser accuracy the motion is indirectly measured
by rotation of lead screw. 'rhe errors of back-lash can be
reduced by using recirculating ball leadscrews.
(b) Resolution : The resolution of a device is the smallest
dimension, it can measure. Generally the resolution is in
the form of a "fine" device-backed by a 'coarse', which
measures displacements over a large range. Fine device is
effective during the full range of slide motion.
(c) Range of measurement : Some measuring devices operate
effectively over the full range of slide motion and can
determine any unique position. Again 'coarse' and 'fine'
devices can be used to define the particular fraction of range
being measured.
(d). R�peatability : As perfect accuracy is not possible, it is
however feasible to repeat some unavoidable errors on each
 CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM 2.11

2.10 COMP.UTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
repeated part such that identical parts are machined.
(e) Sensitivity : Although not always preferred, sensitivity is
the characteristic of a measuring device to detect a very
minute change of position of slide.
(f) Noise : Noises are the foreign signals, which flow in the
various parts of a control system distorting the actual
· signals . Filters can be used to remove these noises.
Displacement measuring devices are available in various ways
e.g. resistive, inductive, capacitive or optical devices. Another
. classification can be done depending upon the number of points from
which information can be extracted. These are usually two-point or
three-point devices.
2.3.2.2 Positioning Feedback Devices
Positioning feedback devices can be classified as under :
Positioning Feedback Devices (Transducers )
-1,
(i) Glass scale with line grating
It consists of two scales
- transparent index grating (sensing device)
- glass scale
Both have a similar line graduation on them.
These two scales make one unit being fixed to each other. The
other unit consists of a light source, lense and a photocell. Because ·
one of these scales have transparent lines and other scale have opaque
lines. The relative movement causes the light to pass through these
regions, which is sensed by photocells .
The resistance of photocells changes with the intensity of light
falling on it. The periodic signals in the form of pulses are converted
proportionately into the displacement of work table by knowing the
number of engraved lines per unit length on the linear scale. Usually,
a width of 20 microns of the line is used.
This measuring system is shown in Fig. 7.

Linear Transducers Encoders/Rotary Transducers

(i) Glass scales with line (i) Resolver
gritting (ii) Rotary encoder
(ii) Ferranti System CJ SOURCE
L IGHT
(iii) Binary coded scale

Q
O\
(iv) Inducto syn
(a) Linear Transducers : A linear position measuring device 'LEN SE
indicates the position of slide directly. A simple analog
\
linear transducer is best explained in Fig. 6, where a sliding
contact moves over a linear wound pot<:!nLlometer which
GLASS
SCALE
allows to drop a small voltage 'V' depending upon the length �t// !IIII
I I// I/Ill W f
of resistance selected by sliding contact. These systems /lf//llf l l/1 I'll //
have advantage of not having any gear-train causing error
in transformation of displa.cement value. Main types of
linear transducers are described below : PHOTO DIO DE
CELLS

Fig. 7. Linear grating position measuring transducer.

(ii) Ferranti system : It uses same type of grating scales except
-------- v --------
that the least count is improved by using moire effect. This effect is
explained by Fig. 8.
Contoc1ors tide
Fig, 6.·Simple Linear Transducn.
 2.12 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM 2.1 3

(a) Photo diodes

(b) Glass }Jlate with line grating
P O S I T I ON OF SCANNfR

Auxiliary grating
(d) Direction of movement of the light and dark fringes
(c)

(e) Direction of movement of the glass plate.

s • sig nal at

(b) Glass plate with line grating

b
(a) Pholo diodes s c a nne r

(c) Auxiliary grating

(d) Direction of movement of the
light and dark fringes.
(e) Direction of movement of the Number represented = 64 + 8 + 2 + 1 = 75
glass plate. Fig. 9 (a) 6 bit absolute binary coded ENCODER scales.

Fig. 8. Moire effect.

I n this case the index grating is mounted slightly tilted
w.r.t. line gratings on the glass scale. This interference
produces a pattern known as Moire Fringes.
J

The glass scale mounted on the slide of machine is moved

toward:; the left or right. The fri nge pattern travels upwards or
4

downward,;. Again, a photocell is used to measure this variation in

light in tensity.
(iii) Binary Cod�d Scale : In this system a special sensor
known as scanner is used for measuri ng the parallel strips with Fig. 9 (b ) binary coded rotary scales.
alternate bright and dark patches. The darker patches are connected syn : It has also two parts-the scale (equivalent
by an electrical contact represented by binary 1 , which remains open to rotor) and the slider (equivalent to stator W \nding) as
(iu) Inducto

i.e. 0 at bright patches. The outermost strip has the smallest
increment of 0 . 0 1 mm. Hence, the least count of the scale is
0.01 mm. The widths of consequent rows are double the previous
one. The total movement of the slide is calculated by adding up all
the values of dark areas sensed. The sacle shown in Fig. 9 reads the
value 64 + 8 + 2 = 1 = 75.
shown in Fig. 10, having coils in the form of"hair pin turns"
etched on to glass, steel or aluminium plates. The coils
are bonded to the scale over an insulating layer. The
conductor coil is usually spaced, at an interval of 2 mm.
When two different voltages are applied with these two
sliding coils, a corresponding emf is induced. This err.f
directly corresponds to the position of slider w.r.t. the scale.
The arrangement of scale and slider is shown in Fig. 10.
 2.14 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING C'l ,ASSIFICATJON OF NC SYSTEM 2.15

�--·" :4u1_
.

Scale
. jflf1 ru1 _J Phase Lead
Position

Slide
Fig. 10. Inducto syn.
r
T� is feedback d � vice mea sure s indir ectly
the position of the
(b) Rotary or Angular Position Measur o t:....-=i:=---=

shde by mea suri ng the angular rotation

ing Transducer Photocell ==---==_

of the lead screw. A

c1oc=w_
kse i

calc ul a_t ed gear trai n rati o rela tes the

2

mea sure d ang le

Rotation

_
pr�pm_ 10nately to the disp lacement of machine slide . Although
-, - Ph8Se Tag

�
n ?t ve1 Y accurate, these are very popu lar
beca use of bein g
dire ctly mou nted on the mac hine and thei
o·

r com pact size .

These are of two types
Counter Clockwise
Rotation

- Resolvers
Fig. 1 1 . (c) 90 ° Phase shifted output from the two tracks of an optical

- E ncoders
incremental encoder.

Si ! nilar to linear transducers, the "Resolver

2.3.3-.�r
s" are capable of A resolver is an analog rotary position sensor. It consists of a
p �·o ducrn g anal_og outp ut and "Encoders"
_ arc capa ble of prod ucin g rotating shaft (rotor) with a primary winding and a stationary housing
d1g1 tal cu t.l? ut signals. They mostly operate
on photo eledric prin ciple (stator) with two secondary windings offset by 90 ° . When the primary
because_ ofits accur cy Waves are formed with
� a 90° phas e difference. as excited with an ac signal, ac voltages are induced in the secondary
These s1g als are fc � to diffe rential/comp
?- arator, which dete rmin es coils, which are proportional to the sine and cosine of the shaft angle.
the mag mtu dc and sign of the erro r and Because of this, the resolver is useful in applica,tions where
direc tion of rota tion of lead
scre w.
trigonometric functions of position are required without use of a
The _ outermost trac k has an equi vale nt valu microprocessor.
e '1'. Simi larly the 1
c� nsec u Live tracks have twice the valu e of
prev ious track. The �um
of the shad ed _ area sens ed by scan ner, give
_ _ s the disp lace men t valu e.
!hey arc simi lar to clcct nc moto� in construction . The roto r part
r otat � d thro ugh a gear whe el, dnv en by a is
_ _ fixed toothed rack on the
mach tnc slide dunn g its move ment .

\r�.J.�
Lens
,wo Photocells
T.

Lead Screw
0
(a)

The resolver shown in Fig. 12 (a, b ) , has two stator w'indings

Fig. 12.

which arc mounted at right angles to each other. The resolver belongs
to a group of machines called synchronu.s. It is suitably geared so
(a) Glass disc of an optical
(b) Sin )?le radial grating position
encoder. Transducer.
 2.1 7
CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM
2.16 CGMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURIN<I
Electronics board
that a displacement of say 50 mm produces one revolution of tho /
(Signal conditioniJ)g)
rotor. A similar cycle of values is obtained for next 50 mm or 360 ° . A
special electronics hardware which converts thi s cyclic signal into
digital form is known as conuertor.

____.__-rT:::=-----
�� LED light """'
2.3.4. Digital Optical Encoder
A digital optical encoder is a device that converts motion into a
sequence of digital pulses. By counting a single bit or by decoding a Rotating
set of bits, the pulses can be converted to relative or absolute position encoder disk --
measurements. Encoders have both linear and rotary configurations,
b u t the most common type is rotary. Rotary encoders arc Stationary mask
manufactured in two basic forms : the absolute encoder where� a
unique digital word corresponds to each rotational position of the
shaft, and the incremental encoder, which produces digital pulses as Photodetector
the shaft rotates, allowing measurement of relative position of the
shaft. As illustrated in Fig. 13., most rotary encoders are composed
of a glass or plastic code disk with a photographically deposited radial
pattern organized in tracks fitted on the axis of l cad screw. As radial
lines in each track interrupt the beam between a photoemitter-detector
pair, digital pulses are produced.
Tho optical disk of the absolute encoder is designed to produce s Ledex Inc . , Van dali a, OH)
(b) typi cal cons truc tion (Courtesy of Luca
a digital word that distinguishes N distinct positions of the shaft.
.
der.
Fig. 13. Componeµts of an optical enco
For example, if there are 8 tracks, the encoder is capable of producing codes
2 8 = 256 di.s tinct positions or an angular resolution of 1 .406 ° Table 1 4 Bit gray and Natural binary
(360 °/256). The most common types of numerical encoding used in Binary Gray
Decimal Rotation
tho absolute encoder arc gray and natural binary codes. ALsolute code codP
code range (0)
encoder for 7 bit is illustrated in Fig. 14 (a) and 14 (b). The linear 000 0 000 0
0 - 22.5
patterns and associated timing diagrams arc what the photodetcctors 0
0001
0001
sense as tho code disk circular tracks rotate with the shaft. The 1 22.5 - 45
0011
output bit codes for both coding schemes are listed in Table 1 . 2 45 - 67.5 0010
00 1 1 001 0
3 67.5 - 90
0100 0110
4 90 - 1 1 2 .5
0101 0111
5 112.5 - 135
0110 0 10 1
6 135 - 157.5
0111 0 100
shafl 7 157.5 - 180
1100
180 - 202.5 1000
8
phototransistor 9 202.5 - 225 1001 1101
photodetectors 10 225 - 247.5 1010 1 1 11
1 or more LED 11 247.5 - 270 1011 1110
photoemitters �� _ 270 - 292.5 1100 1010
12

---
1101 1011
13 292.5 - 3 1 5
�� digital output 14 315 - 337.5 1 1 10 100 1
signal s 15 337. 5 360 1111 100 0

(a) schematic
 2.18 _COMPUTER AIDED MANUFAC
fixed
TURING

sensors
CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM 2.19
bit 3 (MS B ) D r------­ 1. Re ad and store th e current encoder P(kT).
bit 2 D
hit I D 2. Retrieve th e pr evious encod er count P((k - l)T) (this w as
bit O (LS B) D the p os ition T s econds e arli er).
-3 . The approximat e velocity V(kT) is giv e n by
direction ·of positiv� track mo tion 360°
P(kT) - P((k - 1 )T)
I VUi T) =
bit 3 o T
4. Increment k and rep e at st e ps i thro ugh 3.
-------i
I Thi s algorithm i s quite easy to code and requires little time to
bit 2 o
---__, execute. However, it is b ase d o n a fir st-ord er approximati o n of the
I derivative which may b e inade quate in some applicati o ns. In this
b i. l l _J instance , a se cond- o r higher- order approximation must b e u sed. Note
L_ that if this is done , th e execution time will be increas ed and additional
0

bit O l phas e lag will b e introduce d into the digital servo loop, th ere by
0 necessitating extra compensation in order to stabilize the system.
Fig. 14. 4-B it gray code absolu Also, it is important to select car efully the .update time T in the .
te enc ode r disk track patterns.
Th e gray cod e is d es igned so algorithm. To o large a value may cau se the "sampling th e orem" to
th at on lY on e track ( on e bit ) be violate d so that th e re will be a large error between th e actual
cha nge state for eacl1 cou nt wil l
. tran s1·t·10n un l ike th e b��a · ry co velocity and V(kT). Too small a value will m e an that low-sp ee d
mu ltlp l e tracks (bi ts) change t . d e wh ere
t m' c � 0 ra s1tions . Th is eff performance of the algorithm will be poor since the po sition count
can be seen cl e arl y in Fig. ect
1/a:�\: an� m \:1e f� st tw o will change very littl e , if at all, from updat e to update.
Table 1. For th e gra y co de . col um ns of
, the unce rtainty dur ing a tran s ·t·ion l. s
o n ly one cou nt, unl ike wit h
the bin arY cod e, wh e re th e unc 1
cou ld be mu ltip l e cou nts . e rta int y We have alre ady studie d binary numb ers in first chapter. Now
2.3.5 Counting Devices

h s w e will study flip-flop which stores one bit ( l or 0). But we must
the �i�: a

�
a
�!:�e � l��:�� :;!�e:�:� �s�:� : ��it t ! on it sim ;lar to
�
know the ba sic circuitry i.e. gat es , which all ow only c e rtain inputs to

;:�\:a1
1 s 1 go thr o ugh it as o utput.
�:ie �:� u�;:s
e
;�::i:e;�r:�
se tting f om gh
r
as Qu antizer . t � :: .�:. �%:::
us ed to ge t mo re (a) AND gate. If both inputs of it ar e high then only the output
accuracy. Another ph o toce ll
Bot h pho toc ell s havo a phas be ;� s e se th e sam e d_i sc. i s high (or 1 ) . Symbol i s
e ��'j-tin g �}eto � e � utput con sis t
. o squ are sha p e s hav ing a pha
r; s e di ffere n�:·of 1o .
:
s ;�ut

� .4.1 Enc ode r and Software

. As indicate d abov e , there is a way to obtain ve l oc1t . y.
m format10n
usi ng an increm e ntal e ncode . Y = 1 only iff A = l and B = l
Fig. 15(a).
r bY proc essing the position dat
a. On e Truth table showing its all combination s of output is
s imp le te chn iqu e i
s to onc e again app
roximate th e ve locity by &
.
Rath e r than hav ing a specia tJ.t
A
l p ur� ose ch lp
B
' perform th e op eration as 0 0
YOII/

in the case of th e FVC • th e 10 " l lo wmg sh ort.. co mpu te r al

0
b e uti lize d as s uming that th . gon· th m can 0 1 0
e os't'
1 w n is updated ( i. e., the e nco d er
co u n t is read) eve ry T se c � l
o nd s
0 0
1 1 1
 2.20 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING (' LASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM 2.21

NAND gate is opposite i.e. reverse of AND gate means it has (a) Weighted Resistor Network. In this all the bits (binary
output O only iff A and B both are 1, otherwise they have output 1 . cligits) of number are attached to resistances in parallel which are
( b ) Flip-flop (R-S). I t i s basic storage element, consisting of multiple of 2's, so as to denote their weights according to bit position.
two NAND gates connected bac� to back.
s ---'- Ve
(set) s R Qout
0 0 X
0 1 0 Vo
R ---,____,, 1 0 1
(Reset) 1 1 ?
OR
(Truth Table)
S�Q
R--L__1-- o Fig. I5(e).
(b 3b 2b 1 b 0 ) is the binary number and V0 is the corresponding
Fig. 15(b). output voltage.
D- � ip- � ow avoids the first and fourth conditions (Invalid ones) (b) Register Ladder Network. It has all resistances of either
.
R rnput is given reverse input of S input (Valid ones), which here is value R or 2R, but, performance-wise it is same as previous one.
known as D (Data).
2. �SSIFICATION BASED ON MOTION CONTROL SYSTEM
Some machine tools like drilling, boring and milling machines
require that the cutting tool and work piece shall be placed at certain
positions and also be moved relative to each other. Based on the
Fig. I5(c).
relative motion, the NC. machines can be classified as
Those D �ip- flops arc used in series to cou:1t events or pulses 1. Point to point motion control system
. 2. Straight line motion or paraxial control system
such as shown m figure 15(d) to get velocity feedback as COUNTER.
3. Contouring/continuous path motion control system
4. Combined motion control system.
2.4.1 Point-to-point Motion (Positional) Control System
Q Q Q
D
A -- Input from
switch giving Point-to-Point (PTP) motion control systems are those in which
Q · .. Q Q pulse
importance is given to position the cutting tool at a predefined location
Fig. I5(d). relative to the worli piece. The machining operation is done only after
( Q 2Q 1 Q 0 ) gives the counting in binary increment, depending upon the tool has taken a particular position w.r.t. position of work or
the ON-OFF pulses at input A. It can work as tachometer if connected vice-versa. i.e. movement of slides ceases. Hence, it is required that
with o put of Fig. 15(d). the tool reaches the particular fixed point in the shortest time span
and with shortest path . Due to this reason, PTPs are also called
2. 6
. . Digital to Analog Converter (DAC or ADC) or Decoder positioning type (P-type) systems. As the machine is not utilised for
Digital to analog converter, or Decoder is a device that converts machining while traversing from one point to other point, the
a � igital binary number to its correspo1tdirig analog voltage .value. movement takes place very rapidly. Sometimes, rotary tables are
Th1_s can be carried out by one of two forms also controlled by PTP system, but the position changed is angular,
2.22 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
in this case. Linear systems h ave two main axes of controlled motion
but rotary table . has only one axis. Fig. 16 shows a job, in which
holes are to be drilled at 5 locations. The spindle is first positioned
at location no. 1. Then the drilling of the hole is performed at that
location and again positioned at location no. 2, by moving work/tooi
along different axes e.g. X-axis and Y-axis. The Z-axis is used for the
vertical movement of the tool as shown in above given figure. For
deciding the path of movement to be followed, it is desired . that the
movement is sequential or simultaneous. Backlash is not allowed as
it affects the accuracy. Hence, slide is tried to approach target position
in one direction only. It reduces the overall machining cycle time.
Thus, the path i s followed 0-1-2-3-4-5-0 as shown in given figure,
drilling all the holes in the path. It is important to note that in PTP,
regrinding of loo! docs not affect the size of machined dimension i.e.
hole.
y Fig. 17 (a). Straight line Turning.
3
L X
4 X·Y Plane
of t o o l
�t :Hi :I: ;\: :I:
m o.ve m en t
0 X
Fig. 16. Point to point motion control system.
These PTP m achines, are the cheapest and simplest in
construction and are best suitable for drilling, tapping, punch presses,
boring, spot welding and jig boring machines. An accuracy of+ 0.05 mm
for true positioning of slides, can be achieved by this method.
2.4.2 Straight Line Paraxial Motion Control System
The NC systems, in which the tool works along a straight line in
the direction of a major co-ordinate axis, such as along the .direction
of feed during turning, boring or milling operat,on at a controlled
rate, arc known as Straight Line Control System. As most of the
straight line cutting NCs can work as PTP systems also so they arc
an extension to the PTP systems. These are also named as L-type tr
simply Line type NC systems. Usually P-type NC machines are not
CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM 2.23
capable of taking shortest straight line path due to the lack of speed
control. Moreover, some L-type machin':ls can be used to machine
along diagonal line, by calculating and displacing the slides
continuously to reach the desired point. Here the tool dimensions
are very important, as grinding it, will reduce their size and hence,
the size of component can be changed. An example of strai� ht cut
application is as shown in Fig. 17 (a) and 17 (b ). Straight line milling
is normally carried out in directions parallel to machine slide ways.
Tool m o t ion
X o r Y axis
M i l l ing
. p a r a l lel to
c u tt e r
..X
point
Starti11g
Fig. 17 (b). Straight line Motion Control System.
These are best suited for plain turning or step turning and face
milling, vertical and horizontal milling.
2.4.3. Contouring/Continuous Path Motion Control System
The NC system in which the position of table alongwith the speed
(velocity) and feed of tool is under continuous control i.e. the cutting
takes place while the position of workpiece and tool are changing,
are known as continuous motion control system. Each axis of
motion moves simultaneously and all with different speeds,
which can also change. For example, cutting a parabolic curve has
speed change in sine on one axis and with cosine rate on other axis.
These are mostly used for making contouring profiles.
 2.25
2.24 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM

When milling along a straight line, such as shown in Fig. 1 8

along 1-2, there is only one axis control. But milling along the profile
2-3 requires continuous control along two axes and another typical
application may require the control along three axes, if the same
contour profile is of varyin g depth.

(a) Po,itional

0 X
,-
Although the profile 3-4 can be done with the help of 2 axes
Fig. 18. Continuous Motion Control System.

L-type control by setting it parallel to one of the XY axes, but it will

. t..-

take a large set up time. Contouring or C-type motion control system

1
'- -

are capable of doing all these three profiles in a single set up. Hence
these are the most complex, costly and versatile control systems
and usually require assistance of a computer, because of the large
data regarding positional values to be processed. Continuous path
(b) Straight liM

control systems are popular for fusion welding, flame cutting or

torch i n g and preparation of blueprints or intricated die templates
etc. The given Fig. 19 (a), (b) and (c) shows the work pieces produced
by NC machines.

Since the co-ordinates of points on the profile vary continuously,

� .3.1 lnterpolator

it becornes necessary to define the path of even a smallest segment.

This tedious work is done by a computer known as 'Interpolator'.
The parameters supplied may be the radius, start and end point
of a curve, or radius and centre of a circle, or a gradient angle
for a l i ne. The method by which control system calculates
the intermediate points and speed of the motor, is known as
-.Interpolation.' This Tnter-polation is of three types : (1) Linear1,.. (2)
Circular and (3) Parabolic. (c) Continuous Path
Fig. 19. Examples of work pieces produced by NC machine tools.
 CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM '2.'l:7

may be written as
2.26
21,

z,/x) = I Y 0X + y ox
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING ' h-1

or
1 k
The interpolation of a straight-line, which is possible by knowing I= 1
the co-ordinates of its extreme points is known as linear interpolation. z,e = z k - 1 + y1,ox
This is used for machining taper cuts etc.
For making arcs and circles, 'Circular-Interpo(ation' is used which

the arc or the radius and centre of the circle. This interpolation makes
needs the knowledge of co-ordinates of the end points and centre of_

·run use of the computing machine, as each of the next positionaL

point is calculated from the previous point. Internally, the curvature
is broken into infinitely line segments which approximately appear -
to become an arc.
A parabolic interpolation is not much used but can be
performed by describing the co-ordinates of end points of the parabolic
segments alongwith initial, end, intersection points of the tangents.
Fig. 2.20 (a), (b) and (c) shows these three type of i nterpolation.
The value of the ordinateyk is computed by adding an increment
Fig. 21(a).

oy" to the preceding ordinate

y ·y
Pi
&y" is an increment, which may be equal + �, 0, or - 1, where
Y1t = Y 1, - 1 + oyk

absence of increment is denoted as 0, so that two oy -mputs are needed.

Y1

. Thus, two addition actions take place during each integration

step, the first one determines the new value ofy, E and the second
one performs the integration itself.
X ·x
(a) Linear (b) (c) Circular A symbolic block diagram of a DDA integrator is shown i n Fig.
x,

Interpolation Interpolation Interpolation 21(b) Register y is of n bits length while t::,.y is a 2-bits store.
Fig. 20. (a, b, c) Interpolation.
Noty_J(re working examples arc shown in Topics 5.6.1. and 5.7 . 1 .
r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----- - - - ,
LSBs 1 MSBs of z
1
AZ
Accumulator 1--'----i Counter
�2 Digital Differential Analyser : (DDA) ( UP TECH D2004) '----.,----' o�tput

and digital techniques. Digital accuracy is achieved by �. toring

I
DDA are the computers, which combine the features of analog I

variables in digit � form and converting them to analog value for

Ax I
I

getting in continuol\'s form. The basic unit of DOA is its integrator,

input I
I

which in a single··:OQerationJ performs integration of a function.

I

Integration is doffi?" by succ'essive addition of differences, the

Ay I
I
y Register 1

rectangular approximation is mostly used in NC control systems.

input I
-A I I

Let us assume say y = function of x, then Fig. 21(b). A block diacram ofDDA integrator. ·
y
L - - - - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .J

I n NC machine tools, ODA is used for integrating the counts of

f ydx = Area under the curve y = f{x)
pulse such as those of stepper motors and their 'velocity ' is the
= Sum of minute rectangular equal areas integrated function of those pulse.

z(x) = J ydx = zk(x ) = -Y;OX

X k

O
L
i= 1
 2.28 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
All the abovP. ment ioned PTP, strai ght-l ine
2.3.4 Com bined Motion Cont rol System
. and conto uring
motion �ontrol systems have their individual speci
ality in operations.
For takmg advantages of these specialities, the
control systems are
combined in C-L and P-L group s. For exam ple,
PTP systems are
faster as comp ared to contouring mode systems,
so both of these can
be combined if a profile is havin g some porti on as
contour and other
requires only positioning. Thus, imple ment ing
PTP in latte r stage
of operation increases the speed.
In � -L type motion control system, contour milli
ng is carri ed
out by usmg any two axes out of three conti nuou
sly for the work and
depth of cut with varia ble feed rate along the third
axis i.e. of the
. tool. This contr ol system is shown in self-explanatory Fig.
22.
Most of the milli ng machines use these types of
combinJttions.
In P-L type motion contr ol systems, the point
to point contr ol is
? one along X and Y axes, and line control is done in the axis cutting
i.e. Z-ax1_ s. Due to this, these systems are also sometimes
called as 2
PL systems. Most of the Jig borin g, Horiz ontal
borin g and drilli ng
machines empl oy this type of contr ol syste.m.
1-2, 1-3 L-type mode
2-3 C-type mode
P-L-C type motion control systems are having 3 or
Fig. 22. C-L type motion control system.
4 linear axes
to be contr olled conti nuou sly and 2 or 3 rotar y move
ment s contr olled
along with the posit ionin g facili ty. This comb
inati on is used for
comp lex conto uring opera tions , to be carri ed
out on mach ining
centres. All the NC machines based on motion
contr ol system are
shown in Fig. 22.
CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM 2.29
In N C systems, the problems arise to calculate and measure
2.5 CLASSI FICATION BASED ON CIRCUITTECHNOL OGY
the dimensions at some defined locations and their displacement wi�h
respect to some loc�tion point. These measuring devi�es �ffect the
precision of an NC system. On the basis of the type of circuitry used
in these devices, they are of two types
/ In Analog systems, the values vary continuously with respect
2.5.j,Ahalog Control System
to the quantities. An analog needle type meter is the simplest example
of these analog systems, in which even a small value of order .00001
inch is shown by small deflection in needle. The accuracy in these
systems can be achieved by the precision of sensors which are used .
For example, the slide of a machine tool can move through 200 mm,
represented by 20.0 volts and no movement by zero volts. Since the
voltages vary continuously, slide can be set to any position between
the two limits of slide. The disadvantage being that any voltage drop
causes error in decoding of the information.
Table 2. For description of types of axis controlled by
different NC machines
2P Point to point control in two Axes i.e. Drilling machine
controlled in X and Y axes (Z axis of spindle controlled
manually)
2L Linc control in two axes i.e. X and Y such as milling
machine have "position and velocity" control in two axes.
2PL Positional control in X and Y axis, Line control for velocity
(i.e. feed rate) and depth (position) in Z axis e.g. in case of
drilling machine have controlled spindle.
2C Continuous path control in two axes X and Y e.g. a lathe
and milling having such a control and tool being fed
manually.
2C, L Continuous path control in two axes and line control
(Position and Velocity) in third one e.g. a milling machine
having X, Y as continuously controlled and tool (Z) with
varying feed rate and depth.
4C, L Continuous in four axes and line control in one e.g. a
milling machine having controlled X, Y lin'ear axis + 2
rotary table displacements, and line control (Position and
Velocity) of spindle tool in Z axis.
..:..uV COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM 2.31

/
!. �

�1v -'-
0 :,

- Quantity

Fig. 23. Analog Control System.

2.5.2 Digital Control Systems
The values are measured in steps in these control systems. For
example, if a distance is to be measured i n this system having least
count of 0.01" for smaller tolerances. Thus, if there is a travel of
en 0.004" i.e. less than 0.01", it will not affe ct the reading value. Thus
Q)
b the value will change only after the quantity has changed by at least
s:: ....en 0.01"
Q)
0 ...,::,
Q)

Normally, there is a confusion that which type of circuit

0
� technology of control is used in an NC, because the information is
repeatedly converted from analog to digital and digital to analog.
But here analog are the systems in which data is converted to analog
before processing and similarly for digital systems, the data is
converted to digital before processing.

Q)
s::
:.a
(.)

s
<IS

b.O
s::
·;:: Quanf,ty

=
,..... 0
..., O'.l
s:: - Fig. 24. Digital Control System.
·- (II
0
/
��� �� RDINATE SYSTEMS (POSITIONING SYSTEM)
....
0.. 0
..., ...,
0 ....

...,s:: (/) 'The distances or angles which specify the position of a point,
·o � 0
line, circle or any other geometrical figure with reference to a series
e:,, en of intersecting planes or planes and cylinders (usually three) define a
Q)
s:: co-ordinate system.' For calculating the position of tool and work
:a
(.)
piece relative to each other and also direction of movement giving
s the value of displacement, we need to know the co-ordinates of them.
<IS

b.O Any con trolled movement, whether it is translation or rotation, is

§.... known as axis and co-ordinate system of axes is established with
respect to machine table. Most of the NC machines, have two axes X
0
and Y for controlling the table movement. Third or Z axis movement
2.32 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM 2.33

tak s place in the tool a_s in case of driiling machine. For turning,
:
thm e are only �wo axes, X for the location of cutting tool radially
_
and Z for the axis of rotation of work piece. The movement in z axis
tak�s the cutting tool away from or near to the head stock and X
_ relative movement of cutting tool to the work pieces, is right hand
�not �on moves the cuttmg tool radially outward or inward as shown
m Fig. 2.25 (a) and (b) rJ s,pectively.
+Z
Similarly, a four axes machine would control movements X, Y
and Z, and in addition would have a controlled angular motion of a
rotating work table. The guiding principle which best describes the
coordinate system, for finding the positive and negative directions
of motions. This is explained in Fig. 26.
There are two methods of listing the co-ordinates of points in
NC systems, which can be used independently or in combination.
- Absolute coordinate system
- Incremental coordinate system.

�ute Co-ordinate System

-x
The system, in which all the measurements are taken from a
fixed origin with co-ordinates X = 0, Y = 0 and Z = 0 is known as
Absolute Co-ordinate System. This origin serves as a datum position
from which all the distances are measured parallel to each axis of
Fig. 25. (a) Z axis is perpendicular to the system. It is fixed by the user before starting the operation. This
XY plane of the table.
origin can have different locations on different machines. Often the
origin is a point on the work table surface fixed in advance or a point
• Z - -E- - - v + x -z
-f;.·· on mounting fixture if it is used. This system can be well understood
by the Fig. 27 .
. 7·
-x
The origin 'O' can be defined in two ways, depending upon the
easiness of part programmer, for calculating the distances and
Fig. 25. (b) Z axis is the axis of r�tation coordinates
and X-axis is the radial location of cutting tool.
(a) Fixed Origin which is always fixed at the lower left
+Y hand corner of the work table so that all the measurements
are positive _w.r.t. origin. Fig. 27 illustrates this type of
origin .
+Y
. (b) Floating Origin-The symmetrical parts can have the
origin at their centre and the distances can be measured
+ )( as positive or negative, depending upon the direction of
location with reference to origin. In this case, the
origin can also be made at a point from where it is easy
.,. z to calculate all the distances such as a pre-drilled hole
or any other suitable point on the job. In given Fig. 28,
it is taken at the centre point of the work piece a s 'O'
Fig. 26. Right Hand Co-orginate System. point.
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFA
CTURING

If
CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM 2.35

from the point at which the slide was resting previously. Th e

incremental system, h ence, needs no predetermine d datum p oint.
Most of th e NC lath es, f oll ow an increm ental co- ordinate syst em.
The c o - o rdinat es of th e w o rk-pi ec e in pr evious exampl e can b e
60
I J;"". _
ly

. _--t calculat ed as shown in Fig. 29 .

---,<t-
OJl'___
�x
'-
0 2 5 ----1 ---+---l
i
LLf_
60- 9 5�
f 20 2
120 ---'---1 - -f -

. . tem with fi1xe d ong

. rn. I I
Th e 1 oca t10n
·
Fig. 27. Abs olu te co-ordinate sys
o f ongm '0' is store
d in MC U
I
.

�:�:��I ;;s�:pc::ete re turn ed to it by simply pres:t:;2::r:i�s!':.

t _ -4h_1--<lP- �

.
t
A� imp o rt�nt fe ature of abs o
lute co ordinates is that all th
e
t._____
d im cnsi o ns are md e pe nd e nt o f e ach
...,
'f----+
' -�

oth . cac_ tm� ·'

re turns to its 'last position' which e th e tab� e
f-2s +-3s 35 2s-!
is 'orig�� �� � n1 r t
b nt r e
t u i g h
:;:, �:e! i�c �::tr::l �: ::�:;d a:� :: ��in�:\ : ;�: f:e ;� Th e co- ordinate s of all the six h o le s calculat e d by both of th e
e o Fig. 29. Incremental Co-ordinate System.

s the mac h me 1s
sw itche d 'on'' I·t automat1· cally rea
'Last pos itio n ' also and it d
Thus, making it conv e ni ::: :�/ e=�� .
ch e s at 'Origin O ' i.e.
t ff,
w h 1ch
' 1s
��y 0ther dimension furthe r.
f urthe r . These syst ems ar e us e d in p oint- : - :� :r:;���� !f !:�cee d
t i a o
. .
its
syst ems is as sh own in the table below

Hole
Absolute System
Fixed Origin Floating Origin
Incremental System

hi 25, 20 - 40, - 20 25, 20

60 --j h2 25, 60 - 40 , 20 0, 40
. ,o 60, 20 0, - 20 35, - 10
I h3
h1
h5
60, 60 0, 20 0, 40
85, 20 4 0 , - 20 35, - 40
h6 85, 60 40, 20 0, 40
The so call e d Absolute systems, ar e not pur e ab.solut e be caus e
X

th ey also hav e som e inh er e nt 'incr eme ntal' subprogramm e s. For

e xample, say l" mov em e nt of tabl e from o rigin is m e asure d, by
counting 5 r otati ons of l e adscr ew on e aft er the other. Thus, w e will
40
'-----+------l -1
mak e a c ounter 'incr em enting' by 1 until it r e ach e s th e value 5.
Similarly for me asuring 2" w e hav e to co unt 2 times, 5 puls e 's. H enc e
y

a subroutin e o r sub-pr ogram is made which counts th e 5 rotati o ns in

g. 28. Ab solu te Co-ordinate Sys
tem with Floa t·mg 0 ngm.
. .
'incre m e ntal m od e ' and th e main program counts i t as 1 unit in
Incremental Co-ordinate System
l An inc
. remental system is one in which all Absolut e mo de . It reduc es the burd en of programm er to write repeated
he next pos itio n are calculated in
the for� ofincr:::::� ;7;i:!:t�: programs, for counting 5 r o tati ons in th e main. These typ e s
r

of systems ar e also som e tim e s call e d 'Prog,:ammed Absolute'

systems.
 2.36
· ·
2 .6 . 3 Co mpa ns1o
2.37
n of Absolute and Incr
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM

Absolute
1. If a dimension is changed,
then the program i s easy to
change even during the operation
� s · all the measurements are
independent of each other e.g. in
c � se O � fig. given below, the
?1�; e �s 1 on '30' can be changed to
3o without any other change.
emental Coo rdin ate Systems
Incremental
Pro gram editing i s very
. .
difficult a s all the d i m e n sions
depend upon ihe previous dimension.
F or ex�mple, as in figure given if
_ separately for each operation.
dunens1on '10' is to be changed to
i � e v a l u e ' 1 5 ' , then the next
dimension '20' is also io be changed
to '15'.
4. Can be directly translated
from drawings, as most of the
Engineering Drawings are made in
this pattern.
5. Overall error detection is
difficult. because it is to be detected
6. Slower operation as it has
In this system the dimensions
need to be converted int o
'Incremental' form.
Overall error detection is easy,
as at the end of all operations, again
the starting point has to be reached
i.e. sum total of all the movements
(+ve and -ve) should be zero. If it
reaches the starting p o i n t , i t
ensures that there is no error.
Faster as compared to

2� Measuring Co-ordinates
I to reach 'Zero origin' each time.
I
absolute.
T
I
I ' ' I

''
I I ' I I I

I I I I I I

'
I I I I I
I ' I ' Th e units of m easurem ent of co -or dinates ca n be give n in FPS
i.e. inches or Me tric i.e. mm, whi ch the pr o grammer has to specify
I

I
I

1
1--- 2 0 -+ 10+-20 --1
�� by s uitable co des i n Part program. B u t as th e values given in

Fi g. 30. (a) without change pr o gramme ar e in th e form of int ege rs (whole n umbers), h en ce to
re pre sent th e fractional dimen sio ns, w e nee d to divid e it by the

f�
r esoluti o n of NC system , which is known as Basic Length Unit
(BLU) of the NC syste m. For exampl e , to r e present a displacem�nt
I
' o f 1 . 1 15" i n an NC machine havin g the r e solutio n of .001", it is give n
by

2 · They need somewhat
complicated and costly circuit for
their realisation.
3. There is no restriction that
w h e n the prog ram me can be
cha nge d. Bec ause the syst em
returns to 'zero position' after each
ope rati on, the syst em can be
sto�ped at any point, changed and
agam started.
�I�- IDENTIFICATION
f-zc +-1s -+-,s-J
-
-
(b) with change
Fig. 31.
Less expensive and simple in
construction.
In i n c r e m e n t a l , a l l the
.
dimensions are to be entered once and
if the! a �e to be changed, then the
machine 1s to be stopped and again
needs to be started fr om the first
operation, because it is not possible
for an operator to bring it back to the
previous position within 0 . 0 1 m m
accuracy.
lacem ent = 1 . 115/.001 = 1 1 1 5 .
�
G e nerally, t he purp o se of the ma chine too l is to cut away th e
surplus mate rial, bringi n g the w ork piece to a required shap e , size
an d finish.
To do this no rmally two major op·erations are p e rformed
The geometrical machi n e controll ed mov ements i.e. moving
the t ool an d work pi ec e r elative to e ach other to produce
th e r e quir e d shape.
A ncillary op e ratio n s, such as cha nging the feed rate s,
rev ers in g the spindl e , tool changing and turn i n g on the
co olant etc.
Th e first o p e ratio n , has machin e mo ve ments of two kinds­
translati on an d r otati on . The Translati o n is the linear displacem ent
in any o f thr ee d irectio n s an d Rotati o n is orie nted als o in three ·
dir e ctions say X, Y & Z. As alr e ady explai n e d , 'An Axis is th e
co ntro lled mov eme nt whether it is translation or ro tati on.' As us ually,
 CLASSiFICATION OF NC SYSTEM 2.39

2.38 A more comprehensive description of all the axes and their ( +)

and (-) directions is given in Fig. 33.
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

in the real world space every point is designated by 3-Dimensions, Various axes which can be identified in different classes of
there are three �xes of movement identified as X, Y and z in NC machines are as follows :
.
machmes. Certam rules are followed for designating these axes for
app�ying it to different types of NC machines having different rela,tive
motions of tool and work piece.
+V
It should be horizontal.
X-axis

.(b) It is generally the longest axis of movement of work piece

(a)

or tool.
(c) It should be perpendicular to Z-axis.
(d) It is always parallel to surface of the holding device.

It should be perpendicular to X and z axes.

Y-axis -8

Z-axis
(a) It i s always parallel to the spindle.
_ />.f
(b) It should be perpendicular to the X and Y axis.
In addition to these linear axes, A, B and C are the other three
axes, which provide rotary motion about the X, Y and Z cartesian
axes respectively. It may be noted that all of the axes need not be
Fig. 33.

present in all groups of NC machines. The rotary axes are to be used come
where the work table or tool head has to be rotated. To know the (a) W�tb .Verti_c·aI Spindle : The various machines that
2.7.1 Machines with Ro.tating Tools

millin g
positive directions of linear axes X, Y and Z (Fig. 26) can be referred. under this type are : 1. Drilling machine, 2. Vertical
machi ne, 3·. Jig borin� machin� and 4. Drafting mach ine. ·
Similarly, Fig. 32 shows rotational direction by the right hand i.e. if tool
The· mach ines use a similar type of �es nome nclatu re : A .
the thumb is pointing in any direction of positive linear. axis (X or y .
ines. The
or Z), then the direction of fingers wi l l point in rotational direction move ment is said to be m Z direct ion on these · mach
work piece is fo __ or negat ive di;ection
(+ A or + B or + C). movem ent ofth.e tool into a
piece is in + Z or . positiv e direct ion. Positive
and �way from the work
-.z
cleara nce betwe en the work piece and the
direct ion, increases the · lookin g from the
tool holde:c,. The motion in X axes direct ion, when
1

should be
tool spindie' to column, is positive to' the 'right'. As Y axis
motion of
perpendicµlar to the both · axes X and Z respe ctivel y. The
axis. The
the work table in transverse direction describes the Y
Fig. 32). The
positive Y can be known from the right hand rule (refer
axis becau se it is
rotational motion of tool cannot be· define d by . an ·
not controlled one.
(b) With Horizontal Spindle Machine : The ( 1) Horizontal
boring machine · and (2) Horizontal spindle machining ·
,tA +X

centre. In these machines, Z axis is ·a.gain .defined along . .

Fig. 32. Direction of Positive Rotation.
X, Y,, Z direction and A, B, C rotations in a right hand co-ordinate system.
 2.40 CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM 2.41
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
i;li d e. The X motion is positive when th e tool moves outwar d ra dially.
�he spin dl e axis or p�rallel to the spin dle axis. When there Again the rotary motion of job is not defined by an axis as it is not
is mo_re �han o�e spin d l e , one of them shoul d be selected 1·ontrolled. Ther e is no Y-axis myv ement in lath es.
a prmc1pal s�m dle, which ,1referably is perp end icular to
t�e- work holding surface as in case of a machining centre.

z
I
t

-z

'
•V

. I�- ----:--�---I
I r---------'------11_...!.....___

2.7 .3 Machines with Non-rotating Tool and Non-rotating Work Piece

Fig. 36. Lathe machine.
X ---:---'-"-'--•
-Y

The planer, shaper and slotting machines are the machines

Fig. 34. Vertical mill ing mac hine
·· The X-axis, looking from th e tool
.
towards th e·
positive to the 'right sid e ' and y dir
. e ction is compute d :z�
which have no spin d le. Hence the Z axis is taken perpen dicular to
work hold ing d evices, which may not pass through the tool point.
The X-axis is parall e l to the dire ction of major move m e nt i.e. is
cutting. The Y axis is calculate d as previous case 1 a, b.
k · . ·
r::i:r:�1��

Fig. 37. Shaper.

It may be note d that all the motions are mentione d with

n
Fi g. 35. Horizontal Boring Machine. reference to a point, generally the tool tip. Moreover, if the cutting
2.7 .2 Mtfch_ines with Rotating Work-piece
power is supplied in the w·ork piece spin dle (in lathe), then positive X
motion moves to the cutting tool outwards. If a second similar motion
· t .· 8 <:e , most l�thes are_ horizontal spind.le machines th e z axis exists having same effect, it is not labelle d as + X but a l etter + U is
:
. or l?U.C a l�!he, _w_1I.l be _h?nzontal. Hen�e , z is the axis ofrotation of used as shown in Fig. 36. Similarly, V, W and P, Q, R are also used
e w k- ece. T�e positive moveme nfofthe cutting tool (Z) is away w.r.t. Y, Z and A, B, C directions of motion.
. t .r<>m ��. � re�d stock. T.h e_ _X axis i_s. r�dial an d patallel to the cross
. .
2.42 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM 2.43

. . 5- )
2.8 NUMERICAL.ON STEPPER MOTOR
. · · ·
0.5
·
.
Example : A stepping motor of 100 steps I revolution is mounted Solution
. ( -
: Travel t1me m X-runs 1s - l = 10 sec, 1n Y-axis 1s
on a leadscrew of a NC machine through a gear ratio G = 2. For each
revolution of motor shaft, the leadscrew rotates G revolutions. The motor (3 - 1)
-- = 4 sec .
receives pulse frequencyof 2000 pps and the pitch is 1mm. Find BLU ? 0.5
Also show that BLU is independent ofpulse frequency.
Travel time = 10 sec
(UP TECH D 2003)
Resolution = BLU = 0.0001
Solution. (Refer article 2.2.1)
Example 2. A CNC milling machine has to cut a · slot located
N= rev of motor between the points (0,0) and (4,3) on the.KY-plane where the dimensions
100 are in inches. If the speed along the .slot .is to be 0.1 in I sec, find the
BLU is equal to translation motion for one step of stepper Motor. cutting time and axial velocities.
Pitch, P = 1 mm. Solution : Distance traveled along the slot = (16 + 9)"'2 = 5 "
Gear Ratio, G = 2 (Given)
i.e. One rev. of motor = 2 rev of leadscrew Cutting time = .o = 50 sec
.1
i.e. Assuming leadscrew as single start
BLU = G (np . N) 4(0.1}
Vx = xVl(x2 + y2)" = -- = 0.08 in/sec
1 5
- 2 (1 x 1 x -)
100
3(0.1
= 0.02 mm Ans. Vy = yV/(x2 + y2)"'2 = --) = 0.06 in/sec
5
Note : It can be seen that the frequency of pulses i.e. 2000 pulse
per second, is not concerned with the BLU. If the velocity is Y-axis is off by 10%, what would be the new
position ?
Basic Length Unit (BLU)
New velocity in y is 0.9 x O .06 = 0.054 in/sec
Each BLU unit corresponds to the position resolution of the axis
In 50 sec, the,y - wi_l,l move a distance [50 (0.054)] = 2. 7 in.
of motion.
For example, OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS
1 BLU = 0.0001" means that the axis will move 0.0001" for every The open-loop control means that there is no feedback and uses
one electrical pulse received by the motor. The_.BLU is also referred to stepping motors for driving the leadscrew. A stepping motor is a device
as Bit (binary digit). whose output shaft rotates through a fixed angle in response to an
Pulse = BLU = Bit input pulse (�gure 9). The accuracy of the system depends on the motor's
Example 1. The XY table of a drilling machine has to be ability to step through the exact number. The frequency ofthtstepping
moved from the point (l, l) to the point (6, 3). Each axis can move at a motor depends on the load torque. The higher the load t���ue, lower
velocity of 0.5" I sec, and the BLU is 0.0001 '>find the travel time and would be the frequency. Excessive load torque may occur in motors due
resolution. to the cutting forces in machine tools. Hence this system is more
2.44 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING '
CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM 2.45
suitable for cases where the tool force does not exist (Example: laser
60 f = N (RPM) where N = number of pulses per re,volution,
cutting).
RPM = RPM of the lead screw The travel speed, V, is then given by
V = p (RPM) where p pitch in in/rev
Example 3. A stepping motor has N p = 0.2 "/rev; If
= 150,

TRANStATOR SERVO• n = 2250 pulses, wh�t is the distance traveled in x-direction ? What should
MOTOR
be the pulse frequency for a travei speed of 16 in. I min ?

(2250)
-- 11
Fig. 38. (?pen Loop Control System. Solution. = (0 2) =3
A = n (360/N), degrees X • 150
X = p(n/N) 16'= O .2 (RPM),
from which, . RPM --=-80 . \

(80)
f= (150) - = 200 Hz
60
\f
Example 4. A stepping motor of200 steps per revolution is mounted
on the leadscrew ofa drilling machine. If the pitch is 0.1 in/ rev.
,________,_
_ _, POS,11 IO NAL �-------'
TRANSDUCER DISPLACEMENT
FE(O BACK (a) What is the BLU ?
(b) If the motor receives a pulse frequency of 2000 Hz, what is thll
Fig. 39. Closed - loop Control System with tachometer and encoder. speed of the table ?
Open loop control system Solution.
The stepping motor is driven by a series of electrical pulses generated . 0.1
by the MCU. Each pulse causes the motor to rotate a fraction of one (a) BLU = = 0.0005"
2000
revolution. The fraction is expressed in terms of the step angle, oc, .
given by a = 360/N, degrees where N = nuinber of pulses required for . . · · (2000)', . . . .
one revolution If the motor receives 1 n11 number of pulses then the total (b) Table speed = (p) (RPM) = (0.1) (60) 60 m/rom
1
200 =;
angle.
Example 5. Consider a CNC worktable driven by a closed'- {oop
In terms of the number of revolutions, it would be (n/N) If there is
control system consisting of a servomotor, leadscrew, af!,. d opti cal
a 1 : 1 gear ratio between the motor and the leadscrew, then the leadscrew ,
encoder: The leadscrew has a pitch, p "i 0:2" and 'is coupled to the motor
has (n/N) revolutions .
· shaft with a §C�ew to motor gear ratio of 1 ·: 4. . The e_ricoder g�_nerates 150
If the pitch of leadscrew is p (in/rev), then the distance traveled p�lses per revolution of the leadscrew. If the number ofp�lses ancf, the
axially, say x, can be used to achieve a specified x - increment in a p oint­ puts� . rate recei u_ ed by the control system are 2·250 '<;,nd 200 Hz
to-point system. respectively, calculate
\ ;, :
The pulse frequency, f, in pulses/sec 'determines the travel speed . ·. .

of the tool or the workpiece. 1 (a) Tables.peed . . . .· '·

(b) Motor speed in RPM
 CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM 2.47
2.46 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
electromechanical components ofthe positioning system that affect the
(c) Distance traveled by the table resolution are the leadscrew pitch, the gear ratio, and the step angle in
Solution. the stepping motor (open loop) or the angle between the slots in the
(a) V = p (RPM) = 0.2 (RPM) = (0 .2) (60 f)/N encoder (closed-loop).
The control resolution for a 1 : 1 gear ratio of a stepped motor is,
(200)
= (0 .2) (60) = 16 in/min Resolution = p/N
150
where p = pitch,
{200) and N = 360/a
(b) RPM of the leadscrew = (60) = 80
150
Features smaller than the control resolution could not be produced.
RPM of the motor = 320 The programming resolution can not exceed the control resolution.
(2250) Accuracy of a CNC system depends on the resolution, the
(c) X = p (n,/N) = (0:2) 15() = 3"
computer control algorithms, and the machine inaccuracies. The
Example 6. A DC servomotor is coupled to a leadscrew which drives inaccuracy due to the resolution is considered to be (1/2)BLU on
the table ofa CNC machine tool. A digital encoder, mounted at the end of
the average. The control algorithm inaccuracy is due to the rounding
the screw, emits 500 pulses per revolution. If the pitch is 5 mm per rev,
and the motor rotates 600 rpm (1 : 1 gear ratio), calculate the : off the errors in the computer which is insignificant. The machine
inaccuracy could be due to several reasons (described below). The designer
(a) Table speed
minimizes this inaccuracy to be under. (1/2)BLU and hence Machining
(b) BLU Inaccuracy
(c) Frequency ofpulses transmitted by the encoder
Accuracy = (1/2) Resolution + Machining inaccuracy = BLU
Solution.
Repeatability is a statistical term associated with accuracy. It
(a) V = p (RPM) = 5 (600) = 3000 mm/min = 3 m/min
refers to the capability of a positioning system to return to a programmed
5 point, and is measured in terms of the errors associated with the
(b) ��� = 500 = 0.01, mm programmed point. The deviation from the control point (error) usually
60{ follows a normal distribution in which case the repeatability may be
(c) RPM = 600 = (601)/N = - given as +/- 3a where "a" is the standard deviation. The repeatability is
500
from which f = 5000 Hz · always better than the accuracy. The mechanical inaccuracy can be
PRECISION IN CNC MACHINING considered as the repeatability.
The combined characteristics of the machine tool and the control
determine the precision of posit(oning. Thre£: critical measures of
precision are :
• Resolution
• Accuracy
• Repeatability
(a) Low Accurate (b) High Accurate
Cont.rol resolution (BL�) is the distance separating tw6 adjacent Low Reapeatability Low Reapeatability
points in the axis movement (the smallest change in the position). The
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM
2.48
2.49

0.2
Resolution = = 0.001333"
150

What would be the accuracy and repeatability if the machining

(c) Low Accuracy (d) High Accuracy

inaccuracy is about ( ½) BLU ?
High Repeatability High Repeatability
0.0013332 0.001333
Accuracy = +
2 2

= 0.001333"
Repeatability = +/- 0.00067"

(e) Normal Distribution EXERCISES

Fig. 40.
Figure shows the d ifference between the accuracy and the 1. Explain the difference between
repeatability . (a) Open loop and closed loop control systems.
Cutting tool deflec tion, machine tool chatter, mechanical (UP TECH DEC 2000)
linkage between the leadscrew and the tool, and thermal deformations
(b) Positional and contouring systems.
are the chief contributin g factors. The leadscrew transmits the
power to the table or toolh old er by means of a nut that engages the (c) Absolute and incremental systems.
leadscrew. (d) Analog and digital systems.
This will create what is known as "bacldash"due to the friction 2. Explain different types of position measuring devices.
between
0
the screw and the nut . If the nut consists of ball bearings, the
friction is reduced. Thermal deformations are significant. 3. Identify �he linear and rotary axes in
For example, a temperature difference "f 1 °C along 1000 mm can (a) Drilling machine.
cause an error of 0.01 mm. (b) A turret lathe.
Example 7. What is the control resolution for a 4 : 1 gear ratio 4. What purpose do transducers serve in a NC system ?
(motor: leadscrew), pitch ofleadscrew 0.2 in/rev, and the motor receives
600 pulses per revolution.
5. Calculate the distances to be given in part program for a part in
Fig. 4 1 , in X and Y direction if the BLU is .001.
Solution. Since the motor shaft rotates 4· times faster than the
(Ans. X = 5500, Y = 3000)
600
leadscrew, N = - = 150
4

I
 3
Construction and Drive
System of CNC Machines
3.1. INTRODUCTION
Present day machine tools are varied in design. We have the
well known conventional machines such as lathe, milling etc., NC
machines and special purpose machines. The selection of a particular
type of machine tool is based upon the overall efficiency and economy
of the services it renders to the factory output. However, in the design
of all the machines, there are some common features e.g. operational
cutting feed and speed of motions, gear boxes, constructional elements
like slide ways, beds, spindles are quite similar in these machine.
But in case of CNC, the machines are operated automatically.
Hence, if a careful design of machine is not done, then it is possible
that a very large damage is done becanse of1esser supervision of the
operator. Unexpected deformations can occur clue to :
Excessive pressure of tool on workpiece.
Usage of high speeds in CNC.
Hunting/overshoot of the tooVtable on which operation change
takes place.
Deformation of machine parts due to thermal effect.
Noise and vibration.
Friction of sli'cl e ways.
All these factors lead to :
(a) below quality production of parts w.r.t. shape, size and finish
(b} operator's fatigue and accidents
(c) Lesser production due to higher maintenance cost.
Hence to make a general cliteria for testing the performance
of a CNC machine following factors are taken into account :
(i) Production Accuracy. The basic criterea for the
performance of CNC is producing parts of required shape
'Hithin dimensional and finish tolerances. This is only possible
if the spindle and guideways are properly aligned.
(ii) Production. It can be in the terms of parts produced per unit
time or metal removed per unit time etc.

3.1
3.2 COMPU'fER AIDED MANUl�ACTUfffNG
(iii) Operator's ease. Machine should have easy operation
causing lesser fatigue i.e. it should be able to automate the
manufacturing process to the maximum limit.
(iv) Reliability of CNC. CNC should be maintenance free i.e.
having lesser breakdowns. Also if there is a breakdown, then
only the easily replacable parts should fail.
(v) Safety. The machine should be guarded against all the
possible accident. Moreover, operator should also feel it safe
to work on machine.
Thus, we can easily conclude from the above that more care has
to be taken while designing a CNC as compared to the conventional
machines.
A CNC should be of "Robust Construction with Minimum friction
and backlash eleminated". The Design consideration of CNC involves
stress upon two areas :
- Control System Design
- Mechanical System Desi gn .
3.2. CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN
NC machine tool in the past had been very unreliable. Fro m a
user point of view, it was very difficult to believe, that what happened
to a machine, which had given a very good service for years and finally
lost its handwheels after marrying to au NC controller. Obviously,
the controller unit also lacked the reliability and also the proper
coordination between d i f erent circuitry clement or parts. The user
f
is confused whet.her between relays, transistors or !C's what is
reliable. Hence, for the selection of control system, there are four main
considerations :
3.2.1. Analog VCl'SUS Digital
There are very few systems which are either completely analog
or completely digital. 'l'he feedback provided in the system is generally
of analog form and convert the data in digital form. Hence, without
getting into the nrguments of usefulness of both systems, care should
be taken for selectiug the technology for different units of control unit.
3.2.2. Punched Tape vs. Mag Tape
It is not feasible to use a system with magnetic tape as Ll i e input
for systems of simple nature such as Point to Point applications or
straight lines because programming and preparing punched tapes is
cheap and easy. Even modifications can be done easily by cutting a
pnrt or simply closing holes etc.
CONSTRUCTION J\ND D1UYG SYSTEM OF CNC M.i\CIIINES 3.3
Whereas, in case of magnetic tapes a large volume of data e.g.
complex contouring parts can be handled by it. Sometimes magnetic
tapes have more detailed cutter path information and hence eliminate
the used of an interpolator but need an extra off-line computer for
calculation purposes. So, the choice between punched tape and
magnetic tape depends upon the requirement stability.
3�pen Loop vs. Closed Loop Systems
As already explained, open-loop CNC systems have no feedback
where as closed loop systems make use of feedback transducers as
explained in previous chapters.
Although closed-loop systems seem to be more precise as
compared to open loop systems, but they are comparitively more
expensive than 0.L.S. Moreover, use of very sophisticated "Digital
Pulse hydraulic motor" has eliminated the need of closed loop systems.
3.2.4. Linear vs. Rotary Transducers
The difference between the two, as explained in previous
chapters, is that linear transducers get direct drive from actual slide
displacement, whereas Rotary transducers have indirect
measurement by attachment to the ends ofleadscrews and hence only
simulates the relative movement of tool and workpiece.
Although linear transducer such as Ferranti systems have found
to be more accurate and widely accepted, but slowly the Rotary
transducers such as Synchro are also getting accepted.
A mathematical model, is used in control design. LAPLACE
transform is applied to qonvert, complex time dependent variables
with differential equations, into function of a variable say 'S'. For
example, a differential equation :
d
M 2y + l( dy + [( = Kx
dt 2 dt
can be rewritten as :
Ms 2Y(s) + KsY(s) + KY(S) = J(X(S)
3.3. MECHANICAL SYSTEM DESIGN
It was also folt at a later stage Lhat the designs of conventional
machines often :
lack the stiffness, which is very necessary for CNC machines.
have backlash i.e. clearances in threads of leadscrcws etc.
which are- almost eliminated in CNC.
have characteristic of 'stich-slip' which appear to be very
difficult to be controlled by CNC.
 CONSTRUCTION AND DRIVE SYS1'l�M OF CNC MACHINES 3.5
3.4 corvIT-'U'l'ER AIDED MANUFAC'l'lJRING
(d) The hollow cross sections for beds, bases and columns with
have Mic tool resonance and
a number ofribs welded with the walls cater for the rigidity
have Mic tool chatter which is taken care of by "Chatter
as well as openings for inspection, lubrication and collection
Compensation" in CNC's.
of chips coolants. Beds are made of special Cast Iron FG-260
All of the above und esirable characteristics are exh ibited to a IS for better damping capacity.
less or more extent in all of the CNC's due to the economic reasons.
(e) Thermo symmetrical design of all parts.
B �t a careful i�vestigation on all the basic mechanical parts, their
. ({) Providing large heat removing surfaces.
dnvmg mechanisms and their relative motions can solve this problem
to a greater extent. Use of excellent coolants.
Avoiding direct as well as local source of heat such as sun
(g)
There are following machine elements or systems which are
considered at the time of designing o f CNC machines. light and electrical motors/oil pumps respectively.
(h)

- Main structure of CNC Machine tool. (i) Reduction of ambient temperature by using Air, conditioning
- Slide and Slide ways. units.
(j) Proper alignment of the machine elements relative to each
other while in operation as well as in stationary conditions.
3.3.1. Main Structure
The main structure ofCNC machine tool comprises of a bed, a
column or any other member, such as head stock of lathe which is
rigidly connected to the bed.
1'he basic structure of machine tool transmits cutting force from
work-piece to the foundation. There are two types of forces which act
upon :
- S tatic forces
- Inertia forces .
The static forces are exerted commonly by the weight of ma chino
.
�ool 1 �solf and pressure of the cutting tool on tho workpiece. II ow over,
mt•rtia forces are exerted by rapid acceleration and deacceleraLion.
Both of the forces tend to bending or deforming the table and this
may l eacl Lo errors to the tune of 40 pmm. For a nwnually operated
.
Fig. 3.J. Thermal sources causes of inaccuracy in machine tools.
machme tool the operator can correct the error bnt in CNC machines
the control tape cannot take into the forces acting during the
3.3.2. Slide and Slide Ways
As we know that the general machine tools are provided with
machining operation. The bonding and deformation can also be caused tables, slides, carriages etc. to carry the workpieces or cutting tools
due to the heat offcct in the machine. 'l'he heat effect cnn put tool etc. These parts are sliding in natme and mounted on the ways that
holder out of alignment and deform the machine bod and tnble. The are fixed on the other parts (column, housing, bed or knee) of the
anoLher ca use. for the deformation of vertical columns may be the machines known as sliding ways.
mounLing of driving motors directly on the cutLing arm. Fig. ·3 .1. The
These slide .. ways should be rigid, accurately designed and
various steps which can be taken to counter cause are : durable.
(a) Providing a correctly design mild sLeel structure having
higher stiffness. As the requirements for accuracy and location of tables/saddles
(b) Use of ribs, braces, angle plates to increase the stiffness of increases, more attaintion has to be giver! to the frictional resistance
machine structure. of slides. The slip-stick motion which prevents smooth starting from
(c) Normal weight distribution over. the entire frame of the the rest, is also taken care of. To overcome this drawback many anti­
machine. friction bearing arrangements are done to substitute sliding friction
with rolling friction. Different methods to achieve this phenoimenon
are as

3.6 COMI'UTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
A. Hydrostatic type slide ways
B . Anti friction type slide ways
C. Wear resistant slide ways.
3.3.2.1. Hydrostatic Type Slide Ways
The slide-ways of many machines and particular those with a
horizontal bed like lathes, exists under difficult conditions for cutting
forces falling on the sliding surfaces. It will lead to increase friction
and wear alongwith loss of accur acy. Hence, a constant film of some
fluid like oil or air preve nts metallic contact between the sliding
members and thus reduce s wear to a minimum.
Oil or air is pumped into small cavities or pockets machined in
the faces of the carriage which are in contact with the slideway of
the machii:i.e (Fig. 3.2). The press ure of the fluid gradually reduces
to atmospheric as it seep s out from the pockets, through the gap
between the contacting fac es of the carriage and slideway. An almost
frictionless condition exis ts for the movement of the carriage.
Hydrostatic slideways can be sub-classified as :
- Oil lubricated slideways
- Air bearing slicleways.
(i) Oil Lubricated Sl ideways. Stress is made on maintaining
an unbroken oil film. The friction is minimised by forcing oil
under pressure betwe en the mating surfaces and the pressure
is automatically varied, according to the load on the surface
resulting from the weight o f moving member and cutting
conditions. These type ofslidcways are best suitable for CNC
milling machines.
The oil lubricated h ydrosta tic slideways is shown in Fig. 3.2.
Slide Slide Ways
CON.STRUC'l'TON AND DRIVE SYSTEM OF CNC MACHINES 3.7
entirely separates the slide and slide ways surfaces. But air
bearings are only suitable for positioning work such as
drilling, because machining does not take place during the
movement of slide. These bearings have a draw back that
there may be mis-alignment due to lifting of slides and on
the other hand due to an unevenly situated load on the work
table. The cross-section of the air bearing slideways are
explained in the Fig. 3.3.
Air-bearing
Sideway
Resolver
Clutch
Resolver
Gear
Gear
Drive
Fig. 3.3. Air-Bearing slideways.
3.3.2.2. Anti-friction Type Slide Ways
Conventional slides, having sliding friction have a highest value
offriction at lowest velocity. This leads to a jerky action due to sticking
of oil lubricated sliding surfaces. To avoid this situation a point or
line contact is made instead of surface between the sliding parts, there
by converting sliding friction into rolling friction.

Bed

Pressurised Bed
Oil
Fig. 3.2. Hydrostatically Lubricated Stideway.
(ii) Air Bearing Slideways. In some of the hydrostatically
lubricated machines compressed air is used instead of oil.
During the actual displacement of the slides, the table and Fig. 3A. Ball bea1·ing guideways.
saddle are raised on the cushion of compresRed air which

3.8 COTIIPU'l'ER AIDED MANUPA.CTURING
Good rnsults are obtained by both ball and roller designs.
(i) Ball Bearing Guide-ways. 'l'he bed form the guide ways
Another improvement of balls and rollers :
for the balls, which are carried in chain cages, Hardened
inserts are fitted into the table which is located on the ball
track with a single flat surface in contact with the balls,
Figure 3 . 4 shows this arrnngements.
The recirculating linear ball bearing uses the balls to roll
between four rods, two fixed to the table and two to the
stationary bed. A return groove as shown in Fig. 3.5 is
provided in the moving member to allow the balls to circulate,
with the help of deflector plates (Fig. 3.5).
Stationary Deflector
bed ploft
Guide­
rods
(ii) Roller Bearing Guide Ways. To improve the lood bearing
Fig. 3.5. Recirct1,lating linear ball bearing guideways.
properties, hardened steel inserts known as rollers are used
in slide-ways to minimise fr iction and have a small starting
effort. These usually roll between the hardened tracks of
V-shaped grooves as shown in Fig. 3.6.
Fig. 3.6. Roller·qearing guideways.
CONSTRUC'l'!ON AND DIUVI:: SYSTEl\1 OF CNC MACHlNES 3.9
There slideways are suitable for circular tracks such as large
boring machines and turing mills.
3.3.2.3. Wear Resistant Slide Ways
The machine tools vary in ability to resist wear and tear of their
guicleways. Machines, such as lathe and planning machines operate
under heavy loads where as grinding m achines have very les5 wear
a.nd tear on their slideways. For economic reasons, Cast Iron is used
for the body of both types of machines. Hence, a different type of
bearing surface is applied. Method used for this purpose nrc :
- Flame hardening
- Induction hardening
- Fastening hardening surfaces
- Surface coatings
The first two methods are mostly applied to the conventional
machines for a wear resistant slide ways. Fastening of hanlened steel
strips on the slides is generally observed by scraping the saddle ur
bed first and then fitting a pre-measured steel strips on it. Sometimes,
in the latest machines, the shdeways are coated with a str;p of low
friction plastic material such as PTFE (Poly Tetra Floro Ethyline)
which are employed to maintain a positive contact. Another material,
turcite liners are also pasted as anti-stick slip liners.
3.3.3. Spindle
It is the expensive and live part of the machine tool which gets
the power from its drive unit and deliver to the work in case o f lathe
or to the tool in case of drilling or milling machine. In case of lathe
machine, it also holds the work piece. There are three main functions
of the spindle as :
- Centering the job or the tool
--, Holding the job or the tool
- Rotate the job or the tool
So, on the basis of above functions, it should be stiff «:Jl1d short
in length to get increased stability and minimisation of torsional
strain. It should also be very close to the front bearing as much as
possible to maintain stability and smooth operation.
The centering of the spindle is made byproviding either internal
or external tapers or cylinders. In case oflathe machine, the spindle
consists o f a centre, taper bore, a dapters (to suit centres of different
sizes and tapers) and an external cylinder to l.o cate driving chucks
plates as shown in Fig. 3.7. The main spindle is supported on high
precision taper roller bearings to provide high rigidity, thermal
stability and consistent production accuracy. Due to hollow roller
construction of the bearings, the heat is carried away i11stanta11eously.
 CONSTRUCTION AND DRIVE SYSTEM QJc CNC MACHINES 3.11
· 3 . 10 COMJ'U'l'ER AillED MJ\NUPACTURlNG
Prtloading
spr'lng
Adopter Taper Bore

Fig. 3.7. Lathe spindle.

In case of milling machine, the spindle and internal taper, Pr'e:loodtd
locates the milling heads or cutter heads. front beoring

A straight fastening rod passes through the full lengths of the Fig. 3.9. Pre-loaded ball bearing.
sp indle as shown in Fig. 3.8. In this bearings unit, 10 springs are acting on the front bearing
and 8 springs on the rear one to ensure a pre-loading of 1000 and
\ Fastening Bar
900 kg respectively on front and gear bearing. The pre-loading
\
becomes the cause of absence of radial and horizontal clearance to
ensure true running.
(b) Pre-loaded Taper roller bearings
These bearings are designed to bear both thrust load and radial
Fig. 3.8. Milling ·machine spindle. load. The tapered roller bearings must be mounted in pairs and
The tenons (projections) are secured to the spindle nose by positioned as shown in Fig. 3.10, have the greater stability for all
mea ns of screws whith transmits the torque from the spindle to the thrust loads.
arb or or milling head.
3.3.3.1. Spindle mountings
In CNC machines, the spindles are mounted on the anti-friction
beatings. The following types of bearings are used for the mounting
of s pindle
- Preloaded ball bearings
- Preloaded taper roller bearings
- Hydrostatic journal bearings
- Oil retaining bearings
(a) Pre-loaded ball bearing
In this case, two opposed bearings are fitted either as duplex Fig. 3.10. Pre-loaded taper roller bearing.
or at opposite ends of a spindle and loads from either ends are resisted.
In this, pre-loading is adjusted by the spring pressure as shown in Pre-loading can be carried out on the front bearing by providing
Fig . 3 .9. loclmuts and checks for maximum 150° C_ working temperature.
The spindles with pre-loaded bearings, over enable bores of work
piece s to be produced to size with in 0.005 to- 0.003 mm for roundness
. and parallelism under 0. 000/mm of surface finish.
 3.12 COMPU'rER A1DED MJ\NUFJ\CTUJUNG
Cc) Hydrostatic Journal Bearings
This bearing is designed to ensure that metal to metal contact
? oes not take place under any working condition but that the journal
1s always surrounded by oil. The oil is fed to be bearing at constant
pressure through a preset throttle value. The shaft rotates in bearing
shell having a series of pockets 'P' and slots 'S' cut along the centres
of the bands between adjacent pairs of pockets, extended to within
a short distance of each end of the bearing shell. The oil goes to the
pocket and is returned through the axial slots and the annular
grooves, Fig. 3.11 shows the hydrostatic journal bearing.
Slots
's' .
Fig. 3.11. Hydrostatio journal bearing.
(d) Oil Retaining Bearings
In this bearing a uniformly porous bearing shell is provided
which contains a very large number of inter-connected channels and
reservoirs full of oil. The oil retained in the bearing may be as much
as 30% of the shell volume. It makes for automatic lubrication over
long periods without need for recharging with oil, Fig. 3. 12 shows the
hydrostatic journal bearing with complete internal details. In this
bearing the friction losses are very low.
Fig. 3.12.
CONS'l'RUC'rION AND DRIVE SYS'I'EM OF CNC MACHlNES 3.13
3.4. �SYSTEMS
The system composed of electrical, hydraulic and pneumcitic drive
and the mechanical load is /mown as the "drive system". In this
statement there are two parts :
- Drive
- Mechanical load.
3.4.1. Drive
In present era, most of the production equipment used in modern
industrial organisations consist of three important components
namely :
the prime mover
the energy transmitting device and
the actual equipment which perform the actual job.
(i) Primemovers : The function of the first hvo. is to impart
motion and operate the third one. To spindle the most
commonly used prime mover is, of course, an electric motor,
since it is far superior in performance to other types of prime
movers. The motor operated directly from the Electric supply,
under their own inherent speed torque characteristics their
opernting conditions are dictated by Lhe mechanical loads,
connected to them, varied to suit particular requirements is
called as "Electrical drive". According to the requirement of
the CNC, we can select type of drive which can be used to
complete the purpose.
Most of the CNC machines require· large variation of spindle
speed range i.e. 10 to 2800 rpm. But in conventional machines
multicharge gear boxes are used, which are not suitable for CNC
machines to get this wide variation of spindle speed.
So to obtain the correct speed range of spindle and feed rate the
CNC machines whould be operated by good design :
Drive based on electrical principles
- Drive based on hydraulic principles
- Drive based on pneumatic principles.
3.4.2. Drive System Based on Electrical Principles
The choice of electrical control gear depends upon severatfactors,
one being cost. Variable speed is expensive to obtain unles� a few
speeds are sufficient in which case pole change A.C. motor is used.
Here also the number of speed changes is restricted to . four. The main
consideration is type and speed of mechanical or rotary torque
required. In CNC, four general categories of the motors can be used
as shown in Fig. 3 . 13.
3 . 14 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
3.4.2.1. Choosing the Correct Industrial Motor
When choosing an electric motor for a giv.en CNC, the first step
is to choose the general type to be used. The main consideration is
the type and speed of mechanical or rotary torque required. Other
considerations are the type of electrical supply available, the precision
of speed control needed, and, of course, the cost. In Fig. 3.13 industrial
motors are divided into four general categories. Each of th e classes
to be discussed in this chapter has special application capabilities and
characteristics.
The first type, the direct -current (DC) motor, is used when full
torque is needed at widely varying speeds. In contrast, alternating­
current (AC) motors are essentially constant speed devices. There are
electronic drives that can make the three-phase AC motor operate
as a variable-speed motor). As a trade-off for the desirable
characteristic of varying speed, DC motors are more costly. and more
complicated than AC motors. Additionally, D C motors require
variable DC current, which must be obtained from a rectification
system at additional cost. 'rhey also have carbon brushes, which ride
on the rotating commutntor. This brush-commutator combination
increases mainten ance cost and possible d owntime.
Industrial motors
Direct-current Al lomntin�;-,curront Al lornat ing-curronl
motors lhroo-phaso molo,·s si ni:ltl·Jlhaso motors
Series Induction Cnpucitor
Shunt Synchror1ouA Split-phaRO
Compound Wound -rotor 'J'wo-capncitor
Eleclrnnic-cunlrol Pormancnt-,plit capacitor
· Stnpper
Repulsion
8hatlcd-pole
Fig. 3.13. General Industrial Motor Classes.
The second type is the three-phase AC motor. By far the most
commonly used subtype is the induction type. Of all the motors, the
thi:ee-phase induction motor has the lowest cost per horsepower and
the smallest size per horsepower. Three-phase AC motors are built
in ratings up to hundreds of horsepower. They are rel atively easy to
manufacture , and their maintenance is the least of any type of motor.
They use induction rotors, so there are no windings in the rotor, no
brushes, and no commutator. One major requirement, of course, for
these motors is that . three-phase power be. available. Three-phase
power is not avsilable everywhere. For example, residences and many
CONS'l'RUCTION ANU DH.IVE SYSTEM OF CNC .MACHINES · 3 . 15
commercial establishments have only single-phase power. Resident,.
or commercial three-phase power is normally very cos tly to have
installed.
The third classification is the single -phase AC motor. They are
used when three-phase power is not available and where the
horsepower rating needed is small-commonly less than 2 HP,
although there are single-phase AC motors rated as high as 10 HP/220
V. Single-phase motors are often called fractional-horsepower motors.
Actually, only motors under 1 HP are true fractional motors.
In contrast to the three-phase motor, the single-phase motor
requires an internal starting system. 'l'he starting system consists
of a centrifugal device on the rotor, a stationary switch on one encl
shield, ancl a dditional windings for starting. Single-phase motors have
induction rotors as do three-phase motors.
Fig. 3.14 illustrates the construction and components of a typical
electric motor. The stationary outer housing, called the stator,
supports radial magnetized poles. These poles consist of either
permanent magnets or wire coils, called field coils, wrapped around
laminated iron cores. The purpose of the stator poles is to provide
radial magnetic fields. The iron core intensifies the magnetic field
inside the coil by increasing the permeability. The purpose for
laminating the core is to reduce the effects of eddy currents, which
are induced in a conducting material. The rotor consists of a rotating
shaft supported by bearings, an iron core into which windings are
anchored, and, in de motors, a commutator to deliver current and
Con l rol ,rnd
ind icutor motors
control its direction in the rotor windings. The rotor and its windings
Sorvo
Synchro are sometimes referred to as the armature. For motors with a
Resolver commutator, the brushes provide stationary electrical contact to the
moving commutator conducting segments. Brushes in early motors
Spcci:11 - control
Special-indicators consisted of bristles of copper wire flexed against the commutator,
hence the term brush ; but now they are usually made of conducting
solid graphite that provides a larger contact area and is self­
lubricating. 'l'he brushes are usually spring-loaded to ensure continual
contact between them and the commutator. There is a small air gap
between the rotor and the stator where the magnetic fields interact.
Fig. 3 . 15 shows examples of commercially available assembled
motors. In the top figure, the motor on the left is an ac induction motor
with a gearhe acl speed.
Torque is produced by an electric motor either through the
interaction of stator fields and armature currents o r through the
interaction of stator fields and armature fields.
Another method by which electric motors can create tor,we is
thro ugh the interaction of stator and rotor magnetic fields. The torque
3 . 16 COMPU'l'ER AIDED !11.J\.NLWAC'l'URING CONSTRUCTION AND DRIVE SYSTEM OF CNC MACHfNES
. 3.17

laminated
iron core
pole
laminated iron core pole

11:'- -Q. �\;'-.

winding rotor s� ��
(i) (ii,)
rotor stator (end view section)

is produced by the foct that like field poles attract and unlike poles
Fig. 3.14. Motor construction and terminology.

repel. Fig. 3.15 illustrates this principle of operation with a simple

two-pole de motor. The stator poles generate fixed magnetic fields with
permanent magnets or coils carrying de current. The winding in the
( J I' )

rotor is commutated tp muse changes in direction of its magnetic field.

The interaction of the changing rotor field and the fixed stator fields
produce a torque on the sha ft, causing rotation.
With the rotor in position (i), the right brush contacts
commutator segment A and the left brnsh contacts segment B
(ii)

creating a current in the rotor winding, resulting in the magnetic pole�

as sh ?wn. The rotor nw �netic poles oppose the stator magueLic poles, .
creatmg a torque causrng clockwise motion of the rotor.
In position (ii), the stator poles both oppose and attract the rotor
poles to enhance the clockwise rotation.
Between positions (iii) and (u) the commutator contacts switch
ch:.nging the direction of the rotor current and hence the directio1�
of the magnetic field.
In position (iu), both brushes temporarily lose contact with the
commutator, but the rotor continues to move due to its momentum.
In position (u), the reversed magnetic field in the rotor again
opposes the stator field, continuing the clockwise tor(Jne and motion.
Fig. 3.15. Electric motor thco1y of operation.
The principles o f operation of ac motors are similar regarding
3.4.2.2. Three-phase AC Induction Motors
interaction of the magnetic fields, but comnmta tion is not required.
This is due to the fact that tl1e magnetic field rotates a.round the stator
as a result of the ac voltages and the arrangement of the coils around
the stator housing. The rotor windings of asynchronous ac motors
have no external voltage applied ; rather, voltages are induced in the
rotor windings due to the rotating fields around the stator. 'l'he rotor
1·otates at slower speeds than the rotating stator fields (this is called
slip), making the in duction possible, hence the term asynchronous.
Because of this action, asynchronous motors are sometimes referred
to as induction machines. With synchronous ac motors, the rotor
3 . 18 COM l'U'l'ER A l l l l·'. 11 J\IAN UFACTUR!NG
windings are energized, but through slip rings instead of a
commutator. Brushes provide constant uninterrupted contact with
the slip rings, causing fields to rotate around the rotor windings at
the same rate as the fields rotate around the stator. Due to the
interaction of these fields, the rotor rotates at the same speed as the
stator fields, hence the term synchronous.
The three-phase induction motor can be connected directly to
the power company lines, through transformers if necessary. The
transformers have up to 99% efficiency rmcl introduce negligible power
losses. In contrast, for a DC motor, the power requires electrical
reactification from AC to DC. The rectification requires expensive
equipment. Furthermore, the e fficiency of the supplying rectifier is
only GO% - 80%.
The three-phase motor has the simplest construction of any type
of motor. Unlik.o n DC motor, it has no brushes, no commutator, and
no wires wound in its rotor. In contrast, to the single-plwse AC motor
(discussed in Lhc next section), the three-phase motor has no starting
windings or starting cP.n trifuga 1 switch . A major aclvm1tage of the
three-phase motor is that it is easily connected and reconnected for
dual-voltage operation or for reverse rotation.
One major chnrnctcristic of the three-plwso AC rnclnetion motor
is that it runs at essentially constm1t speed. 1t does not run at a
perfectly constant speed, but very n c:uly so. ConLrolled, wide speed
variaLiolli:i arc not posi:iiblo without extcmsive control equipment. Tbe
variable-speed control system will be discussed in a later chapter.
Three-phase motors nrc rclnLively 0asy to construct. They nre
norma1ly built in ratings of 2 JJ P ::ind np.
As in the DC mot.or, coils arc wound in slots in the stator. The
electrical power is foci into those stator coils by cxlorn nl ly connected
wiring. In contrast to DC motors, the rotor has no eoil wires would
in it. As in tho DC motor, here also both the rotor and the stator ::i re
made up of stacks of he:1t-trcatocl laminations.
For the tlirce-ph:.se motor rotor, tho die-casting process creates
aluminium Lars in the slots and also aluminium cud rings, which hold
the laminations together. There is therefore u "squincl cage" of
·aluminium bars and cud sections. The aluminum bars and end
sections are relatively good electrical conductors, in contrast to the
laminations, which are relative insulators.
When an inpntAC voltage is applied to the stator windi11gs, the
resulting current produces a rising and falling magnetic field. 'l'h e
changing stator magnetic field links the aluminum rotor bor
conductors. This magnetic field induces current in the aluminum rotor
bars. The 1·otor current, in turn, produces a rotor magnetic field. The
CONSTRUC'l'lON ANO DJUVI� SYS'1'8M OF CNC MACIITNES 3 . 19
induced rotor field is opposite in magnetic polarity to the stator field.
The interaction of these two fields is used to produce rotory motion.
The ideal AC motor would make one revolution, but a real rotor
does not follow the rota.ting stator pattern exactly. It actually runs
at a speed slightly less than the field rotation speed. The difference
between running speed and theoretical speed is called slip. Slip is
described as percentage of synchronous speed. Synchronous speed is
defined as the speed at which the stator field rotates, in rpm. For no­
loacl, slip approaches zero.
3.4.2.2.1. Reverse in 3-phase Motor
Reversing the rotation o f 3-phase is accomplished by
interchanging any two power leads to the motor, shown in Fig. 3. 15.
A three-phase induction motor can be stopped by mechanical
brake or to quickly stop apply reverse power i.e. interchanging leads
and reapplying power. Applying reverse power is usually called
"Plugging" .
T
(a) Forward (one direction) (b) Reverse (other direction)
Fig. 3.16. 3-phase motor reversal.
The interchange can be done by actuating a contactor through
control circuits.
3.4.2.3. Single-phase AC Motors
The single-phase motor can be run where only single-phase
power is avaibble. Furthermore, it can be run on any one phase of
a throe-phase system, provided the voltage is correct.
1n contrast to the three-phase motor, the single-phase motor hns
to hnve some intern[ll system for starting. The starting system
normally consists o f a ce�trifngal device on the rotor, a stationary
switch 0�1 one end frame, and a start winding. The start winding pair
is wound 90° (electrically) from the main winding pair in the stator.
 3.20 COMl'U'l'ER AfDEO t.lANUFACTUHING
Like the three-phase ind uction motor, the single-phase induct
ion
motor has no brushes or commutator and no windi ngs in
the rotor.
There are, how ever, some single-phase noninduction motor
s, which
d? have brushes, commutators, and wound rotors. These will be
discussed later in this chapter.
Singl_e-phase motors can be built for dual rotation, duai voltage,
and n:ult1ple speed. They are, as are three-phase motor
s, an
essentially constant speed device. If a single-phase motor
is
overl? aded so that its speed decrea ses to approximately 90%
of
runnm g speed, the motor stalls. When speed then decreases to
80%
of full, speed, th � stai: t w�ndi�g co1�1es back ON. The motor
will cycle
back and forth m this s1tuat1on. Start windings are design
ed to be
ON for a s�1ort time during periodic starting. Single-phase motors
will
burn out if the start winding is constantly cycled ON and OFF.
Fig. 3.17 shows a cutaway view of a single-phase motor. It is
ons
� ��·ucted the s� mc w.ay as a thre_e-phase motor, except that a rotary
ccnt11fug? l devi ce w1t,h a st,at,1onary switch is includ ed.
The
construction ofthe induction rotor and stator is the same as for three­
phase motors. Windings are construct.eel similarly except that,
there
are two types of windings ; main and start or auxiliary.
Most single-phase motors are of fractio nal ratings, under 1 IIP.
A few go up to 10 TIP, 220 V.
. The rotary centrifugal switch is mounted on the shaft. It is
�dJusted to actuate when the motor reaches approximately 80% of
its rated speed. At this 80% point, weights rotate outward, causing
CAPAC/TO�
SiCEL FA�
\',rn-t o,,c1<
CEtHRiFUGAL
SWITCH
CEN lRIFUCAL
SPRING SW!TCt-t
Fig. 3.17. Cnt.'.lway view of an AC Single-ph .'.l se moto1·.
CONS'l'RUCTlON AND DRI VI� SYSTEM OF CNC MACHrN ES 3.21
a bobbin or cone to move inward toward the rotor core. The face of
the rotary device rides on a stationary switch, which is attached to
one of the end brackets. The stationary pmt of the switch is held closed
from zero speed up to 80% of full-load speed. When the 80% speed
is reached during starting run-up, the displacement of the bobbin or
cone allows the stationary switch to spring open. This switching action
is used to open the circuit to the start winding above 80% speed.
Fig. 3.18 schem atically
illustrates the single-phase motor L1
with only two winding coils. It will
not rotate when the coils shown are
energized. Adding more coils will not L ,
help. All that this motor will do is sit 8 otor ·
still and hum. If the rotor of the motor
is given a spin, the motor will then
slowly accelerate to running speed.
In capacitor-start motor, start
winding is wound 90 ° from the main
wind ing, when power is applied to Fig. 3.18. Single-phase motor
motor both windings are energised. with No start winding.
The storting effect is similar to thot of the three.phase mot.or .
The same voltage source is connect.eel to both main and start wind ings.
As shown in the diagram , the cmrent and the magnetic field of the
main w'i nding peak first. The rotor produces a field of opposiLe polarity
by induction. The capacitor in the start circuit dela�·s the current to
the start windings with respect to the main windings. Thus, the
magnetic field buildup for the start windi ngs is delayed. The capacitor
value is chosen so Lhat the delay is close to 90° . Becnnse ofthe delay
effect (with phase rcven;al) of the capacitor, . the start winding peaks
90 ° later in the cycle. The rotor, with an induced field, then rotates
to line up with the start winding when it peaks. Next, the rotor ro � ates
to line up with the next main pole when it peaks 90 electrical degrees
later. The resulting continuous turning e ffe ct on the rotor is the same
as for the three-ph::ise winding.
When the motor reaches about 80% of full-load speed, the switch
opens. The start winding is disconnected from power and is no longer
used. The motor then runs on the main windings alone. Rotor speed
is close enough to synchronous speed that the rotor rotates almost
to the opposite main p ole when line voltage polarity changes. The line
AC voltage changes polarity twice each cycle.
3.4.2.3.1. Reverse in Single-cl> Motor
To reverse direction of rotation, the start winding must be
reversed in polarity with respect to the main. The reversal is
 CONSTRUC'l'ION AND DRIVE SYS'l'EM OF CNC MACHINES 3.23

of
3.22 COMPUTER ALD8D MANUFi\CTlHUNG of the permanent magnet is roughly one-fourth tha� of the width
an equivalent field windin g. PM motor are easily revers ed by
. d
accomplished by reconnecting wires to terminals found in the motor's switching the direction of the applied voltage smce the ct�lT�nt a�
ideal m
terminal box. Connection instructions are found on the motor field change direction only in the rotor. The �M n_10tor �s
nameplate or on a decal in the terminal box. The reversing wires can ­
computer control applications because of �he lmeanty ?f 1ts torque
also b e brought out to an appropriate external switch, if the motor speed relation. The design of a controller_ 1S _ always ea � icr :"hen the
is to be reversed often. To be effective, the connection reversal must actuator is linear since the system analysis 1s greatly sunphfied. PM
take place while the motor is stopped. The start winding is not in motors are only used in low power applications since their rated power
the circuit during running. Reversing the start during rnnning has is usually limited to 5 hp (3728 W) or less, with fractio nal horsepower
no eff� ratings being more commo n. PM de motors can be brushed, brushless,
�· Vt: Moto1·s or stepper motors.
In early days of NC, the DC motor played a minor role, because Permanent-magnet DC motors have n o field _coils. The_ stator
of a
of inadequate motor control and bigger size ofhorsepower ratios. But has permanently magnetized field poles for operation. The size .
field poles magne tic
now with seperately excited field control DC motors ·are used for lathe permanent-magnet motor is limited by it.5
and milling machine spindles.
D irect current (de) motors are used in a large number of
engineering designs because of the torque-speed characteristics lnspoct,ori
achievable with different electrical configurations, d.c. Motor speeds covor

can be smoothly controlled and in most cases are reversible. Since

de motors have a high ratio of torque-to-rotor inertia, they can respond
quickly. Also, dynamic braking, where motor-generated energy is
fed to a resistor dissipater, or regenerative braking, where motor­
generated en ergy is feel back Lo the de power SUJ)ply, can be
implelllented in applicatious where quick stops and high efficiency
are desired.
Based on how the stator magnetic fields are created, de motors
are classified into four different categories : permanent magnet,
shunt- wound, series-w ound, and compound-wound.
Fig. 3.19 is a cutaway view of a DC motor. The locations of the
various parts are shown in Lhe fi gure. Both the stator and the rotor Fig. 3.19. Cutawny view showing co1�1ponents ��d constrnction.
have wires wound in slots in their faces. The inserted wire windings capability. The magnetic-field-generatm g capab1hty of � permanent
are coils made up of multiple turns of prevarnished wire. _
magnet is relatively small compared with that -0£-a coil.
Two-pole DC motors h:ive two stator winding groups to produce Wires attached to the coils of the :PC motor stator are ?rought ·
the required electricnl north and south poles. Other DC motors have to the outside of the motor, often in a terminal box. The co1ls fr? m
four winding groups or more, iJ1 multiples of two. Some large DC the rotor are connected to various segments of a commutator clunng
motors have extr:1, auxil iary pole windings called interJJoles. rotor assembly. The electric;al path connection fron: the rotor
Interpol es are positioned halfway between the main poles. They are commutator is then made through brushes that ncle on the
used to "straighten out" the magnetic field to reduce brush-to­ commutator as it rotates. The brushes ride axially in and out, by
commutator arcing during rotation and improve motor performance. spring pressure, in fixed brush holde�·s tha� are attached to the
The stater fields in permanent magnet (PM) motors (see Fig. stationary motor stator frame. The brushes, m turn, � re connected
3.19) are provided by permanent·magnets, which require no external to the motor power source, directly or through a termrnal box. The
power source and therefore protlucc no I 2R heating. The case of a PM
motor is lighter and smaller Lhan other equivaleut de motors Lecause
th e fiel d strength of permanent magnets is high. The radial width
 3.24 CONS'l'lWCTlON AND DRIVE SYSTEM or CNC MACHI.NES 3.25
CO!V[PU'1'8R AIDED MANUPACTU TUNG
Diverter Field control of

brushes will come in contact with different commutator segments as

speed not possible
PM
the rotor rotates. As different active commutator segments are
- +
contacted by the brushes, different coils in the rotor are electrically
A o--..-... �
activated.
Series PM
field

Typical DC motor connection schemes are shown in Fig. 3.20.

In the figure, the stator, or armatur, is designated by the circle labeled
Series Shunt Permanent magnet

"A". The simple conditions for series, shunt, and permanent-magnet

motors are illustrated. There are four possible connections for the +
compound DC motor. fig. 3.20 shows the compound possibilities for
+

combinations of long or short with curirnlative (fields helping) or

differential (fields op1:iosing) .
PM Long- shunt cumulative Short-shunt cumulative
+
� C>____ �
Series
field PM
+
F2
Series Shunt Permanent magnet
+

� Long-shunt differential Short-shunt differential

� Fi g. 3 .21. DC motor connections for field control of speed,

Long-shunt cumulative Short-shunt cumulative
3.4.2.4.2. Electronic Control of a PM de Motor
The simplest form of motor control is open loop control, "".h �re
one simply sets the drive voltage value and the motor charactenstics
+

Long-shunt d.rferential
and load determine the operating speed and torque. But most of the ·
interesting problems require some sort of automa�ic contr ? l whe1:e
the voltage is automatically varied to produce � cles i re d motion. This
_
is called closed loop or feedback control, and 1t reqmres an output
Short-shunt differential

speed and/or torque sensor to feed back outpu� values in order to

Fig. 3.20. DC motor connection schemes.

3.4.2.4.1. Speed Control of DC Motor continuously compare the actual output to a desired value called the
set point. The controller then actively changes the motor output to
The DC motor rotation is accomplished by the interaction of the
move closer to the set point. Electronic speed controllers are of two
electrical fields of the stator and the rotor. As the commutator moves
types : linear amplifiers and pulse width modulator� . Although b ?th
under the brushes, dif erent segments of the commutator are
systems can be designed to function well, pulse widtl: modulat10n
f

electrically contacted . Consequently, different rotor coils are .

sequentially energized. The armature field is kept in the proper
relative position for continuous op,eration. 1'here are various
configurations for connecting DC motor fields, as shown in Fig . 3.21.
A field coil with a few turns of large-diameter wire is used as a series
field. A different type of field coil, the shunt field, has many turns
of a smaller-diameter wire. A DC motor may be series-only or shunt­
only, as shown in Fig. 3 . 2 1 for controlling 9_peecl of DC ri1otor.
controllers have the advantage that they dnve bipolar power
transistors rapidly between cutoff and saturation where operation is
very efficient (power dissipation is minimized) or turn FET � on and
off. Servo amplifiers using. linear power amplification _are satlsfa:tory ·
_
but require dissipation of a lot of heat since they function m �he lmear
region of transistor operatiQn. You will find commercial servo
controllers using linear amplifiers, but because of lower pow �r
requirements, ease of design, smaller size, and lower cost, we will
3.26 COMPUTER AIDED MANUrJ\C' l'lJfHNG CONS'J'RUC'l'ION AND DRIVE SYS'l'EM OF CNC MACHINES 3.27

focus on the switched amplifier designs, which are generally called square wave as an output. This signal is amplified to a level
pulse width modulation (PWM) amplifiers. appropriate for the voltage drive for the motor.
'fhe principle of a PWM amplifier is shown in Fig. 3.22. A de error signal =
power supply voltage is rapidly switched at a fixed fr equency f set point - power
between two values (e.g., "ON" and "OFF"). This frequency is often measured speed ,,..
· --------,amp
PWM _.n'--'n U
in excess of 1 KHz. The high value is held during a variable pulse set point 1------1 regulator 1-----i
J LL..

width t during the fixed period T where (desired) �---<electronics

speed
T = .l ... (L") motor
f
The resulting asymmetric waveform has a duty cycle, defined
as the ratio between the ON time and the period of the waveform,
usually specified as a percentage :
. measured s peed
. t
duty cycle = T 100% .. . (ii)
As the duty cycle is changed (by the controller), the average
current through the motor will change, ca using changes in speed and Fig. 3.23. PWM velocity feedbach control.
torque at the output. It is primarily the change in the duty cycle and
not the value of the power supply voltage ::done that determines the PWM
. voltage
output characteristics of the motor.
motor
PWM' pulses currei1t
electronics
de power
supply motor
high duty cycle low duty cycle
( �v )
Fig. 3.24. PWM voltage and motor Cll/'/'Wt.
pulses: In PWM moLor control the voltage is switching rapidly across
the armature and the current through the motor is affectecl by the
fasterm
--I / f-­

(large t) I---!
motor induct�i-ice and resistance. Since the switching speed is high,
the resulting current thrnugh the motor has a small fluctuation
example drive circuit around an average value, as illustrated in Fig. 3.25. As the duty cycle
T gets larger, the average current gets larger and the moLor speed
slower _fl__Jl_ increases.
(small t) I---! 3.4.2.4.3. Reverse in DC Motor
T To reverse the rotation of the DC motor, it is necessary to reverse
the connections of the field windings with respect to the armature
Fig. 3.22. Pu.lse width modulation of a de motor. windings. Reversing the polarity of total-motor external con_nections
The block diagram of a PWM speed fe edback control system for will result in both armature and field reversal. Reversing both
a de motor is shown in Fig. 3.23. A voltage tachometer produces a n armature and field will cause the mot?r to rotate in the same direction
output linearly related to the moLor speed. This is compared to the as it did originally.
desired speed set point (another voltage that can be manually set or 3.4.2.5. Special Purpose Electrical MoLors
computer controlled). The error and the moto'i· current are sensed by Control o f positioning of large automated devices require large
a pulse width modulation regulator that produces a width-modulated amount of torque and the ability to hold a specific static position. Such
3.28 COM..PUTER AIDED MANID'AC'l'URTNG CONSTRUCTION AND DRIVE SYSTEM OF CNC MACHINES 3.29

automated devices (CNC) use DC or AC servo motors for positioning (iii) Servomotor can stay energised at zero speed without
control. Position indicating devices are the synchro and the resolver. overheating.
3.4.2.6. Servomotors-DC and AC Reversing the phase-difference from leading to lagging, or vicq
When a motor is used in a position or speed control application versa, reverses the motor direction and speed uary upto 300 rpm.
with sensor feedback to controller, it is referred to as seruomotor.
Many control applications require high torque capabilities.
Speed set
These applications require both precise speed and precise position Controller
Position set
control at high to1·que. The devices discussed so far in this chapter V V
No
do not have high torque cap�bilities. For example, as has been stated, r-
I
Main Control Motion

a large robot could not be driven by steppers, synchros, or resolvers. I

I
High-torque applications usually use AC or DC servomotors. I
I
Servomotor$ differ in application capabilities from industrial I
I
motors in the following ways : I
I
• The servomotor must produce high torque at all speeds. : Main Mox.
• Servomotors must be capable of holding a static (no- motion) 1 winding CW 1-,r--1,--1...-1'-1--\--\-r-­
I Motion
position. I
I
Speed and position
indicators
• At lower speeds or at standstill, servomotors must not L------------
Feedbock
overheat. Servomotor Control
• Servomotors should be able to reverse directions quickly.
• To reach a position or rate of speed quickly, the servomotor Mox.
must be able to accelerate and decelerate quickly. ccw l--ll--1�HYrl--t-.-­
Motion
• Servomotors must return to a given posi�ion time after time
and not drift.
Both DC and AC servomotors look like AC and DC ind ustrial
f
motors. The main diference from industrial motors is that more wires
may come out of the motor, for power and also for control. The Some
servomotor wires go to a controller, not to the electrical line through ccw !----+-'1----H'--�--t,-­
Motion
contactors. Also, a speed-indicating device (often a tachometer or
techogenerator) is mechanically connected to the motor shaft.
Sometimes special blower or fan units may be attached Lo assure
motor cooling at low speeds. Fig. 3.25. 'l'wo-pole AC servomotor layout.
The DC servomotor is similar to a regular DC motor. As a matter �te�per Motors
Ste,.P�moto.r Js a permanent magne t DC moto
- · ·· �
�
of fact, ru1y standard D C commutator motor may be used as a : r with
servomotor with proper control. In actual practice, any DC
commutator motor has a modified design to cope with slow speeds characteristics :
and static conditions. However, DC servo systems have the r - rotation in both directions.
disadvantage of system drift in their controls, so they are not used - precision angular incremental changes.
as often as AC. - Repetition of accurnte motion.
Some major difference between AC servomotor and standard - A holding torque at zero speed.
motor are as follows : - C apability for digital control.
(i) Start/Auxilliary winding is control winding in servomotor.
(ii) Servomotor rotor bars are smaller and have higher resistance.
Stepper motors are used in low � ower position c ontrol
. _
�pplications ( < 1 h.p. i.e'":" 746 watts) and are e1the1�b1polar or umpolai._
 3.30 COJ'vIPU'rER AIDED MANUFACTURING
These motors are p\1lse operated motors and suitable only for
light duty activities due to low output power. The movement of the
cutting tool or the work, to get desired positions, along different axis
is possible by using "stepper motors" while conventional motors rotate
continuously when energised, a stepping motor rotates in angular
increments known as steps.
Stepper motors, because of inherent accuracy are suitable for
open-loop control, because positional accuracy is 1 to 5% of step angle.
In these motors, the rotation of the shaft divided into 200 parts
and so each part becomes of an angle 1.8 degree, which is known as
a "step". For a particular distance to be travelled by the lead screw,
first of all the distance converted into pulses and these are counted
' by a counter. After counting the pulses, these feed to the motor
through control system and motor turns for specific number of
stations.
' ,� 'S tepper motors are used in a variety of automation applications
1,in which a relatively small amount of torque is needed: _Typical_
t
applications include rotary table control, wire-harness assembly, laser
or pen positioning, and office p'eriphernl equipment control. Stepping­
motors can be used for precise positioning, without the need for a
complicated position-indicating feedback system.
When a pulse is feel to the stepper motor, the motor rotates a
given angle-for example, 1.8 °. Each input pulse results in rotation
through the stepper's rated angle. For example, in 41 pulses a 1.8°
stepper would rotate precisely 73.8 ° . The radial tolerance for
positioning is typically 3% - 5% of one step. For the 1.8° example,
the tolerance would be, at 4%, 0.04 x 1.8, or about 0.07° .
Steppers normally do not need feeclbnck position indicators, as
they step reliably and precisely to a given point when programmed
properly. In critical applications, however, feedback indication must
· be used for precise control.
Fig. 3.26 shows the appearance of a typical product line of
stepper motors. Fig. 3.26 gives the typical standard step angles
available. The table lists some standard step angles available, along
with the typical maximum step rate. The table also includes the
number of steps per revolution. The relationship between steps per
revolution and step angle is given by the following formula :
360 °
Step angle =
number of steps per revolution
To understand how the rotor moves in an incremental fa shion,
consider a simple design consisting of four stator poles and a
CONS'J'RUCTION AND DRlVE SYSTE M 01? CNC MAC1IIN8S 3.31
permanent magnet rotor as illustrated in Fig. 3.26. In step 0, the rotor
is in equilibrium since opposite I)iles on the stator and rotor are
adjacent to and attract each other. Unless the magnetization of the
stator poles is changed, the rotor remains in this position and can
torque. W11 en the pole magnetization is changed as shown (step 0
withstand an opposing torque up to a value called the holding
to step 1), a torque is applied to the rotor, causing it to move 90 ° in
the clockwise direction to a new equilibrium position shown as step
1. When the magnetization of the poles is again changed as shown
(step 1 to step 2), the rotor experiences a torque driving it to step
2. By successively changing the magnetization of the poles in this
manner the motor can rotate to successive equilibrium positions in
the clocicwise direction. We can see that the sequencing of the pole
excitation is the means by which the direction of rotation occurs.
Counter-clockwise motion can be achieved by applying the
polarization sequence in the opposite direction. The motor torque is
directly related to the magnetic field strength of the poles and the
rotor.
N or S� � N or S
permanent magnet rotor N or s� r:!J N or S
s s
stator with reversible pl > larity poles
�,�1 � ��t
.....-.l�'
"&?:1 s � N�� N
��s �� ,� s,� �itN
step 0 step I step 2
Fig. 3.2G. Stepper motor step sequence.
'I'he torques of various sizes of stepper motors run from 0.5 oz­
in to 5000 oz-in. The rotors of the stepper motor are either
perma.nent-ma_gnetoi'. v�riable-reluctance. In this discussion the type
wuh a permanent-magnet rotor will be considered. The stepper motor
typically has five or six wires for connection.
Fig. 3.27 (ct) shows stepper motor drive system. Suppose that
a lead screw, with 0.2 i n pitch is connected to a stepper motor that
rotates once for each electric pulse. Each pulse moves table x inch,
where x is Basic Length Unit (BLU), which directly relates to
resolution of NC machine. Now in order to move table 0.04 inch
calculate as follows
 u· �
i

IJl ::>. . l e.J· ,.w ( l. ..... 'l •r•

�\t \ ]� M>""l ti • u..ff'
I) .

3.32 ,)I J ,p{,.J

' ci' c,.,<-:_ } w�)tcoM\)' JJU'l'ER AJDED MANUfo'J\C'l'URING 3.33
'o.t ;_ \ . ..r \..!fr
CONS'l'RUCTION AND DRIVE SYSTEM OF CNC MACJJINES
F'or �
e1
�,j_ 1" = 360 pulses it must have its signal converted and amplified for control of a servo
I c .
101 O . 04 =
,, 3 6 0 X 0.04 = 72 pu lses. device.
0_2 Synchros are small cylindrical motors varying in diameter from
Control
1/2 in. to 4 in., depending on their power output. The synchro functions
Tope reader panel, r1--
spindle by converting a single-phase input to three unbalanced voltages that
Lt-- cutter are 120 electrical de'grees apart. These three voltages may then be
c:yJo/ Tobie
converted back to a single-phase voltage.
Com.
Motio n
=
I --

---- §
D===== D O
11111111111
Pulses
�
1

from
MCU High
MCU Stepper �all precision
bearing nut lead screw
motor

Fig. 3.27. (a) Drive system for NC machine with stepper motor. slip rings S2
Advantages of Stepper Motor in NC : brushes
s, Symbol
( 1 ) Jt, is directly compatible with digital methods.
(2) It provides accurate positioning with non-cumulative errors. Connections
(3) Its construction is simple and rugged. Fig. 3.29: Synchro connections and symbol.
(4) It provides bidirectional rotation and control with no The synchro has three windings on the stator, as illustrated i n
additional control comp lexity. Fig. 3.29. A ro'tor with one winding is fed a fixed supply voltage
through two brushes via two slip rings. As the rotor changes angle,
Steps (Full) Step Angle Typ. McLX. Run Rat
per Revolution (degrees)
the rotor magnetic field rotates accordingly. The resulting three
- (steps per second)
voltages induced in the three stator windings vary accordingly.
'1.00 0.72 1000 The resolver (already explained in topic 2.3.3) is a device
200 1.8 2000 similar to the synchro. It differs from the synchro in the following
96 3.75 1000 ways :
4.8 7.5 1000 • The eleetrical displacement is 90° , not 120 ° .
24 15 600
20 • There are two stator windings and two rotor windings.
18 500
• Input can be either to the rotor or the stator.
Fig. 3.28. Standard stepper-motor ratings. • Resolvers are usually not used as followers. Voltagte Vant is
utilized.
A
':? w("Synchros and Resolvers 3.4.3. Drive Based on Hydraulic Principles :
(7;�nchro ia a general name for a series of motors that indicate In some of the designs of CNC machines, the fuild motors are
or duplicate rotary-motion positions. The resolver is sometimes also used. In this system, the oil or air under pressure, supplied by
considered a subtype of the synchro. ln this book the resolver �ill a pump continuously, is directed to the motor's blades. After getting
be considered a different type of device. Both synchros and resolvers the supply of oil or air, the blades starts to rotate at higher speeds
are low-torque devices. If a large device, like a robot arm, is to be corresponding to the pressure of oil or air.
positioned, synchros and resolvers will not work. A servo device is Another popular final drive is of the Hydraulic type, it consists
needed for higher torque. If a synchro is usE!d in a high-torque system, of a hydraulic motor, the prime mover ; a hydraulic pump, which
delivers hydraulic power to motor ; an electric motor which drives
 3.34 CO MPU'J'Lm AWE D MANUFAC'l'UIUNG CONSTRUCTION i\ND DRIVE SYSTEM OF CNC MACIIINES 3.35
the pum ; a servo valve, whi ch cont
� rols the flow of hydraulic fluid. The working pressure should not normally exceed 1000 lb/in 2 ,
To calc ulat e the J)OV{er of flm. d motor
since high pressure tends to produce shock. On the other hand, low
p q = Tro ; pressures require l arge units and a high rate of oil flow but leakage
where P == input pressure is easier to control and smoother operation is ensured. The traverse
q = flow rate o f a machine table or saddle is by either cylinder or piston, or by
T == output torque
hydraulic motor plus some mechanical element, e.g. rack and pinion
or screw and nut.
ro == Angular speed rad/s There are four basic kinds of control to be considered
It may use a constant delivery pump (i) Pressure
. or variable delive1.Y punlP
depend mg :1P0� th e reqm· rement. The anmigem (ii) Volume
hyeIrau .
. 1 ic c1rcmt is .
as shown in Fig. 3.30 .
ent of a simple (iii) Direction
(u) Time.
The following Fig. 3.31 shows the circuit with control units to
Check
v a l ve
regulate the first three. The speed of piston is dependent upon fluid
I
pressure, fluid volume, area of piston and magnitude of load.
With a fixed piston area and known load, the control of piston
speed depends upon the correct regulation of pressure and volume
pressure regulation is done by relief valve A, but to control pressure
without restricting the oil flow, the valve should be mounted clear
of the pressure line. The valve is set so that it opens at the pressure
required and surplus oil is by-passed to the tank, but it also fulfils
another purpose in acting as a safety valve to protect the pump and
-- -- -- -- ------ -- -- -- driving motor against overload.
- D
- ----- -- � ----- Pump
Gau ge
Fig. 3.30. l-lydrnulic type 11nal drive.

Tlw co r_1 stant d livery pump driven

_
ressu1_e rns1 � by electric motor builds
� . de a cylmcler moving the piston to driv
e the spindle
:;etimes � ccum u� ator are us�d between to store the fluid charg�
s at � large energy ca? be chscharge with
hY dI.auh c systems are bem g widely in a flick of time. The
accepted for CNC due to :
- Wid e range of spe eds.
- No backlash effect.
- High power transmission, Fig. 3.31. Diagram showing typical hydraulic circuit.
- Sudden reversal �ithout any damage. A - Relief valve.
B - Speed control valve.
- Long life due to lubricating effect.,of hydraulic oils.
C - Reverse valve.
- More stiff as compared to other drives. D - Check valve.
The rate at which the piston moves depends upon the amount
of oil flowing in a given time. This amount is restricted by the pump
capacity and is regulated by a restriction or speed control valve B
 3.37
SYSTEM OF CNC MACHINES
3.36 CONSTRUCTlON AND DRIVE

e d for this p urp ose.

Such
COMPU'l'ER AlDED MANUFACTURING

are the only one s well ada pt �;�:��a�{:

o

which meters the rate of flow. For do uble action, a reverse valve C
inherently of consta nt sp f et nn� ::::�l���:�i� c�����\� the volume
e
must be fitted and is represen ted as a four-way ro ta ry valve which t i
spe ed an d to_rq�; are
permits oil to fl.ow to eith e r end of the cylinder. In both cases oil retarn ��: �u rd ::p ut. Piston and vane-type units
an d pressuie chanically operate d
to the tank is thr ough th e same pipeline. drive h v . g
particul arly suitabl� for r ota ? \ � �; 0��: ore are obtainable.
ges o 6 .
valves or ports, while spe e d ian . .1ty
Ecce ntric

Fi g. 3.32. Example of l'otary-type· piston valve.

Exhaust Exhoust

To p revent the piston su d d enly releasing its loa d when the pu mp

is stopped, a check va lve D is inserted in the line between the reverse
valve and pump . Thus, although oil flow is permitte d from pu mp to
cylinder, it is prevented fro m returning through the stationary pump.
The locati on p osition is imp ortant, for to inser t the valve between the
reverse valve a n d cylinder would simply bl o ck the system .
The main disadvantage of using a constant delivery pump is that . 3·33 · Oilgear radial piston pump wit
· 11 van· a ble delivery feature.
.
· t On pu mp
13l pls
ruction of a ra d'
it op e rates at the maximum pressure set by the reli e f valve at all l . 3 . 33 sho ws a typ . ical c onst · ·
F1g.
F·g .e 1S. a t 1 000 lb/in 2 an d the multip1 e
settings of the spe e d control valve except the maximum, so that the The u sua l op er a tmg p ess m ' ' e driving
1ses p er sec ond to th e o1·1 Th
.

p u mp is often s upplying high pressure oil for light d uty. The pistons give about 1or:.J i· mpu
r

e on a d e a. d c. entre and mo vabl e centre,

alternative is to. use a variabl e d elivery pu mp in w hich spee d is sha ft and cylinder block 1;ota t . will
. tres comc1de n o p um
pmg act . ion .
controlled by va rying the d elivery of the pump. Not on ly d oes th e respect1vely, When the two cen 1. 1· 1g a ction dunn g
pump give a steplessly variable oil supply fro m stop to maximu m h
take place , but in t ; pos��r � :�� �r:�::a\� :�� :ccentricity. The
u
t
h
delivery, bu t als o a reversible flow, so th a t the usual spee d control, rotation, the strorn eng en 1
ec t · ed ai:id the pressure blocked in.
ion
stop and start and reverse valves separa te from the pump, are not suction oil is sh wn cro ss-s •.
necessary, and p um p pressure is proportional to the load appli e d. 1n fr� rn the a b .v
o

Th _e oil �s dra ,� t: ��;::

/�;tc 17ia��:�1: t�:1�y �0 ::
d

3.4.3.1. The Hydraulic Rotary Drive con necti�g w1th the mne; nd �or hal f a rev lut io . During
�1:1:n els
Most o f the hyd raulic pu mp units can be dup l icated to form a connect m turn to one_ o tr:i� . rds , and
n
out wa
o
s re mo vi
p p and m o tor uni t, the latter r e ceiving oil fro m the pu mp to this time, oil is drawn m ':l�1le t1;r�;�f1: r:v o lution �il is d isch arged
n

_g a
produce rotary m otion . 'l'h e infinitely variable speed range obtainable similarly during the re�:1aimn '
um

the mc om . t ons through th e discharge port .

g pis
far exceeds that of mechanical drives, while other feature s include und er pre ssu re by . . t a s ee d
t o a s�mi1ar _unl� ;. t ;:�11
m

low inertia, inherently high da mping characte ri stics, and the the ref o e, thi s oil pas ses
If,
tl:ie mc onun g i ��: s�t:ng or the
a

determined by the vol um e of

r
possibility o f control l ing torque and speed in dependently of each oth e r.
These a dvantages become more i m portant in systems con trol led by ' ricity.
eccent
some form of error signal an d th us liable t6" suffe r fr om hunting.
.

Gear-type pu mps can be used un d e r fluid pre ss ure as ro tary

motors, but the balanc e d typ es , becaus e of their lower frictional losses,
 CONS'l'H.UC'l'ION AND DRIVE SYS'l'EM or CNC MACHINES 3.3 9

3.38 COMI'U'l'ER Al l.>EO l\LANUP/\C'J'URING 3.4.3.2. Reversal

with the va riable
Revers al of direction may also be obtained
will thus be apparent, for
delivery pump. The flexibility of the drive
r runn i g in one direction,
starting with a constant speed electric moto
n
ue, and reve rsal of direction
adjustment of spee d, adjustment of torq ily va ried in
may lso be read
can be obtain ed. The rate of feed
a
g hors epow er, if the spee d and
acco rdan ce with fluctuations of cutt in
-conn ected .
feed driv es a re hydraul ically inLer
HP HP HP 3.4.4 . Pneumatic Drive
lifica tion are the
Spee d, simplicity, flexibility, and power amp
of application
Mo
Exam ples
chief advanta ges of pneumatic operation. oper ation of
nd ej ectin g,
include cl a mpi ng devi ces, work feed i ng a ati on is that
.O e limit
· control levers a nd clutches, a nd air cushions
n
w th the usu a l shop
high pressures are not read ily a tt ai nabl e, and
i
H
be proh �biti vely large
pressure of 80 lb/in 2 , cylinder diameters may prec ision feed
itab le as
for particul ar purposes. Also, air is unsu
I a
ible with
Mox.
d is poss
Min. rev/min Mox.
rolle d spee
medium owing to its compressibility. Cont
a ir cylin ders , but not against
varying resistance, whel·eas hydra ulic
'-
� s e asily a djusted.
systems permit steady movements at rate
I'

re speed is required,
Compressed air is the better medium whe
- u - for its velocity may be far greater than is
8 to 15 fi)se c is a suitable oil flow speed for
practicable with oil. From
m a chin e operation,. and
velocity of air, however,
up to 30 ft/se c for occa sional movements. The
cyli nder w ill oper ate very
at 80 lb/in 2 is 600 ft/sec so th at an a ir
I I
Min. rev/min Mox.
rapidly.
actu a ting cylinder as
Valves should be located as near to the
Fig. 3.34. Curves showing characteristics of the hydraulic rot:.1i·y drive. by close coupling are : (ct)
possible, for the adv antages to be gained
piping, (b) rapid operation
less air waste owing to the shorter length of
Fig 3.34 shows the ch_a ra cteristics obtainable by three possible sure drop, (d) saving i n
. · arrangements
: owing to the redu ced time lag, (c) small pres
dnve . At A is shown a variable torque arrangement
. cost o f material.
where a co nstant delivery pump drives a variable displa cemen t fluid ed air through a
To cal cul ate the theoretical flow of compress
m otor. Con� ta nt horsepower with va riable speed is thus obtain ed. r spee d, the follo wing formul a
_ straight pipe to obtain a certain cy inde
l
�iagram B 1llus �ratcs the conditions when a v ariable delivery pump m ay be employed :
1s used to d �·1ve a consta nt displacement fluid moto{·. This
_
ar�ange �1ent gives v� n a ble speed with constant motor torque. The V = 58�
thud dnve C compnses a variable delivery pump a nd a vana . · bl e
displ acement flm·d �10tor, and provides variable torque or va riable where V is the vo lume of air in ft 3/min, p is the difference in pressurn
.
ho1sepower d_epe n dmg 0:1 the setting of the units. The speed range at the two ends of the pipe in lb/in 2, d is the inside diameter of pipe
can thus be w1dened considerably, and this is a valuable feature where in in ches, W is the weight in pounds of one cubic foot of air at the
_ en try e nd, and L is the length of pipe in feet. Allowance must be ma de
low torque at h1�h speed is required. Typical curves of horsepower
and torque a re given for each of the a rrangements, F indicating fu ll­ for fitti ngs and bends, and the following table gives the le ngth of
load, an d H h alf-load, conditions. stra ight pipe equival ent to elbows and tees.
 CONSTIWC'l'ION AND rnuvg SYS'l'EM OF CNC MAC[[INES 3.41
3.40 CON[PUTER AIDED l\'!J\NUFAC'l'lJRING

Pressure rate inaccuracy due to backlash and action ofhigher rate of frictional
forces due to sliding motion of the parts.
Supply To avoid the above difficulties; the recirculating ball screw and
Cylinder Cylinder nut assembly as shown in Fig. 3.36 is used which is very high efficient
in working, rnversible in operation, lesser wear and tear, longer
Exhaust working life and without stich slip action.
Reducing
Valve R E C IRCU LATI N G
Flow regulator BALLS \

·· .··· Fig. 3.3(>. Positive type of air control valve.

\

Diameter of p ipe (in)' ·, ' · 0.75 1 1.5 2 3 4 6

Additional length of p ipe ( It) 0.8 1.3 2.7 4.7 8.7 1.8.3 .1:316

The type of valve selected depends upon the control required.

If the piston is required to complete its stroke an·d then be held by
air pressure until the valv.e is reversed, a positive type of control valve
should be used. Flow regulators control the piston speed by throttling
the air in either direction, but for a fast moving piston it is preferable
to fit a regulator to control the nir entering the cylinder. For the slower
speeds it is better to control the air exhausting from the cylinder. Fig. 3.3G. Recirculating ball screw and nut.
3.4.5. Comparison of Hydraulic and Pneumatic Drive The use
. of balls gives rolling motion instead of sliding motion
( 1) Rotory Motion. The feature of air motor is its smallness and which mini mise the frictional forces near to zero value.
lightness with ability to run at very high spee<ls. The small
!
Ball screw introduces a series of bearing balls between screw
industrial air motors develop � hp while large ones hp and nut. Rolling of balls in the groove replaces the sliding friction
.
1 of acme screws. Rolling balls exit from trailing end of nut and picked
with speeds exceeding 40,000 rpm for internal grinding splines etc. up by an outside return tube which put it at the leading end of nut.
These are far out of range foi· oil motors. Outer tube
(2) Cost. Cost is fairly high for, a pump and much greater fluid
motor but initial cost of compressor will be pneumatic drive.
(3) Size. Hydraulic motors ofpalm size can develop 10 hp at 3GOO
rpm. i.e. compact.
(4) Horsepower. A typical compnrison gives the result that, the
hp required to compress air is about 60% greater than
pumping the hydraulic power.
(5) Inertia. Fluid power has more inertia than electric and
pneumntic currents and to stop or reverse direction of oil flow Fig. 3.36. (a) Recircrtlation of balls.
will cause noise and destruction. Obviously, there must be balls in each thread within the nut.
(6) Contamination. Leaking fluid can cause conlamination. To enable the movement of the carriages (worl� tables) to be
(i) Energy Tmnsmitting Device . .
bidirectional without any significant errors in position occurrmg,
3.5. RECIRCULATING BALL SCREW AND NUT ASSEMBLY there must be a ·minimum of backlash in the screw and nut. One
.
In the CNC machines, the convensiona·l design oflead screw and method of achieving virtual zero backlash with these screws 1s by
its nut assembly is not used because of its lesser power transmission,
3.42 COl\rt:PUTER AJDED MANUFACTURING
CONS'I'RUCTION AND DRIVE SYSTEM OF CNC MACHINES 3.43
fitting two nuts, as shown in Fig. 3.37. The nuts are preloaded by
an amount which exceeds the maximum operating load.The nuts are
forced apart, or . alternatively squeezed together, so that the balls in
one nut contact one side of the threads in the nut and screw, and the
balls in the other nut contact the opposite side of the threads.
-- .
Light Source
Lens
'wti�f�. /\i;�
L T,WO
�hotocells

Radial Glass
'
Lead Screw
0
Grating Di�c

(a) (b) Bed and base CNC.

Fig. 3.37. Rotary transducer.
3.7. SWARF REMOVAL
Fig. 3.37. Since the CNC machines are doing cutting action for the most
of the time, hence a large quantities of swarf are produced. There
The efficiency of recirculating ball screws is of the order of 90 must be some automatic method of removing swarf so that it does
per cent and is obtained by the balls providing a rolling motion not become hinderance to the normal functioning and accuracy.
betweei1 the screw and the nut. A problem with recirculating ball Generally two methods are employed
screws is that in order to transmit reasonable power a minimum (a) Slanting for machine bed
diameter of ball must be used. The diameter of ball used is 60 to 70 (b) Chip conveyor.
per cent of the lead of the screw ; this results in the minimum pitch
of the screw being of the order of 3 mm. So that the balls can return
to the start there is a limitation on the rate of movement of the screw.
3.6. LOCATION TRANSDUCERS
The feedback devices or transducers are used to compare the
machine's actual position with the part program co-ordinates.
Transducers are of two types as already explained. The location of
these devices is also of utmost importance, because improperly located
transducers can lea d to lot of i.naccurncies. It is necessary to avoid
and minimise the axial step of lea clscrew, Jost motion and windup
in machine.
Linear transducers as explained in previous chapters shoi.1ld be
very near to the macl1ine slide and should be in q11 accessible position,
whereas f.,Qtflry M,x.i9�s s)10uld be
. located either at the driving end
of the lead screw or free-end ofleaclscrew or on the nut, if is rotating
on leadscrew as in Fig. 3 . 37 (a) and (b).

(a)
 3.44 COMPU'l'ER AIDED MANUPAC'J'URTNG CONSTRUCTION AND .DRTVL� SYS'I'EM OF CNC !IIACH[N8S 3.45

Swarf may be sucked away from the bores and for this purpose
a vacuum unit is installed. An indepeudent motor drives a pump,
which .produced the necessary vacuum and from a large vacuum
chamber a pipeline leads to a distributor to the various suction points.
Swarfbeing sucked balls to the bottom of the vacuum changer where
SLANT ED

there is an opening for disposal.

HORIZO NTAL
S U R FACE -t--�

3.8. SAFETY AND GUARDING DEVICES

The machine tool, tool and work alongwith operator should be
protected against damage or breakage during the cutting operation
SLANTED

as CNC machines are continuously operated for a long periods at

VERTICAL
SURFACE.
(b)
Fig. 3.38. Stunting bed for muchine.
The machine bed is made slant, generally 20° to the vertical as
per the la test trend . The main ad vantages of this geometry is free
fl ow of swarf, chip and coolant as shown in Fig. 3.38. The compressed
.
air strenm or coolant splash make the swarf flow in to the tube in
hollow bed.
In machining centres, where large quantities of swarf are
produced, swarf can also hinder the Automatic Tool Changing (ATC)
process. Hence, the swarf could uutonrntically be removed by a chip
conveyor as shown in Fig . 3.39, mounted in longitudinal direction.
The arrangement is such that swarf always fall on the conveyor.
Pig. 3.39. Chip conveyoi·.
higher speeds.
So, we can classified all the safety devices mainly for two
purposes as
- Safety of machine elements
- S afety of the operator.
(a) Safety of machine elements
For the protection of the machine elements such as drive screws,
guideways, slideways, tran.sducers etc. various types of colbpsible
guards and covers are used. rrhese protecting devices are designed
according to the shape and size of the machine elements. By using
these safety devices we can improve the efficient working conditions
and longer working life of the machine tools. The swarfs are removed,
by using a jet of cutting fluid, from the tool nnd work.
(b) Safety of the opera tor
It is the most important factor which cannot be ignored at the
time of d esigning 0£ CNC machines. So, for the safety of the operntor.
metallic or plastic transperant guards ,ire provided. In any case it
is not possible to use these guards then "proximity protection system"
is provided .
The above mentioned sa fety devices such as collapsible guards
or covers which arc not sufficient to protect the CNC machine :md
the operator in all working conditio:1s. So, in addition to these, the
following devices are also used for the complete protection and safety
such as :
- Light barriers
- Pressure mats
- Perimeter Guards
- Shear pin� or keys
- Safety clutches.
 3.46
COMJ>U'l'ER J\IDED MANUFACTURING
(i) Light Barriers
The CNC machines, such as drilling, grinding and milling etc.
are fitted with light barriers. In these light barriers, a source of light
is used to give light on a light sensitive cell. When any object (obstacle)
is passed between there, light will not reach to the light sensitive cell
and hence then warning signal will generate which causes to alert
the operator.
(ii) Pressure mats
In CNC machines such as milling, grinding and drilli 11g, the
pressure mats are used as safety device where the machine table
moves in the direction of X and Y axis. Due to the higher working
speed of the table, it may cause some accident if the operator standing
too close to the machine.
These mats are placed around the CNC machines and if any
body crosses these mats then warning signal is generated.
(iii) Perimeter guards
These guards are used to protect the operator against flying
swar�s or any other moving object against hitting during working of
machme. The large sliding doors are provided alongwith inter lock
switches.
If during tl � e working of the machines, the door is opened due
to any cause, then the control unit gives a warning signal such as
flash light or loud sound through a buzzer to the operator.
These various types of safety devices are fitted in the machines
in different forms hnving the same aim to warn the operator. In some
machines, the power to the machine may be cut off if the doors {ire
kept open beyond a certain period of time.
The warning signal can be switched off by the operator during
set-up period.
For the proper visibility of the various elements of the machine
to the operator, tho transperant windows are used d nrino· workinO'
"'
of the machines.
0
(iv) Shear pins or keys
These .pins are used to join the two shafts or a shaft with O'ear
sprocket or ratchet wheel.
b '
When the cutting load increases b0yond a certain limit, the pin
or key shears off, thereby disconnecting the drive power t,o the spindle
and hence the system becomes the safe against any accident or
damage.
3.47
CONS'I'RUC'l'ION AND DJHVE SYSTEM or CNC MACI-llNES
(u) Safety clutches
These are usually friction clutches, dis engage by themselves
when the transmitted torque exceeds a certain limiting value. They
have the advantage of not to destroy themselves in case of an overload
condition and the system always remains in safe limits.
3.9. METHODS FOR IMPROVING ACCURACY AND
PRODUCTIVITY IN CNC (UPTECH D 2003)
Now as we know about constructional details, we must
understand how accuracy is improved in CNC and what other
methods can be used to improve productivity with CNC, given as
follows :
1. Control of movements.
2. Efficiency of actuating (Drive) mechanism.
3. Tool holder/changing arrangement.
1. Control of Movements : There are two types of 'movement
to be controlled : translational (linea,) and 1·otation.al.
3.9.1. Control of Translational (Linear) Movements
When machining is taking place, the rate of the translational
movement (feed rate) can be as low as 20 nun/min. During non­
machining operations such as positioning, the feed rate can be 5
m/min or more. For fine machined surfaces and for accurate
positioning during machining, the movement must be smooth and
continuous, and free of any stick-slip reaction.
Stick-slip reaction occurs when two bodies which are in contact
tend to stick together until the applied force is large enough to cause
one of them to slip over the other. Stick-slip happens at very slow
rates of movement because friction at these speeds tends to be high.
To cause movement, the force to overcome friction and any force
resisting movement has to be correspondingly high. This force results
in the drive mechanism, such as a screw, being elastically deformed.
The energy thus stored in the screw, together with the applied force,
causes the carriage to slip and move at a faster rate. At this higher
speed the friction decreases and a greater amount of movement than
that intended of the carriage or table results . There is a possibility
of this cycle of events repeating, resulting in errors in positioning or
changes in the direction of movement. To reduce the possibility of
stick-slip there should be minimum but constant friction between the
surfaces in contact.
A slideway is used to control the direction, or line of action, of
Slideways
the translational movement of the carriage or table on which the tools
or work are held.
 3.48 CO!Vl.l 'U'l'l;;R AIDED M/\NUJ•'AC'l'UHING
In a closed loop control system the amount of movement is
monitored by positional transducers which provide feedback signals.
In an open loop system the movement of the carriage is dependent
on the input commands to the stepper motors.
The alignment of the slideways to each other and to the axis ·
of the spindle is critical. The shape and size o f t,he work produced
depends not only on the accuracy of the amount of movement but
also on the direction of the relative movements of the tool ancl the
work.
As a safety measure, microswitchcs are p ositioned near the
ends of the slidcways. If the microswitches are activated (closed) b y
contact with the carriages, the power to the feed motors will b e
switched off. This will prevent the carriages travelling too far and
striking the leadscrew bearing end housings, or the nut screwing off
the leadscrew. On some control systems the information stored in
memory may be conuptecl or lost, and the datums and program may
have to be re-elltercd.
Various design techniques nre used on the slicleways of
numerically controlled machine tools to :
(a,) Reduce the amount or wear
(b) Improve the smoothness of the movement
(c) ReGnce frictfon
(d) Satisfy the requirements for the movements stated ;.ibove.
The t� clmiques used i,1cl ude hydrostatic slideways, line:::ir
_ the accuracy of rotation is extremely important as it affects the
beanngs Wlth balls, rollrrs or needles and surface coatings.
The hydrostt1 Lic slid<.'wny nnd, bn 11/ro l ler bearing quidew:ws are
already explained 111 :�.:l �.
Sul'facc Coatings
O n some machines the guiding surfaces on the bed and columns
are cooted with lo �v-fricLion material such as polytetra Fluornethylene
,_
(P'l FE) . .Alternatively repl aceable strips ofl ow-friction material are
used. The material used is a type of plastic with particles of graphite
embedded into the surfaces that take the heaviest loads. When Lhe
strips wear to such an extent that the alignment is in enor, they can
be replaced relatively easily and the accuracy restored.
1'here are machines where. the guideways are pbtecl with
chromium, which is very hard wearing. 'I'he thickness of the plnting
1s controlled ; when the p la ting is eventually worn away, the originnl
surface shows · through. 'rhe nccnracy of the machine c:an be re­
established by replating the surfaces.
CONSTRUCTION AND DRIVE SYSTEM OF CNC MAClJINES 3.49
3.9.2. Control of Rotational Movements
Ina similar way as the translational movement of the carriage
is controlled by the slideways, rotational movements of spindles are
controlled by circular bearings. The accuracy of the roundness of the
rotation · is dependent on the quality of the bearings.
There are two types of rotational movements required : those
providing feed movements, and those providing the cutting speed. The
rotational speed of feed move ments is generally very slow, between
20 and 200 mm/min, and for the majority of feed movements the
rotation is usually less than a full 360 degree rotation. Consequently
there is not such a problem with the guiding of the tools or work with
respect to the amount of movement. On large machines, the circular
tables on which the work is mounted can be at least 2 metres in
diameter.
3.9.2.L Rotating Spindles
Material removal using single-point or multipoint tools requires
rotational speeds of the order of 30 to 4000 rev/min and even higher.
All work or Lool carrying spindles rotating at these speeds ore subject
to deflection (twisting) and thrnst forces depending on the nature of
the work being performed. To increase stability and minimize
torsional strain on the spindles they are designed to be as short and
stiff as possible, and the final drive to the spi1:1dles is low tecl as near
to the front bearing as possible.
When a work holder (such as a chuck) is mounted on the spindle,
roundness of the components produced. 1'he rotational accuracy of
the spindle is dependent on the quality and design of the bearings
used. The bearing should support the spindle radially and axially.
There are various types of bearings used, namely plain, ball or roller,
and fluid.
Plain Bearings
Plnin bearings require accurate fitting, but efficiently fitted plain
bearings have certain advantages over the other bearings in vibration
damping. The main objection to a plain bearing is that a definite
clearance must be provided for the oil film to be maintained between
the spindle and th e bearing.
3.9.2.2. Actuating Mechanisms
O f all the constructional features that make up a numerically
conti:olled machine tool, the efficiency and responsiveness of the
actuating mechanisms (the drive unit) have the greatest influence
on the accuracy of the work produced.
 3.50
,
C0.\1PU'T'ER AIDED MI\NUFAC'I'URING CONS'l'IWC'l'ICN AND DRIVE SYSTEM 01� CNC MACIITNES 3.51
For an efficient drive unit there are a num
ber of essential are there. In i irst the ba1ls are returned through an external tube after
reqt:.irements
three threads . I n screw the balls return to the start through a channel
(a) '�·he drive must be stiff and responsiv'e inside the nut after only one thread (internal).
.
(b) There mus t be virtually no backlash in
the drive. 3.9.2.5. Hyd rnstatic Nut and Screw
(c) The drive must be free running with low
temperature rise.
(d) There shou ld be fr eedo m from high These were developed to provide an alternative to the
-frequency vib ra tions.
3.9.2.3. Scre w and Nut recirculating I ,all screws and are reported to be more accurate f�r high
loads. The oil pressure required is of the order of 7 MN/m 2 . The
Thes e are effective for shor t to medium lengt
h ( 100 mm to 8 m) principle of operation is shown i n Fig. 3.41. Oil at the high pressure
movemenLs. With longer movements there is a
problem with the screw is pumped th rnugh the nut into the gap between the threads iu Lhe
sagging under its own , eight. Conventional
� vee, acme or square nut and the f crew, and provides virtual frictionless movement with
thread forms are not smta ble for the drive
mech anism s. This is no backlash and no wear. The gap between the threads is about 0.025
because althoug:h it is po sible to prod uce the screw
_ � s to the required mm, and the 1 1ositional accuracies obtainable are reported to be better
accuracy, the shdm g action of the contacting
surfaces of the thread than 0.0025 1 1 1111 per 300 mm.
on s�rew and nut results in rapid wear , and the
fiiction is high. The
efficiency of these screws is of the order of
40 per cent.
Ther e are �hree types o f screw and nut used
_ on numerically
controlled mnchme tools wlnch provide 16w
wear with continued
accu_racy over a long life, redu ced friction and
smooth actio n, higher
efficiency and better reliability. These are recir
culat ing ball screws,
roller screws and hydrostatic screws.
3.9.2.4. Recirculating· Ilall Screws
� or both open and closed loop systems, recirculating ball screws
are wide ly used . The thread form used with these
screws is shown
in Fig. 3.40 and is known as the 'Gothic arch'. The
balls rotate between Fig-. 3.41. Hydrostatic nut and screw.
the screw and the nut and at some point they
are retu rned to the
start of the tlireud in the nut. Two types of recir 3.9.2.6. Rack and Pinion
culating ball screws
� .,. C1111t:1<.t angl e.:
These a re only used for the longest drives. The pinion is made
/( • RJdi11s nf form as large as practical in order to have as many teeth in contact with
the rack as possible. There are special pinions which provide
minimum bac klash. These pinions are in two sections across the
width ; teeth on one side of the pinion niesh with one side of the rack
teeth, and teot.h on Lhe other side of the pinion mesh with the other
side of the rnck teeth.
3.9.2.7. Ram and Piston
Obviously this drive is only possible w· ith hydraulic cylinders,
and these aru generally limited to fairly short movements (under 1
m). Pneumatic cylinders are not used as drive units for positional
control becam:n, as stated previously, air compressed under high loads
at low speed:: creates judd er'.
3.9.3. Tool l folders
Fig. 3.40. Gothic arch thread form. The tool , must be held securely within the holder and supported
sufficiently to prevent the tools twisting or bending under the action
 3.53
3.52 COMJ'U'f'ER AIDED MANUl�AC'l'UHlNG CONS'l'RUC'l'ION AND DRIVE SYSTEM OF CNC MACIIINES

Powct draw bar

of the cutting forc e . A main operational co nsideration to be give n to
the type of tool holder used is that the tool change should be capable
o f be ing carri e d out as quickly as possible. This is because , although
it is e ss ential to change tools, time spent on carrying out these
operations does nothing positive to the work ; only when work
material is being removed, or there is any change in the shape or size
o f the work, .is any benefit being obtained.
3.9.4. Tool Changing Arrangements
Tool undamped
For efficient operaLiun of numerically controlled machin e tools
it is essential that the correct tools are available at the time required.
There are a number of tool changing arrangements, which can be
classified into three main types : manual, turret and magazine.
Manual Tool Changing
This is the le ast sophisticated method and d epends on the ability
of th e machin e op e rator to select the corre ct tool to load into th e
machine. There are some advantages with this �ethod of tool
loading : Fig . 3.42. Power draw bar.
. This type of h_ol d�r denv�s tl1e
(a) When changing th e tool with quick clamping action tool of 16 mm and 108 mm respectively
en sure that wh �n tl:e t? o1 h old. er
· elle nos e engag111 g 111 slots 111 tl1e
holders, the overall time from stop to re start of cutting can driving pow er from k eys on tl1e sum
approach thnt of the automatic me thods. too l hol der . The taper section is to
ce ntre of the tool is comcic)e{\t wit�
(b) Th e re is no theoretical limit to the number of tools from is drawn into the spindl e n ose , the y �
hol der can be removed i� 1c t.
which th e selection can be made. the centre of the spin dle. The tool ho e1_ :s ;iee
(c) The tools cnn ensily be checke d afLer each cha nge or e asil b e cau se the tape
r do e s not lkock, and the tool
operation to decicle iHhey require regrinding. The checking wheJ the clamping mechanism is
rele ased . The tool hold et wr\�he
driving power f om t ie u � i�
r n
will not increase Lhe machining time as iL can take place Morse taper shanks deriv e the has to be som e
e , and there
01111
while the tool that has been loaded is cutting. between th e shank and the spin dl
to rem ove the tool hold er.
On milling and drilling machines there are a number of quick of ejection device . . . .
tool cha nging fac1l. 1t1es, t,he t� o]s m e
clamping action tool holders. One type has a clamping ring on the On lathes with rna n ual
terchanged qrnckly. The too\ pos�
spindle nose that 11eeds less than a complete turn to secure the tool clamp e d i n hol d e rs that ca n be i n
re that the tools can be rep acec
holder into the spindle nose . Another typ e lrns n draw bar which has spe cial locating features to ensu

EXERCISES
passes through the centre of th e spindle and screws in Lo the end of without much has sles .
the shank to pull the holder sec urely into tho spindle nose. The draw
bar can be rotate d rapidly by a special mechanism. Fig. 3.42 shows acc ount for evnhrnLing the
1. Wh at factors are taken into
an air-actuate d hydraulic-powered draw bar, which has a safety ·
p erforman ce of a CN C ? the control system o f
interlock to prevent the spindle rotating if the tool is not correctly erin s for d sign ing of
2. Enumerate the crit e
located. Th e tool holder is rel e ased when the operator presse!i a a CNC.
buttom on th e head of th e machin e .
3. Exp lain foll owi ng terms :
A commo n type of shank has a non-stick . tapper which has an (a) B acklash . r. e ·luce . cI rn
· C.
includ e d angle ofthe order of 16 degrees ; raLher than a friction taper (b) Stick-slip motion and how the
y me � �- CN
, ms are
t typ es of d nve mcc h·
such as a Mors e taper which has an angle of approximately 3 degree s. 4. What is "drive system" and wha
There are standard sizes of tool holder shanks, ranging from no. 10 use d i n CN C ?
ISO to no. GO ISO ; these have tapers with maximum sizes of the order
 3.54
CO:MPUTER AIDED MANlWAC'l'URING
5. Write short note on safety devices
used in CNC. Tooling for
6. Explain the constructional details
Machine.
of a NC Wire cut EDM
4 CNC Machines
7. With a neat sketch explain various com (HSB 97 J)
ponents of ONO machine.
8. Write short note on Recirculating Ball (HSB J 97)
Mechanism explain its 4.1 INTRODUCTION
use in Guideways.
9. With a neat sketch explain the Hydraul By and large most of the NC and CNC machines are �sed in
ic drive system for CNCs. metal cutting processes. Most ofthe metal removing processes mclude
10. How reverse is implemented in 3-cp and
the stepper motors ?
IL What are the advantages of using Step operations like :
per Motor in CNC ?
12. Compare hydraulic and pneumatic - Turning
drive system.
13. A designer wishes to use a stepper
motor coupled to a gearbox - Milling
to drive an indexed conveyor belt to achi
eve a linear resolution - Drilling
of 1 mm and a maximum speed of 10 emfs
. The gearbox is a speed
reducer with a gear ratio of 3 to 1, and - Grinding
the conveyor is driven
by a 10 cm drum attached to the output - Boring
shaft of the gearbox.
What is the .minimum resolution required
for the stepper motor ? - Sawing
Also, what step rate would be required
to achieve the maximum
speed at this resolution ? (refer article - Slotting
2. 2.1)
14. For each of the following applications are used for the production of machine parts etc. in the ind �stries.
, what is a good choice for
the type of electric motor used ? Justify
your choice. Special care has to be taken for the tooling of CNC machmes as
(a) Robot arm joint
(b) Electric trolley
compared to the conventional machines, because these are used for
(c) Circular saw high rate of metal removal (due to high cutting speeds and feeds) to
(d) NC milling machine minimise the production cycle time.
(e) Electric crane .
Basically, in CNC machines, 70 to 75% of the total pro � uction
(f) Disk drive head actuator. cycle time is used for cutting of the met �l s w h ere as m ca �e
(g) Disk drive motor _ _
of conventional machines only 20% time 1s utilised. [ !here �s
(h) Windshield wiper motor.
15. What Laplace transform is used a lot of saving of down time or ideal time (when tool is not in
for ?
16. Describe automatic speed-control of DC
(UP TECH D 2003)
motor with closed-loop
���� -1
feedback with tachometer and deve So by reducing the down time we are able to get cheap productwn
lop formula for angular
spe ed. on costly CNC machines.
(UP TECH D 2003)
4.1 .1 Design Features of CNCTooling
The following important points are to be considered while
designing the CNC tooling :
. (i) Rigidity of tooling to withstand higher cutting forces.
(ii) R i gi d i t y to transmit the s p i n d l e power at higher
speeds.

' ...._
(4. 1 )

,,_
4.2 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING TOOLING FOR CNC MACHINES 4.3
(iii) To give high accuracy.
(iii) On the basis of cutting tool material
(iv) A variety of operations·to be done. - High Carbon Tool Steels (HCS)
(v) To keep the down time minimum by having provision for - High Speed Steel (HSS)
quick changing of tools or jobs i n minimum possible time.
- Cast Alloy
(vi) Interchangeability to produce same accuracy on all the jobs.
- Cemented Carbide
(vii) Flexibility.
- Ceramics
4.1 .2 Factors Affecting the Tooling for CNC Machine - Sialon
Tooling for the CNC machines depends upon the following : - Diamond
(i) Type of CNC machine. - Boron Nitride
(ii) Type of component and operations to be performed on it.
(iii) NC program developed.
4.2.1 Preset Tools
"The setting .of tools in advance at a place away from the machine
(iv) Material of th� job.
tool or off-line, in special holders is !mown as preset tools." The tools
(v) Production schedule. are carefully positioned in the holders so that when the holders are
(vi) Complexity of operation. clamped i n the machine tool, their effective cutting positions will
(vii) Operator's skill and training. correspond to these cutting positions assumed while preparation of
(viii) Ingenuity of part programme. part programme .
As CNC machines cost more than a couple of lacs, it is not
4.2 CUTTING TOOLS FOR CNC MACHINES feasible or economical to wrryout tool setting during production time.
The toolin g of the CNC mach ines may includ e the study So presetting of tools is carried out more effectively and cheaply on
of
following : a "tool presettcr" which is off- line, planned in advance to ensure a
(a) Cutting tools continuous production cycle. Turning tools can be preset individually,
(b) Holding devices for tools and jobs. or the complete turret can be taken off the machine and mounted on
(a) Cutting tools. The cutting tools can be classified on the basis the presetting fixture especially made for the machine . It is reported
of setting up of tool, tool construction and cutting tool that it is possible to preset turning tools so that two tools set to the
material : same standard will produce work within 0.005 mm.
(i) On the basis of setting up of cutting tool A preset tool has adjustable locating faces. In these tools very
- Pre-set tools close dimensional tolerances are maintained between the tool cutting
edges a!ld locating faces. The tool holder alongwith tool is then directly
- Qualified tools
fitted to the machine after positioned with each other on the tool
- Semi-qualified tools presetter/tool presetting fixture as shown in Fig. 1 . These are mostly
(ii) On the basis of cutting tool construction used where the CNC machines have no control facility for tool off
- Solid tools setting in programs. The preset tool is needed to be removed again
- Brazed tools and again for adjustment. A typical tool presetting fixture may
- Inserted bit tools also prepare a tape informing the tool offset which is simply fed into
CNC machine by reducing errors.
4.4
COMPUTER AID ED MANUFAC
TURING TOOLING FOR CNC MACHINES 4.5

4.2.2 Qualified Tools

P -----..i
Po'i nte r "The tool which fits into a location on the machine, where
its cutting edge is accurately positioned within close limits relative to
a specified datum on the tool holder or slide, is known as qualified
tool."
During positioning of the tools normally three d atums
are referenced for the 'qualified dimensions' applied to the
tool tip. These datums are usually formed by the tool slides or
holders.
r=>:!z::c::6=�
c�=-==_=_=_
=_
=___
==-J CD The accurate positioning of the tools on the machine is achieved
by :
the position of the tool tip which is known by part program.
1. Fixtu re for a Turn
.
ing centre. 2. Boring Tool. the dimensions of the tool holder which are fixed and
known.
1. Di ension s of tool
Fig. 1 . (a)
n: _ hold er are fixed and known To achieve closer tolerances on the work piece tool off-setting
2. Pos1t10n of the too .
l t·ip is known precisely from the par is done by using hard metal inserts of known geometry and
program. t
dimensions.
Ver n ie r for sett i ng
of too l INSERT SELECTION
l. Type : High-speed steel, carbide, ceramic, polycrystalline,
diamond, or a combination of these.
2. Style : Plain or coated.
3. Grade : All of these inserts come in a wide variety of grades,
usually four o r five grades per insert. These grades are
selected by the type or kind of metal that will be cut.
4. Shape : They c o m e i n square, r o u n d , triangular,
parallelogram, octagonal, pentagonal, hex_agonal, diamond
(different angles) , and rectangular shapes.
5. Design : Inserts are flat, with angular or grooved sides.
6. Rake : Positive, negative, or neutral.
7. Coatings : There are several types.
Q) (a) titanium nitride
(b) titianium carbide
(c) composite ceramic
1. Fix ture for a Machini
ng centre. These are just some of the basic ones, but new variations are
2. Mill Adapter · p -_ p . . ··
' res etting dimension. being experimented with constantly for new products.
Fig. 1. (b)
 4.6
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFAC'l'URING
TOOLING FOR CNC MACHINES 4.7

''""'-��
in.<,'n -�
: ,, )

� Tool ho!d:r
(a) (b) 0

L
Fig. 2 (/). Insert and tool holder combination.

4.2.3 Semi-qualified Tools

(c) The qualified tools which can be adjusted to the dimensions by
(d)
Fig . 2• Ass orte d Carbide Inse rts. using three adjustable buttons or screws provided on the tool shank
The qua lifie d tool wit h hold er sho are known as semi-qualified tools as shown in Fig. 3. The same tool
wn in Fig . 2.
can be used on different machines. These tools demand regular;
. maintenance and calibration for accurate dimensioning during the
use .

Q Q : O U A L I FIED
Q" O l � E N S ION

ADJU STABLE
BUT TONS

Fig. 2 (e). Quahfied"tooling for turning centres.

Fig. 3 . Semi qualified tool.

' ,,
 4.9
4.8 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
TOOLING FOR CNC MACHINES

4.2.4 Solid Tools (g) The ill effe cts of hea t due to
grinding and brazing are
The solid tools are usually made of High Speed Steel (H.S.S.) or eliminated.
n in Figs . 4 ( a, b , c ) ·
High Carbon Steel (H.C.S.) or Carbide bar. When these tools are The various tool constructions are show
used on the CNC machines working on high speeds, proper and
suffici"ent quantity of cutting fluid should be ensured for getting a
good surface finish and longer tool life. Generally these tools are
avoided due to the need of repetitive regrinding of tool during the
use.
4.2.5 Brazed Tools
A brazed tool has a forged shank of high strength steeL A belt
of H.S.S., tungusten carbide satellite brazed to the shank to form
cutting edge.
In CNC machines the actual cutting time is more so more tool
is consumed and hence these tools are also not preferred.
(a) Solid Tool (b) Brazed 'l'ool
4.2.6 Inserted Bit Tools
The modern trend is to have the tools with mechanically held
ind exible inserts of harder and special grade carbide or ceramic
materials. The bits are shown in Fig. 2.
For getting more better results on Tungusten Carbide inserts, a wear
resistant la1er of Titanium Nitride or Titanium Carbide is coated.
These tools have the following advantages over the others
(a) An insert requires very small quantity of tool material thus
it reduces the cost of tool.
(b) I nserts can be easily and quickly removed from the tool (c) Isserted Bit Tool
holder. Thus the tool changing time and hence, the cost of Fig. 4. Types of Single Poin t Cutting
Tools.
machining is less.
(c) As the cost of insert is less than the cost of tool grinding, it 4.2. 7 Hig h Car bon Tool Steel
, carbon tool steel was th_e
is economical to replace the worn out insert by a fresh insert. Up to the beg inni ng of this century
. Although f�r m � st_ pur �oses 1�
(d) Indexible inserts am also available in various shapes and only cutting med ium in general use
ing matenals, it is still _ u � e
geometry. has now bee n rep lace d by other cutt
d tool s, hacksaw �lade s, m1llmg
(e) Tool inventory is reduced with the use ofindexible inserts. mostly for the manufacturing of han
tools for matchmg soft or free
Instead of keeping a large number of a particular type of cutters, twist drills, turning and form
tool in the store one can keep a tool holder and several cutting m aterials.
ned by the carbo:11 contents
inserts. The hardness of these tools is determi
cen t), thus kno wn as high carbon
(f) Special facilities like providing shaped ground on the insert (usually ranges from 0.65 to 1.5 per
as phosphorous and sulp hur a\;
itself can be utilised as chip breake�. tool stee ls. Other impurites such
of inju riou s effect b u t sma
kep t a·s l o w as pos sibl e bec aus e
 4.10 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING TOOLING FOR CNC MACHINES 4.11

percentages of silicon, maganese, chromium and vanad ium are use d
to help refine grain &ize and increase tool hardness. These steels are
hard ene d by quenching at temperatures from between 750°c to sooo
in water or oil.
The high carbon tool steel show comparative l y good cold
hardness, �ut l ow at higher temperatures more than 200°c. So they
are only smtable for low cutting speeds and low temperatures.
Actu �ll � high spee d steels are carbon steels
to which a l loyin g
4.2.8 High Speed Steel (H.S.S.)
The composition is 0.8% C, 4% Cr, 2% Va, 6% Va, 6% W, 5% Mo.
The 2% Va stee l is more d ifficult to grind than 1 % steel because
the machinability, grin d ability and wear resistance properties of
H.S.S. are related to the vanadium content.
These steels are generally applicable to a w i de range of
cutting tools.
(c) Super High Speed Steels
The main feature of these steels is that they contain 5% to 12%
cobalt. This makes them specially suitab l e for cutting the hardest

elements hke tungsten, chro mium , vana dium , and most difficult materials at relatively high cutting speeds.
coba lt and molybl emum
have been adde d to incre ase their hot hard ness
and wear resistance. The general composition of contents is
These stee l s can be class i fie d as under
0.7% C, 4% Cr, 2% Va, 20% W, 0 . 5 Mo and 12% Co, which cou l d
(a) General high spee d steels not be manufactured commercially due to the difficulty in forging,
(b) Moly bden um high speed steels rolling and heat treating.
(c) S u per-high spee d steel s. These steels are used where the machine tools of the most up­
(a) General High speed steels to-date and powerful class, deman d ing for higher cutting speeds and
The basic comp ositio n of these steels is given heavier feeds and cuts than are possible even for a good standard
in Table 1 .
Table I . high speed steel .

This is a non-ferrous alloy discovered by Haynes in 1914, an

Composition (%) 4.2.9 Cast Alloy

American metal l urgist an d name d this alloy as Haynes Satellite. It

Tungsten

is similar to the modern cemented carbides and gives high machining

Chromium Vanadium Carbon

performance than that of H.S.S.

18.0 4.5 1.5 0.7

This alloy is an al loy of chromium tungsten and coba l t which

18.0 4.0 2.0 0.8

�he abov e steels can be employed for cutting tools on whatever cannot be heat treated but is casted in the required shapes, hence
14.0 3.5 0.5 0.7

materials can be cut with ordinary carbon or alloy this is known as cast alloy.
tool steel s.
The first and secon d of these steel s are used The com positions used for the cast alloys are given in
for the genera l
run o fwor k i1: a machine hop for exam ple tools for turni Table 2.
. _ � ng, slotting,
sh apmg planmg, twist dn l ls, reamers and milli ng Table 2.
. cutters etc. where
fairly heavy service is dema nded .
The third type steel is used for the same tools
as the prev ious
two steel s but wher e the servi ce dema nded is
Composition (percentage)

Jess severe.
(b) Molybdenum High Speed Steels
Tungsten Chromium Vanadium Carbon Iron
-
. In Ilnd Worl d War, when tungsten beca me scarc ·
_ e , moly bdem in
3 0 . 35% 45.55% 2%
-
12.1 7%

p ro � idc a good rep l acement for the tungsten in

. H.S.S . It posse sses This alloy is not as hard as H.S.S. at room temperature but at
17% 33% 45% 3%

smul ar prop ertie s to tungsten when use d as· an

al l oying elem ent in higher temperatures it retains its har dness and t�ughne� s. It also
tool stee l s.
capable to absorbs shocks and impact and have high resistance to
abrasion.
4.12 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
It can be used for 50% to 100% higher speeds than that of H.S.S.
tools a.3 cutting tool because of its hardness beyond the point where
H . S.S. burns up.
Now a days these satellite tools are made by powder metallurgy
techniques.
4.2.10 Cemented Carbides
Cemented carbide tools are presently widely used in the
m anufacturing industries. These are products, of carbides of
tu ngusten, titanium and tantanum with some percentage of cobalt,
which are obtained by special technique known as powder metallurgy.
It mostly contains 5% carbon, 13% cobalt and 8 1 % tungsten. The
carbide tools can be used as brazed tip tools or throw away tip tools.
The throw away tip tools are widely used in modern costly machines,
because the tool setting time is reduced.
4.2.11 Ceramics
The materials, such as Aluminium Oxides, Boron Carbides,
Sil icon Carbide, Titanium Borides and Titanium Carbides, are known
as Ceramics. These are prepared by sintering the elements at
extremely high temperatures 2000° approaching to that of pottery
ceramic under the application of pressure about 300 kg/cm 2.
The best sintered mat�rial is prepared by adding 99% Allumina
(Al 2 ) with 1 % Cr2 3 , MgO and NiO.
0 0
The Ceramics have following characteristics :
High compressive strength (30,000 to 35,000 kgf/cm2 )
High resistance to oxidation and acid erosion.
Superies hardness at low and high temperature.
High refractoriness and poor thermal conductivity due to
which cutting edge remains cooler even when the chip is
red hot.
Can be operated at high cutting speeds.
Being oxides, there are stable in air upto the melting
temperature points of 1800°.
These arc non-magnetic and non-conducting to electricity.
These can not be wetted by molten metal, therefore, the
problem of built-up-edge is never e'I'icountered.
TOOLING FOR CNC MACHINES 4.13
Advantages of Ceramics
The ceramics have the following advantages
1. Higher cutting speeds : 200 - 800 m/min.
2. Longer tool life due to very low rate of tool wear .
3. Reduced Built-up edge.
4. Superior surface finish-surface finish upto 500 microns on
.
harder steels and 600 microns on C . I . can be eas1 1 Y
obtained.
5. Coolant is not needed.
6. Lower coefficient of friction.
7. Greater machining flexibility.
The ceramic can machine the metals such as, heat treated steels,
satellite, tungsten, rnolybldenum etc. at cheap rates. I t has ?een
claimed that "ceramic will remove 20% more metal at upto 42 times
the optimum volumetric metal remove rate of carbide."
4.2. 1 2 Sialon (Si-Al-0-N)
The Silicon nitride (Si3H4 ) based materials with alum inium �n d
. .
oxygen additions known as Sialon is used as a tool matenal. Th1s is
_
produced by melting together Sl3N4 , aluminium nitride, alumina and
yttria, dried, pressed to shape and sintered at a temperature of about
1800°C.
This is considerably tougher than alumina and therefore can be
successfully used during matching involving interrupted cuts. Two
.
to three times more cutting speeds are used than the carbides t? ols.
Sialon tips are being used for matching aerospace alloys and mckel
based gas turbine disc etc. at cutting speeds of the order of 200-300
m/min.
4.2.13 Diamond
cases
Being costly material, its application is restricted t.o s�ecial
only. It is widely used for turning and dressi ng of the grmd 1 � _ �els.
g wh
used for prec1s 1 on Jobs
In metal mach ining small diamo nd bits are .
r, cellu1 1od and
such as finishing operation on bearings, hard rubbe
hard steels.
resistance
Diam ond is extremely hard mate rial and show large
to abras ion. It posse sses high heat conductivity and melti ng point.
there after
However, oxidation of diamond starts at about 450 C and
°
 4.15
4.14 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING TOOLING FOR CNC MACHINES

show n i :U Fig. 5 . � ?re

it can even crack. So, due to this reason, the diamond tool is kept tapp ing. Th e various d etails of s�indl e a�e
g op: ratio � and loc�mg
flooded by the coolant during cutting and light feeds are used. It than fifty varieties of spind le locat ion, cuttm
apt1v� spm dl e toolmg.
offers highest tool life and mirror like finish by direct turning. (tape rs, draw bars ) giv e it versatility for ad.
ible distance fro.m �he
D iamond tools are used in production of rocket motors, Tool hold ers which prov ide mini mum poss
maximum pr0J ect1on
electronic co �npon e nts made of c eramics etc. spind le be aring to the tool cutting edge and allow
of the tool, shou ld be prefe rred .
4.2.14 Boron Nitride
It is the h ard e st material next only to diamond. It is polymorphic
in nature and can occur in thr ee structural forms, nam ely
hexagonal graphite-like structure
Shank Taper
- ultra-hard hexagonal wurtzit e structure and -----
- ultra-hard cubic structure. �-- Adaptor
The cubic structur e can be obtain e d at high t emperatur e and Height Setting
pressure from the hexagonal structure and has no planes of simple Screw
sliding. The e nergy of bond �s high in all directions. Cubic boron
nitride (CBN) is used largely as an abrasiv e in grinding wheels for Groove for ATC
the fine finishing ofHSS tools, high stre ngth alloy ste els and stainless
st e els. Tool inserts or tips made of it are capable of machining Sleeve Retaining
hardened tool steel, chill ed cast iron, high strength and heat-resistant Screw
alloys.
HOLDING DEVICES FOR TOOLS AND JOBS
Thes e holding devices can b e classifi ed as under on th e basis of Cutter

- tools
Cutter Retaining
- jobs Screw

4.3 TOOL HOLDING DEVICE Fig. 5.

Th e basic principle, of a tool design, holds good for de signing a
special tool holder in CNC machines. Care is to be taken on :
Rigidity rather than high stresses
Quick changing
Security and setup
Adequate access of cutting tool to th e part.
Tool holding device s can be broadly categoris ed into two groups :
Spindle tooling
- Fl e xible tooling.
4.3.1 Spindle Tooling
This is the most common and usual method e mploye d to p erform
a variety of cutting operations such as milling, drilling, boring and
A wide range of tool hold ers are availabl e for vari� us mach ining
les are hsted be low as
requ ireme nts. Som e impo rtan t type s of spind
shown in Fig. 6.
(i) Collet chuc hs with extensions-Used
to hold drill s and end
mills Fig. 6 (a).
(ii) End mill adaptor-Used for holding th e end mills.
(iii) Face 1nill adaptor-Used to hold th e face mills Fig. 6 (b ).
(iv) Screwed end mill holder-These adjustable in natur e and
can be used to bore upto 2.54 cm diameter.
(v) Tapping head-Used to hold the taps.
(vi) Boring heads-Used to hold boring bars.
4.16 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
TOOLING FOR CNC MACHINES 4.17

4.3.2 Flexible Tooling

(vii) Shell mill adaptor-Used to hold shell mill.
In the present era, tooling systems are so modified that the
overall tooling requirement is cut down.
In flexible tooling system, the tool holder is split in two parts
as : machine dependent part known as 'back end' and cutting tool
dependent part known as 'adapter'. This tooling system usually uses
light weight tool heads fitted on to other tool holder locked in the
turret. These same heads can be used for external and internal
(i) Collet chucr.:; with extensioTJ,S machining, by which tool inventory levels get reduced due to
versatility of certain cutting tools.
·[lE�:�-- E N D M I LL ADAPTORS - · - f:· � 4.4 WORK HOLDING DEVICES
In the CNC machines, work holding devices should have the
(ii) End mill adaptor following characteristics :
(i) I t should allow to perform a number of operations on
� -- FACE M l � L A D A P T O R S -
- �
different faces in a single setting.
� (ii) It should have a provision for removal of chips or burns
� easily.
(iii) Face mill adaptor
COLLET
(iii) No interference should be given by it to the cutting tools
during operation.
qp � SCREWcC> SHANK END M ILL �
(iv) It should be fool-proofing to avoid incorrect loading of the
�
-@
-t -ffl-
ADAPTORS OS:<:3
job.
(v) It should be sufficient strong and rigid in construction
(iu) Screwed shank end mill adaptor
against distortion and deflection caused due to cutting
� T E N S I O N AND COMPRESSIO N TAPPING forces ,in the operation.
�
(vi) There must be an arrangement of quick loading and

-r
CHUCKS
�
unloading of the component.
(u) Tapping head
(vii) It should be safe in use.
£3::3,,:,­
BORING
(viii) The component should not change its position after fixing
BORING HEADS
B I TS in the holding device.
(ix) It should be capable to adapt the automated loading or
�
BORING B A R S unloading of job.
(vi) Boring head (x) It should be simple in construction maximum as possible.
In conventional machines, the job holding devices used are in
�� S HELL M I L L ADAPTORS
the form of vices and chucks (collets). With these devices the downtime
is more. To minimise the downtime in expensive CNC machines,
these job holding devices cannot be used. So special devices are
(vii) Shell mill adaptor designed which are knOWJ\ as Pallets. These CNC machines are also
Fig. 6. called Pallet machines.

•
4.18 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING TOOLING FOR CNC MACHINES 4.19

4.4.1 Multi Pallet Machines

The modern CNC machines are provided with automatic pallet
change over systems. Even by using these, we still have to reduce
the downtime or non productive time. The CNC machines are
provided with up to 5 pallets instead of 2.
These pallets are available in two types as :
- linear pallet shuttle
- rotary pallet
Linear Pallet Shuttle System
Fig. 8. Rotary Pallet.
While one work piece is being machined the worker can be
setting up the next on another table called pallet. Usually twin type 4.5 AUTOMATIC TOOL CHANGER (ATC)
pallet, in which there are two tables, is used. But in linear pallet As we know that the CNC machines are designed to perform a
shuttle any number of jobs can be mounted in a line which shuttles number of operations in a single setting of the Job. These machines
to and for, is shown in Fig. 7 . are generally equipped with Automatic tool changer (ATC) by which
the down time in changing the tool from one operation to another is
reduced. In this, the tools are arranged as per the sequence of
operations given in part programme. So at the time of operation,
tool is automatically selected and changed based on the tool sequence
Tobie no.1 given in the part programme.
For the turning operations, turning centres are available with
turret containing up to 12 tools. 'rhe turret movement is controlled
by automatic control system. When the control system receives a
Set t i n g
command for change of tool, then the turret moves to a fixed tool
s to t 1 o n no.1 change position and required tool comes to the cutting position. The
tool turret is shown in Fig. 9 .
� Setting station F o r other operations, such as milling a n d boring etc . , the
no. 2
automatic tool changer (ATC) consists of(i) a tool magazine for storing
POS I T IO N I POSITION 2 P O S I T ION 3
the tools, instead of turret as in case of turning and (ii) a tool change
unit for transferring the tool from tool magazine to spindle and spindle
to tool magazine. The tools arc fitted in tool magazine according to
the sequence of operations in part programme. The initial position
of all tools is fed into the control system, which then keeps upda�ing
· Selling the data regarding tool numbers fitted in the particular pockets in
s101ian 1 the tool magazine. These magazine may be of drum, chain and egg
box type.
Fi g. 7.
Out of these magazines, drum and chain type can be moved to
Rotary Pallet the selected positions. These are shown in Fig. 10. The common
A more flexible automated loading can be done by rotary pallets magazines are having 16 or 24 tools but for special cases these are
which have two, three and four positions
· ·· depending upon the available with a capacity ofup to 150 tools. The chain type magazines
requirements as shown in Fig. 8 . foHow two types of paths such as M-type and rectangular type.
4.20 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
Fig. 9. Turret Tool.
Fig. 10. Drum and chain type Tool Changer.
The egg box type magazine is as shown in Fig. 1 1 in which each
tool is identified by the' rectangular coordina'i;es of its location. I n
this case the magazine remains stationary and tools are brought to
the desired· position due to th� ·movement of the spindle and
slides.
TOOLING FOR CNC MACHINES 4.21
Fig. 4.11. Egg box type tool changer .
.Automatic tool changers, while varied, are made i n five basic
types : turret head, 180-degree rotation, pivot insertion, multi-axis
and spindle direct. Tools used in automatic tool changer are secured
in tool holders designed for that purpose. These tool holders are
installed directly in the spindle at each tool change by tool changer.
4.5.1 Turret Head
Tool changing accomplished through the use of a turret head is
perhaps the oldest form of automatic tool change. A turret head is a
number of spindles linked to the same milling machine head, as
depicted in Fig. 9. The tools are placed in the spindles prior to running
the program. When another tool is needed, the head indexes (moves)
to the desired position.
The main disadvantage of this system is the limited number of
tool spindles available. In order to use a greater number of tools
than available spindles, the operator must remove tools that have
already been used and insert those called for later in the program.
While other tool-changing methods require less machine operator
attention once the program is running, no tool removal is actually
performed during the tool change. This results in a very quick tool
change. Turret heads are still being used today on certain types of
NC machinery such as drilling machines.
4.5.2 1 80-Degree Rotation
The 'simplest of the true tool-changing mech�nisrns is the
180-degree rotation tool changer (see Fig. 12). Upon receiving a tool
change com�and, the machine control unit sends the spindle to its
 4.22 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING TOOLING FOR CNC MACHINES 4.23

�ix_ed tool change coordinates. At the same time, the tool magazine The principal advantage of this type of changer is its simplicity.
is mdexed to the proper position. The tool changer then rotates and The amount of motion involved is minimal and tool changes are fast.
engages b�th the tool in the spindle and the tool in the magazine at The principal disadvantage is that the tools must be stored in a
· the same time. The drawbar is removed from the tool in the spindle plane parallel to the spindle. The chances of chips and coolant getting
d the tool changer removes both tools from their respective places on the tool holders are greatly increased compared to those in side
��
e �ool cha �ger th � n rotates 180 degrees and swaps the tool that or back-mounted magazines. Extra protection for the tools must,
was rn the sp1?"dle w1!h the one that was in the magazine. While the
therefore, be provided. Chips on the tool holder taper will also cause
t ol changer 1s rotatmg, the magazine repositions itself to accept
� an inaccurate tool change, possibly damaging both the tool holder
t e ol d tool that. was removed from the spindle. The tool changer
_ and the spindle. Some machining centres employ a transfer arm that
then 1 � stalls the new tool i n the spindle and the old tool in the
_ allows the tool magazine to be stored on the side of the machine.
ma��zme. Fma �ly, the tool changer rotates back to its "parked"
_ When the tool change command is issued, the transfer arm removes
position where 1t remams until needed. The tool change is thus
complete and the program continues. the tool from the magazine and pivots to the front of the machine,
positioning the tool to be engaged by the tool changer. The 1 80-degree
rotation tool changer may be used on either horizontal or vertical
Tool Magazine spindle machines.

4.5.3 Pivot Insertion

An adaptation of the 180-degree rotation tool changer is the
_,,,.,,,,.-
Spindle Head
pivot insertion tool changer (one of the most popular types in use). A
,,-/ pivot insertion system combines the functions of the tool changer·
and transfer arm. The operation of a pivot insertion tool changer is
depicted in Fig. 13. This tool changer has the same physical design
as that of the 180-degree rotation tool changer.
When a tool change command is given, the spindle is sent to
the tool change location and the tool magazine is rotated to the proper
location for the tool changer to remove the new tool from its slot.
,,.,.- Tool in Spindle
The tool changer rotates and removes the new tool from the magazine,
Tool In which is located on the side of the machine. The tool changer then
Tool Magazine pivots around to the front of the machine where it engages and
removes the tool from the spindle, rotates 180 degrees, and inserts
the new tool in the spindle. During this time, the tool magazine has
indexed to the proper position to receive the old tool. The tool changer
then pivots around to the side of the machine and places the old tool
in its slot in the tool magazine. Finally, the tool changer "parks,"
Rotation
Tool Changer and the NC program continues.
The main advantage of this system is that the tools may be
stored on the side of the machine away from potentially damaging
chips. Its disadvantage as compared to the 180-degree rotation tool

...
changer is that pivot insertion requires more _motion and therefore
results i n a more time-consuming tool change .
Fig, 12. 180-degree rotation to�l changer.
4.24 TOOLING FOR CNC MACHINES 4.25
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

amount of tool handling and motion that must be employed. Today,

multi-axis tool changers are giving way to other tool-changing
-- Tool Magazine mechanisms such as the 180-degree rotation, and on vertical spindle
Spino1e machining centres, the spindle direct tool changer.
' Head
4.5.5 Spindle Direct
Spindle direct tool changing differs from other types of tool
ly to the
changing in that the tool magazine (carou sel) moves direct
machi ne spindle or vice versa. Figure 15 depict s the operat ion of a
e. When a tool chang e is initiat ed, the spindle
spindle direct tool chang
s to
is direct ed to the tool change location. The tool carousel indexe
toQling
Tool in the required tool slot, moves out of its "parked" position to the
drawbar
position and engages the toolholder that is in the spindle. The
Spindle
sel moves
is then remov ed from the toolholder, and the tool carou
Tool
Magazine Spindle
Head

Pivot
Insertion
Tool Changer

Fig. 1 3. Pivot insertion tool changer.

�--
4.5.4 Mu lti-Axis
Multi-axis tool change operation is depicted in Fig. 14. This
type of tool changer _ can be used with either side-mounted or back­ Tool Changer Tool in
mou �ted to �l magazmes. Its design lends itself very well to use with Pivot Joints Magazine
vertical spindle machining centres. When given a tool chang e
command, the tool changer moves from its "parked" po s·t· 1 10n, grab s
the t00 1 th at is
· m · t he spindle and removes it. The tool changer then
.
�wmgs (or swe � ps) back to the tool magazine and places the old tool
o the m �gazmc_. The changer then removes the desired tool from
��: agazme , swmgs around to the spindle again and installs the Multi-axis
� _ Tool Changer
tool m the spmdle. Finally, the tool changer returns to "park' " an d
the tool change is completed.
Fig. 14. Multi-axis tool changer.
The n�ain advantage of this system. is the placement of the
tool magazme on the back or side of the machine , whe re maximum
protect·ion can b e af,c,101· ded to the tools. Its disadvantage is the
 4.26
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING TOOLING FOR CNC MACHINES 4.27
Head
as tool change position. This completes the tool selection cycle. The

I
tool for next operation is selected during the previous machining
process.
(b) Tool Transfer. The selected tool is transferred to the spindle
from m agazine after the previous tool is transferred to the magazine
from spindle. As a precaution, so that the tool does not hit the job,
first of all the spindle is stopped and then brought to the tool change

/
position before the tool tran sfer cycle starts.
EXERCISES
1. What are the various features to be taken care of while
designing a CNC tool ?
2. Explain the different types of cutting tools for CN�.
3. Differentiate between Preset and Qualified tools.
4.
----- Spindle
What are the advantages of using indexible inserts in CNC
machines ?
5. With neat sketches, explain different spindle tool holding
devices.
6. Write short on ATC (Automatic Tool Changer).
7. Fill in the blanks :
(a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . percent of production time is utilised m
machining in CNC machines.
(b) The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tools are set at a place off-line to machine.
(c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tools are more used in CNC machines as
compared to brazed tools.
(d) There are . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . axis from which a tool is qualified.
Fig. 15. Spin dle direct tool cha nge (e) The tool magazines are of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . and
.
dow nwa�d, removi g the tool . The
carousel then indexes to ali n · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . type.
8.
�
the �e qmr ed to l with
? the spin dle and mov es upw ard , inse What characteristics, Work Holding Devices for CNC should
tool mt� the spm dle where the tool rtin g t�c
is secu red . Fin ally , the carousel have ?
.
mov es sideways away from the spin
dle, thu s dise nga ging itself from 9. What do you know about preset tooling for NC turning
�he tool hold er and returns to its "parked" pos itio Machine ? (HSB-97 J)
10.
1s now com plet e. n · Th e too l ch ange
(a) Why do we need a Tool Holder on a NC Machine Centre ?
4.6 TOOL CHA NGE CYC LE (b) Explain the type of Tool Holder used on a Machining
Centre for a Milling Operations. (HSB-9 7 J)
11.
Dur� ng machining pro cess , the tool
is transferred from magazine (a) Name the various work holding devices used in CNC
t0 th e spm �le and comes back to
_ the magazine after com plet ion of machine.
the ope rat1 0n. T� 1s com plet es one
Change cycle. This tool change cyc
cycle whi ch is kno wn as Tool (b) Explain Automatic Tool Changers (ATC). . (HSB-J 97)
le again consists of two stage : 12. Write short note on cutting tools for CNC machines.
(a) Tool Sele ctio n.
(HSB-J 97)
(b) Tool Transfer.
ODO
(a) Tool Sel ect ion . As soon as
. the tool selection com man d is
received by the system, the selected
tool com es to a fixed place kno wn
 5 Fundamentals of Part
Programming I1 I
!I
5.1 RICAL CONTROL PROCEDURE
umerical Control includes all the necessary steps of operations
for the manufacture of a work piece to the required shape. It is not just
sufficient to know what it should look like but also the manufacturing
operations must be known. A good deal of calculations has to take place
between the drawing stage and the cutting of materials. As such the use
of NC machine tool requires more planning and data as compared to
conventional machines. The data, to be gathered and planned, can be as
follows :
• Information to be taken directly from a drawing such as
dimenstion, shape and tool path.
.
• Data established depending on surface quality such as speed,
feed, d�pth of cut of the tool, material of job and tool and
coolant used.
• Data deciding the sequence ofoperations.
• Any other specific data regarding that particular machine.
The basic procedure which is adopted, for most of the NC operations,
except simple jobs in small quantities, in following six steps :
Preparing of NC Coordinate drawing

Process Planning

ParL Programming

Preparation of punched tape

Verification of tape for accuracy

Production
Fig. I.
(5. 1 )
 5.2
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING 5.3
(i) pre�aring of NC coordinate drawin
g. The first step in and enlist the sequence of operations and the machines which
makmg a NC program is to convert the
existing blue print or must be routed through for preparing a workpiece. This list
shop drawing into an NC coordinate
drawing. This is done must be routed through for preparing a workpiece. This list
acco rdin g to the type of dim ensi onin
g system of the NC is also called a 'Route Sheet'. For example, deciding whether
machine has-absolute or incremental
. the workpiece shown in Fig. 4, should be first milled and then
The following Figs. 2 to 4 show the orig
. inal shop drawing converted the holes be drilled or vice-versa. This route sheet ensures
mto an NC coordinate drawing. Fig.
3 shows, the drawing converted the shortest and most efficient machining path to be followed.
20
(iii) Part programming and its manuscripts. From the
operation sequence, a 'program manuscript' is prepared
�o_ __ 12 20
manually, giving all the machining instructions. At this point

-$-
+ -$
,o all addresses are added to the sequence ofoperation alongwith
feed rate; spindle speed and miscellaneous functions. Now a
days, this function i s directly carried out on a small computer,
20
which saves a lot of time.
,o
20 20 '
•1.20 ., 20
(iv) Preparation of punched tape. After the manuscript is
Fig. 2. completed, a punched tape is prepared from it with the help
to an absolute format and Fig. 4 is an incremental format. The dotted of a hand punch or teletype-writer as explained in previous
line � indicate the cutter tool path for milling the perimeter of the job. chapter. This punched tape i s the input for NC machine tool.
Notice that each hole to be drilled has a letter. If each hole is labelled (v) Verification of tape for accuracy. The punched tape and
with a letter, the sequence of machining operations and locations of program must then be verified for accu racy. The most
each hole is easier to keep track of. The concept will be clearer later convenient method is to make a 'dry run' of it through the
..
when a sample part is programmed. MCU by performing machining operation on a wooden block
or plastic material or some other test material. The sample
part is then measured to see whether the part machinend is
acceptable or not. Another method use a pen plotter to draw
0
N
the path of cutter, table movement on a piece of paper and
also to locate the centre of holes to be drilled. The drawing
,..
0

thus produced by plotter is compared with the original ones

..
0
for accuracy.
(vi) Production. The last· step in the NC procedure, is the
co.t,
' � o -l _J_ "'-_-+--+----1--__J
70
machining of an actual parts. It also includes non-productive
(O,g, f-'-o-/--Jo
100 ---� work such as the setting up of work piece and tool etc. and
Fig. 3. Fig. 4. establishing the datum point or initial position of the tool.
Rest of the part is taken care by NC itself. After the part has
(ii) Process Planning. The second step is to determine or plan
been completed, all dimensions are carefully checked and any
a sequence of operations. If the workpiece requires a variety
errors detected. Periodic inspections are made during machine
of machining operations then the programmer must decide
run to minimise rejection.
/
 5.5
5.4 COMPUTER A1DED MANUFACTURING FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING

such as APT
OG � A �MING progr ammi ng. Also one of the high level langu age
�T �� ROMANCE,
(Automatically Programmed Tools), ADAPT, SPLIT, 2CL,
�efi,nitwn wise The part progam is a sequence ofinstructions wjiich AUTO STOP is used for writing a computer programme
, which has
describe the worl?, which has to be done on a part, in the form required by know n as 'Comp iler' program is
a computer under. the control of an NC computer program". English like statements. A translator
used to translate it in a form acceptable to MCU .
Actually, part programming for NC production consists of the ed, because
collection of all data required to produce the part, the calculation of the The work load of a part programmer. is greately reduc
he has to do only following thing s
tool path etc. in a standard format, which is in the form acceptable to its .
n the form line
MCU or in other words, it is the task of preparing a program sheet from (a) Define the work part geometry by defining it i
a drawing sheet. All data is fed into the NC system using a standardised segments, circles, arcs etc.
g a number of
perforated or punched tape. Hence, the methods of part programming (b) If there is any repetition work such as drillin
can be of two types depending upon the two techniques employed to equal size and equal speed holes, then only defining the·
·
produce a punched tape dimensions of single hole.
ve position of
• Manual part programming (c) Specifying the operation sequence and the relati
• Computer aided part programmiry.g. repetitive job as in case of(b) with other locations.
the translation
/ A computer aided program�ing method would do
locations of paths
� Manual Part Programming of APT program; automatically generate the absolute
n as 'µosl processor'
In manual part programming, the data required for machining, is for repetitive jobs, with the help of a program know
written in a standard format known as program manuscripts. Each of cutter. Another
which gives a long series of co-ordinates giving the paths
tool, is provided
horizontal line in a manuscript represents a "block" of information. addition, may be giving an optimum path for the cuttin g
It may include the route sheet or the list of the instructions. In 'th th help of computer.
order to prepare a part program, the part programmer must know all
� AL PART PROG RAMM E
the codes for all the operations and functions. The manuscript is typed 5.3 ROC EDUR E FOR DEVE LOPI NG MANU
er to consider
with the help of a flexo writer, tele-typewriter as shown 'in Fig. 9, by the The part programming requires an NC programm
amming steps of a
operator from the hand written list of coded instructions. This flexo some fundamental elements before the actual progr
are as follows
writer causes, the typed paper and punched tape to be prepared part takes place . The e lements to be considered
simu ltaneously. • Type of dimensioning system
This type of programming is carried out for simple machining parts • Axis designation
produced on point to point machine tool. The same is explained later on, • NC words
thrn h examples. • Standard G and M codes
'
�2 Computer Aided Part Programming • Tape programming format
If the component requires- a great deal of machining such as in • Machine tool zero point setting.
case ofmilling machines or contouring applications, calculation ofcutter
5.3.1 Type of Dimensioning
paths requires more calculations and sometimes if a machining centre and avail able for
is used then selecting different tool for drilling, tapping, boring and After deciding what NC machine is best suitable
nsion ing system the
milling makes all this part programming more tedious and time · the application, we determine what type of dime
al
ment dime nsion al
consuming. More mistakes are also likely to occur. Thus, we use a general mach ine uses i.e., whet her an absolute or incre
purpose computer as an add, to reduce labour involved in part system.
 • I

5.6 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING 5.7

5.3.2 Axis Designation j NG.(X Y Z a b) F S T M <EOB> I

Another consideration is designating the axes of the machine tool.
In most cases the programmer already knows this fundamental
element when he selects the NC machine tool for his job. The most
important factor in axis designation is the location and position of the
spindle.
Tho part programmer also determines how many axes are available
on machine tool i.e. , X, Y, Z, a, b or c and so on. Also whether
machine tool has a continuous path and point to point control
system. The same has been explained in detail in second chapter.
[Ref. art. 9-2)
�� NCWords
I n order to understand the language of NC information processing
the following definitions should be understood
• A 'bit' is the basic unit of information represented by
either the absence or the presence of a hole punched on the
tape. Bit is an abbrevation of"Binary digit", which ca� be 'O'
or 'l'.
• A code or character is the series of combination of l's and O's.
It represents a number or an alphabet or any symbol. One
character is punched i n a single row on the tape e.g., number
'9' is represented by 1001. Certain codes or characters known
as "red undant codes" are necessary to reduce the possibility
of incorrect reading of tape by the tape reader. It is an
information contained in the data which is not essential but
is added to increase readabil ity (e.g. a code known as "end of
block" or simply 'EOB' used to separate each block of data
irrespective of its length ).
• An NC word is a unit of information, such as a dimension
(e.g. XOlOOO or ¥10025) or feed rate (e.g. FlOO) and so on.
• A block is a collection of complete group of NC words
representing a single NC instruction (e.g. Nl GOl XlOO ZlOO
FlOO). An end or block (EOE) symbol is used to separate the
block and end of block (EOB) is a hole punched in 8�h columns
of the tape. Various NC words that are mostly used are as
follows :
Table 1.
N or O Sequence Numbt:ir. This is just a numerical way to keep the lines
in proper sequence.
Example :
009 means "line number 9."
Preparatory function. This prepares the machine to perform a
G
particular function.
Example :
G82 means "centre drilling." It tells the machine to start the spindle
at the designated rpm, go down to the Z depth, and then return to
its original Z height.
M Miscellaneous function. This can be u_sed for a variety of operations,
depending on the company.
Example :
M03 turns the spindle on in a clockwise direction.
F Feed rate. 'T'his is the speed at which the tool will do its cutting.
Example :
F008 means that the tool will move at a rate of .008 in. per minute
until it reaches its destination.
T Tool number. Each tool has a separate number, which can be called
up as many times as needed. Tools do not need to be called up in
sequential order.
Example :
T012 means "tool number 12."
s Speed rate. This is the number of revolutions the tool will make
each minute, or rpm.
Example :
S200 means that the tool revolves 200 times per minute as long as
the spindle is on and it is not changed. If you shut it off and restart
it, it will run at the same speed.
1. Block Number/Sequence Number (N Words)
Each block of the program has a sequence number which is used to
identify the sequence of a block of data in it which is in ascending
numerical order. When the part program is read from the tape, each
sequence number is displayed on the panel of NC machine tool, as long
as that block commands are performed. This enables the operator to
know which sequence of block is being performed practically by the tool.
 5.8 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
It consists of a character 'N' followed by a three digit number raising
form 'O' to '999' .
2. Preparatory Functions (G-Words)
The preparatory function is used to initiate the control commands,
typically involving a cutter motion i.e. it prepares the MCU to be ready
to perform a specific operation and interpret, the data which follows the
way of this function. It is represented by the character 'G' followed by a
two digit number i.e., '00 to 99'. These codes are explained and listed
separately.
3. Dimension Words (X, Y & Z words)
These dimension words are also known as 'co-ordinates' which give
the position of the tool motion. These words can be of two types :
(a) Linear dimension words
- X, Y, Z for primary or main axial motion.
- U, V, W for secondary motion parallel to X, Y, Z axes
· respectivley.
- p, q, r for another third type motion parallel to X, Y, Z
axes respectivley.
(b) Another Dimension Words
- a, b, c for angular motion around X, Y, Z axes respectively.
- I, J, K in case of thread cutting is for position ofarc centre,
thread lead parallel to X, Y, Z axes .
These words are represented by an alphabet representing the axes
followed by five or six digits depending upon the input resolution given.
The following points may be noted while calculating the number :
• Decimal point should not be al lowed e.g. X = 7.875 will be
represented as X07875 in a five digits system i.e. the last three
digits are used for the decimal part of the number. Some
machines allow omission of leading zeros, hence the same
can be represented as X7875.
• It is recommended that dimensions should be expressed in
mm.
• All angular dimensions should be expressed as a decimal
fraction of a revolution.
• In absolute system, all dimensions should be positive.
• In incremental system the'+', '-' signs represent the direction
of motion.
4. Feed Rate Word (F-word)
It is used to program the proper feed rat.�.• to be given in mm/min
or mm/rev as determined by the prior 'G' code selection G94, and G95
FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING 5.9
respectively. This word is applicable to straight li� e or c�ntour�ng
machines, because in PTP systems a constant feed rate 1s used m movmg
from point to point.
It is represented by 'F' followed by three digit number e.g. FlOO
represents a feed rate of 100 mm/min.
�indle Speed/Cutting Speed Word (S-word)
It specifies the cutting speed of the process or the spindle. It is al�o
...,represented by 'S' followed by the thre� digit numb� r. If the speed 1s
given in metre per min, then the speed 1s converted m rp� rounded to
two digit accuracy, e.g. , S-800 represents the .800 rpm of spmdle.
J 6. Tool Selection Word (T-word)
It consists of 'T' followed by max five digits in the coded number.
Different numbers are used for each cutting tools. When the T number
is read from the tape, the appropriate tool is automatically selecte� by
ATC (Automatic Tool Changer). Hence this word is used only for machines
with ATC or programmable tool turret. e.g. , TOl, T02, T03, .... represe�ts
the tool selection word. Also, sometimes T-word is used for representing
a tool offset number corresponding to X, Y and Z directions. With the
help of two additional digits, given after a decimal point. (In HMT T-70,
9 pairs of tool offsets can be stored).
J/ Miscellaneous Words (M-words)
J It consists of character M followe� by two digit nur:ribers represneting
an auxilliary function such as Turmng ON/OFF spindle, c� olant ON/
OFF or rewinding the tape. These functions do not relate two d1mens1onal
.
movement of the machine. This is more explained in 5.3.4 topic.
End of Block (EOB)
/
, 3/dentifies the end of instruction block.
W G and M Codes (G-Codes)
This is the preparatory function word, consists of the addre� s
character G followed by a two digit code number, known as G-code. This
comes after the sequence number word and a Tab Code. There ..are two
types of G-codes : modal and non-modal. Modal codes remain ac�ive
until cancelled by a contradictory and code of same class. e.g., G70 1s a
. .
modal code which defines that the dimensional units are metnc. It will
remain active until cancelled by G71, which tells that the dimensional
units are in inches now. Non-modal G codes are active on�y in the blo :k
in which they are programmed. G04 is non-modal code.
The total number of these codes are 100, out of which some of
important codes are given as under with their functions :
5.10 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING 5.11
. Symbolic Representation .
Code Function ' .
G27
,J'

\Code./" Function '

GOI
Point to point positioning mode of control
(Rapid Transverse)
Linear interpolation mode of control
G28
G29
G30
J Unassigned

Reserved for contouring CCW (long distance)

G31 Reserved for contouring CCW (short distance)
G02
(Linear Transverse)
Circular interpolation Arc Clockwise ) G32 Unassigned
G03
(Normal Dimensions)
G34 Thread cutting (increasing lead)
G33 Thread cutting (constant lead)
Circular interpolation Arc counter clockwise )

G04 G35 Thread cutting (Decreasing lead)

Dwell - A predetermined time delay before executing
(used for normal dimension)
G36 Used for control purpose only
current block instructions
G05 HOLD - An infinite delay before executing current G37 - Calling of subroutine
block instructions terminated only by operator or
interlock switch
G38
G39
J Permanently unassigned
G06 Unassigned - May acquire standard use. G40
G07 J Avoid Acceleration
Cutter nose radius compensation (Cancel)

GOB Deacceleration Cutter compensation (Right)

G42
G4I Cutter compensation (Left)

G09 Linear interpolation used for Jong dimensions Cutter compensation (Positive)
G43
GlO Linear interpolation used for short dimension G44 Cutter compensation (Negative)
3D - interpolation G45 -
G12

J
Gll
G46
G47
G14 Axis Selection G48
Gl3

G15
G49 Unassigned
G16
G50
G51 -
GI7
Unassigned and reserved for adaptiv'e control
XY Plane selection
G52
G53 Linear shift cancel
GIB ZX Plane selection

G20 Circular iriterpolation Arc CW

GI9
Linear shift (X)
YZ Plane selection
G54
(used for long Dimensions) G55 Linear shift (Y)
G2I Circular interpolation Arc CW
G56 Linear shift (Z)
(used for short Dimensions) Linear shift (XY)
G22 G57
Coupled m ption -
G23 G58 Linear shift (XZ)
Coupled mbtion -
G24 G59 Linear shift (YZ)
Unsi gned
G60
025
026
Start of sub routine
End ofsub routine G61 J Unassigned
 '5.12 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING 5.13

Programme stop
G62 Positioning fast Optional (Planned) stop
Code Function

G63
MOO
Tapping M02 End of Programme
MOl
G64 Change of rate M03 Spindle start in clockwise direction
G65 Cassette load M04 Spindle start in ACW direction
M05 Spindle stop
G66 Cassette save
M06 Tool change
G67 Cassette search M07 Coolant on (Type 2 -/food cooling)
G68 MOB Coolant on (Typel - Mist cooling)
G69 M09 Coolant off
MlO Clamp
Mll Unclamp
Ml2 Unassigned
G70 Inch programming on NC tools which accept

Ml3 CW spindle start + coolant ON

dimensions in inches as weJl as milimeters

G72 - Ml4 A CW spindle start + coolant-ON

G71 Metric-programming

G73 Ml5 Motion +ve

G74 Ml6 Motion -ve
Ml7 ] ·
G75 Unassigned Ml8 Unassigned
G76 Ml9 Oriented spindle stop
G77 _ Auxillaries
G78 Mill cycle M21 Input
M20

M22 -
G79 Mill cycle M23
G80 Fixed cycle cancel M24
M25 Unassigned
G82 Circular cycle/Drill devell M26
G81 Repeat function-Fixed Turning Cycle/Drilling cycle

G83 Drilling cycle M28

G84
M27
Rectangular cycles (Threading cycle)
G85 to M30 - End of tape, similar to M92 except that it must
] include rewinding of tape to end of record, thus ready
M29

G89 Reserved for fixed cycles

for next workpiece.
GOO Interlock by-pass
M31
M32 to
J
Absolute dimension programming

Position preset or Datum offset M35 Constant cutting speed (used with turning)
G91 Incremental Dimension Programming

Unassigned M36 Feed Range 1

G92

M37 Feed Range 2

G93

G95 Feed rate in mm/rev (inches/rev) M38 Spindle speed range 1

Spindle speed range 2
G94

M39
Feed rate mm/min (inches/mm)

G96 Constant surface speed (mm/min)

M40 to J
G97 Speed (rev/min) M45 Gear chages
G98 Absolute Datum (machine reference point) M46
G99 Floating Datum. M47
M48 CancelM49
•
; • T..,
 5.15
5.14 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING

M49 Bypass over ride

order of informations
M50 Coolant No. 3 ON Standards were developed for the type and
s�ape Programming Format

ISO use three types of formats for.

M51 Coolant No. 4 ON on punched tapes. Both EIA and
M52 to ] ble block s of infor mation with slight
compiling of NC data into suita
M54 Unassigned difference
M55 Linear tool shift position 1 • Word address format
M56 Linear tool sh • .!\ .llSition 2
M57to J • Tab sequential format
M59 Unassigned • Fixed block format.
M60 �orkpiece change
M61 L! near workpiece shift position 1
M62 Lmear workpiece shift position 2 This type of tape format uses alphabets calle
abatic characters such as
Word Address Format

M63to ] the function of numerical data followed. Alph

d address, identifying

ings. The MCU uses this

M67 Unassigned N, G, XYZ, S, F, T, M have standard mean
M68 Clamp workpiece location in it. In this format, the
alphabet for addressing a memory
, M69 Unclamp workpiece any lengt h and the words used need not
block of information may be of
M70 Unassigned letter address, will identify
be in any particular sequence because the
M71 Angular workpiece shift position 1 space in lhe words a TAB key
the corresponding word. To align and give
M72 Angular workpiece shift position 2 data is unchanged, then it
code is punched between words. If a word
M73to block . This format is used by
M77
] need not be repeated in the successive
Unassigned calle d variable-b lock format sometimes.
M78 Clamp slide most of the NC machines, also
will be as under
M79 Unclamp slide I n this format, a typical instruction block
M80 to J 0 T05 M08 <EOB>
N070 G81 X05764 Y04750 F475 Sl00
M99 Unassigned their usual meanings
In this block N, G, X, Y, F, S, T, M & EOB have
Address Codes for Numerical Control as explained in details previously.

A, 8, C Used for anb'Ular dimension about X, Y and z 1n Tab Sequential Format, the words are
given in the sequential
Code Digits Explanalion 5.3.5.2 Tab Sequential Format
_
axes respectively. order as explained previously. But the alph
F Used for feed function
abets are replaced by a Tab

G Used for preparatory function

The MCU reads the first Tab and store s the data in the first location
s.
4 Code whic h is inserted between two word
Unassigned (occasionaly used for sequence reading the Record Tab. If the
then the second word is recognised by
2

number)
l!sed fo � ce �tre offset dimension in X, Y and z in
ly giving one more tab will
words are unchanged in next block then simp
H

l,J, K 5 end of block is indicated

. The
circulation interpolation respectively. ind icate the word missing from the block
_ d inter chan gable format sometimes.
M Used for miscellaneous function by 'EOB' code. This format is also calle
wing examples.
Used for sequence number The system can be understood by the follo
uction or block like
2

Generally not used, it creates confusion with zero Suppose we have to give an instr
I N 3

(occasionaly used for sequence number)

MOS <EOB>
0

[No'.70 G81 X05764 Y04750 F475 T05

3

Used for spindle speed

Used for Tool number to give like
then in Tab Sequential Format we have
s 3

Used for secondary motion dimension parallel

>475
T
>04750
2

to X, Y and Z respectively >070 . >81 >05764

u, v, w
5 Used for primary X, Y and Z motion dimensions
respectively.
X, Y, Z
 5. 17
5.16 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING

Similarly, if we need to give next instruction having same X

coordinates then we give instruction as (only Y-axis and feed rate have
been changed)
Moc hint
t o bit
t
I >071 > > >05000 >435 > >
6 I ·© -----<- Job

In fixed bloch format the information is given in a particular sequence

5.3.5.3 Fixed Block Format 1
¢--·-·
or Tab Code are used and none ofwords can be omitted. If any information
and the bloch must contain a fixed number ofcharacters. No letter address

remain the same as in previous block, even then the same is to be

repeated in the next one also. In this format the first three digit refer to
the sequence number, next two digit to preparatory function, next 5 x 3
digits for X, Y, Z co-ordinates, next four to speed, next three to feed and F i x e d z t ro. · Lowu left hand corne-r
then next two for tool number and last two for miscellaneous function table:
and one digit for EOB. Different machines have different fixed format
Fig. 5. Fixed zero, lower left hand corner ofmachine table.
of m a c h i n t

widths. For example, an NC lathe may not have digits for Y-axis. The
s, the
two instructions given in previous example may be given as Floating zeros are more easy to use and as the name implie
With floatin g
I 070 81 05764 04150 475 05 08 <EOB> zero point can be located anywhere on the machine table.
locatio n on the
zero, the operator sets the job to be machined in any
to begin the
& table and locates the tool at the most convenient place
program.
071 81 05764 05000 05 08 <EOB> while
Note : Always remember some of the following points
The main advantage of this format is that the whole instruction lathe, drilling or milling work for decidin g
preparing part program forlhe
435

block can be read at the same instant, instead of reading character by the position of zero point.
take
character. Hence, it is best suitable for pneumatic, hole sensing, devices • For lathe work, the zero reference of cutting tool always
hand side of
of tape reading. But at the same time, this format can only be used for clearance along X and Z axis in the extreme right
positioning work only because contouring applications would require an the work as shown in Fig. 17.
extra ordinary length of the punched tape. and
There is no hard and fast rule for the clearance value
the idle time is consu med
should be taken in such a way that
to
A zero-point is a reference on the machine tool with which the minim um as possib le. This may be taken from 1 mm
10 mm depending upon the size of the workp iece.
SJ.6 Machine Tool Zero Point System (Datum)

mounted workpiece must be in a correct relationships with the position

of the
of cutting tool, so that all the machining operations can be completed • For drilling work, the clearance in Z-axis i.e. height
cutting tool w.r.t. the top surfac e of the job is to be maint ained.
accurately. NC machines use either a fixed or floating-zero system.
se
It is generally taken 50 mm as shown in Fig. 6 of exerci
s cleara nce are not so impor tant and
lower le� hand corner as the operator faces the machine. In absolute No. 5.1. X and Y-axe
Fig. 5.
taken as (0, 0) in left hand outside corner as shown in
A fixed zero is a location on the machine table, usually the centre or

system, all the dimensions used to carry out the machining operations
er of
are based from this fixed zero as Fig. 5 shows. In case of incremental • For milling work, the clearance are taken in the mann
dimensioning system, the first dimension is located from the fixed drilling work.
zero.
 5.18 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
·- FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING 5.19
/

�HOD OF WRITING A PART PROGRAM

For writing a part program manuscripts, following three steps are
followed in sequence :
• Firstly, writing a block of setup conditions, selecting the co­
ordinates values to be given whether in absolute or
incremental mode, selecting the units of dimensions i.e.,
inches or metric, spindle speed and tool number if necessary.
• Preparing a program sheet where each line will contain the
sequence number, details of operations and XYZ coordinates.
• Adding the basic information such as preparatory G codes,
Fig.6.
r1
�------------ ·· -
feed rates and miscellaneous M codes to it.
The column headings _of a part program sheet may look like as

Seq. Oper- Prep. Coordinates Feed Spindle Tool Misc. End

1
Ne. ation func. rate speed No. fu.nc. block : 50
(GJ X y z (F) (SJ (T} (M) 'EOB'
I
I
I

Fig. 7.
,/
Procedure :
order :
5.5 ART PROGRAMMING (POINTTO POINT MACHINING) To complete the job, take the following steps in given
(i) First of all align the job edges AX and
AY along X and Y
I As we know, durmg point to point machmmg m CNC system, either
the cutting tool or the workpiece moves from one point to another point coordinates of mach ine.
(ii) Now set the tool at point B(O, 0, 0) origin at a heigh
for mach ining. When the point is located ihen machining get started as t of50 mm
per part program and after completion of machining, the cutting tool over point A.
(iii) To drill first hole P , the table will travel in 20
comes out from the workpiece or workpiece goes away from the cutting f mm in X and
tion i.e., (50 + 20 +
tool to move to next point in raJJid, without doing machining in between 25 mm in Y directio� and 73 mm in Z direc
throu gh hol� in the plate .
these points. Point to p'oint machining is used for the drilling, boring 3) including 3 mm extra to ensure
(iv) By keeping maximum fe�d rate till Z = 48 mm in
and reaming etc. X, Y directions
.
. In this case,
The following example 1 explains the method of preparing the part to the various locations of holes, move the table
its positi on
program for point to point machining process. first of all in X and Y directions the system gets
Example 1. To prepare the program for 4 holes on a part as shown then dri lling process will start in Z direct ions.

in Fig. 6.13. Complete the sequence and coordinates to represent the

tool, as it is not
(v) Now all holes are to be drilled by thP- same
movement of an NC drilling machine table. The drill diameter is 10 mm
on durin g the process
desirable to withdraw the tool to '.B positi
and the Z position is zero at 90 mm above the table surface. again and again.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING
5.21

5.20 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING Example 2. Prepare the part program for a job as shown in Fig. 8.
Take, the depth of hole as 10 mm, Z = 00 at the su� face of the
Part Program : workpiece and the cutting tool is positioned above the workpiece surface.
NOl G92 XOYOFO ; Set the position 'A' ofthejob under the spindle
at point 'B '.
N02 G71 G90G94 ; Use the codes for Metric mode, Absolute
system and Feed in mm/min.
N03 M03 F150 S1000 ; Machine spindle get start at Feed rate 150
mm/min and speed at 1000 rpm.
N04 GOO X20 Y25 Z - 48 ; Position the job in rapid to point P1(20, 25). +x

N05 GOl Z - 73 ; Drill the hole at P1 point (i.e. 50 + 20 + 3 for

drill tip)

N06 GOO Z - 48 ; Position in rapid to 2 mm above thejob surface.

N07 GOO X50 Y70 ; Move the job in rapid to pointPiC50, 70). 65

NOB GOl Z - 73 ; Drill the hole atP2 point. Fig. 8.

N09 GOO Z - 48 ; Move in rapid to 2 mm above the job surface.
Part Programme :
Nll GOO X95 Y98 ; Move the job in rapid to point P3 (95, 98).
NOl G71 G90 G94 M03
N12 GOl Z - 73 ; Drill the hole atP3 point. F200 SlOOO <EOB> Metric mode, Absolute �ystem, Feed,
spindle start CW at 1000 r.p.m. feed
Nl3 GOO Z - 48 ; Move in rapid to 2 mm above the job surface. rate is 200 mro/min.
Nl4 GOO X80 Yl5 ; Move the job in rapid to point P4 (80, 15) <EOB> Move in rapid to point P(15, 10) and
N02 GOO X15 YlO Z2
2 mm above workpiece.
_Nl5 GOl Z - 73 ; Drill the hole at P4 point.
Z - 10 <EOB> Drillhole, Hl (feed = 200 mm min.) ;
NJ6 GOO Z - 48 ; Position in rapid t.o 2 nun above the job surface. N03 GOl
inside job = - 10 mm
N l7 GOO XO YO ZO ; Move in rapid to the absolute zero position of Z2 <EOB> Move in rapid 2 mm above workpiece.
N04 GOO
the spindle and job. <EOB> Move in rapid to X = 45 + 15
N05 GOO X60
Nl8 M02 ; Eull of prognun. GOl Z - 10 <EOB> Urill hole H2
N06
GOO Z2 <EOB> Same as N04
N07
� tART PROGRAM M I N G O F DRILLING O P E RATION (POINT Y40 <EOB> Move to Y = 30 + 10
NOB GOO
TO poINn Z - 10 <EOB> Same as N06, H3
N09 GOl
Move in rapid to a point 30 mm above
In a point to point machining in CNC system the workpiece or the NlO GOO Z30 <EOB>
workpiece surface. Clearance.
cutting tool moves from one point to another poin't. To understand the
<EOB> Move in rapid to (XO, YO)
procedure to prepare the part program of point to point machining N l l GOO XOOO YOOO
Programme end
operation following example explains all related points. N12 M02 <EOB>
Note : No machining is done when spindle or workpiece is moving between
two points. (GOO)
 5.23
5.22 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING FUNDAMENTALS OF PART ·PROGRAMMING

5.7 PART PROGRAMMING FOR MACHINING ALONG STRAIGHT A cutter of dia 2.5, mill is being used. Before the angle can be cut,
LINE
it is necessary first to position the spindle at location #2, Figure 10.
Notice that the Y axis coordinate for location #2, as dimensioned on the
In this case, the machining is done along the straight lines and part, is not the same point as the edge of the angle. In order to determine
the se may �e ?orizontal, vertical or inclined at an angle in any direction. the Y axis cutter offset, it will be necessary to determine the amount
_
This machmmg process is a,.ls o known as linear interpolation and
that must be adcled to the
represented by a code GOl in the part program.
The linear interpolation method is used in various lathe operations AX
and milling operations.
: (a) Lathe operations
For lathe operations, only X and Z axes are used to repref'_lent the
. I
I
axis of movement of the tool and the axis of spindle respectively. POINT P

j
I

r,
J?uring preparation of the part program for lathe operations, the
followmg general method is used as :
(i) Use rapid mode (GOO) to move the cutting tool near to the job.
b

t
(ii) By setting linear interpolation, move the tool to the required 10 I I

,c1f----------
! -------------
14 !
depth of cut in X-direciion.
(iii) Give movement to the tool along Z-axis to the required length
of cut on the job. 40 ---------
(iu) Use rapid mode (GOO) to retract the tool along X-axis.
(v) Finally move the tool to the start point in GOO mode.
(b) �11ling operations
Fig. 10. Cutter path for part in Fig. 6.16.
(/ For milling operations, all the three X, Y and Z axes are used to dimension on the part print, to place the.spindle location #2. Similarly,
represent the movement of the work table and the cutting tool. The it will be necessary to calculate an amount to be subtracted from the
following codes are being used while preparation of part programs. point on the part designated as "P" to arrive at the X axis coordinate for
l. GOO - This code used for rapid movement of either cutting location #3. Fig. 1 1 represents an enlarged view of location #2 and #3,
tool or the work table in the part program. illustrating the triangles involved in determining the of(sets. The
2. GOl -This code used to show the actual machining operation formulas can be used to determine the offsets as follows
in a straight line.
.1 Linear Interpolation
y
Linear interpolation needs more care when machining is at angles.
Let us take an example of part for milling having taper of 30 ° is to be 0
AY = tan - x cutt.er RAD
cut. We designate the end points (1), (2) and so on as in Fig. 10. 2
a
M = tan - x cutter RAD
2
e = 90� - a:

-------40-------i Fig. 11. Determining cuttter offset.

Fig. 9. Part drawing. .
 5.24
5.25
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING

(R = cutter radius) Y ll.44 FA

X 16.65 Y22.5 FA
t:.Y = 2.5(tan 30) X 42.5 FA
�y = 2.5(.5774) The spindle -is first sent at feed rate to location #2, using the
/J.Y = 1.44 coordinate just calculated. The spindle is then sent to location #3. Two
Hence The /J.Y offset to be added to the part dimensionto arrive at coordinates are used to specify the desired location, because a change in
: both the X and Y axes is required. Notice that the X coordinate calculated
the Y coordinate for location #2 is 1.44.
earlier, while the Y coordinate is the one requir-ed to position the cutter
The offset for location #3 can be determined as follows at the top of the part. After completing the cut, the cutter is sent to
location #4. This move is a normal straight line milling cut. 'FA' stands
(R = cutter radius) for 'Finish Axis'.
Word Address Format
� = 2.5(tan 15) Milling an angle with word address is almost the same as with
� = 2.5(.26794) Machinist Shop Language. The necessary coordinates are simply
� = 0.67 programmed along with a GOl, which causes a feed rate move. In both
. Before usin g the information to determine the X axis coor Machinist Shop Language and word address, any line is considered to be
will also be rn� cessa to calculate the dinate it
? coordinate location of point ,.'p,, an angle. A move along the X axis would cut an angle to O degrees. A
along the X axis. Again, using the trigonom move along the Y axis would cut an angle of90 degrees. The code GOl is
etry formulas' the coordinate
can be calculated : technically defined as linear interpolation, with linear interpolation
defined simply as a feed rate move between two programmed points. To
10.0 illustrate linear interpolation with word address, the program is again
tan 30 = --
picked up at location #1.
lO.O N ... GOl Yll.44
b

.57 74 =
b N ... Xl6.65 Y22.5
.5774 X b = 10.0 N ... X42.5
A GOl is given to institute a strai�ht milling cut to location #2.
10.0
b= Next the X/Y coordinates calculated earlier are programmed, just as in
.5774 Machinist Shop Language. The coordinates are then given to send the
b = 17.32 spindle to location #4. (No need to repeat GOl in all lines)
�ubtracting 0.67 (the � offset) from 17.32 produces the X-axis
coordinate for the cutter, 16.65. The 6.Y offset, which was found earlier
5.8 PART P R O G R A M M I N G FOR MACH I N I N G ALONG C U RVED

to �e 1.44, can now be added to the 10.0 Y-axis dimension on the part to
For producing curved surfaces on CNC machines G02, G03, G20,
SURFACE

arriv� at a Y-axis coordinate ofll.44. This information can now be used

to write a program to mill the angle specified on the part drawing
Machinist Shop Language
In writi_ng the Machinist Shop Language routine, absolute
. _ _
pos'.t'.onmg will be used. It will be assumed that the spindle has been
pos1t10ned _at location #1. The events necessary to program the movement
from location #1 to location #4 are :
G21, G30, G31 are used for the direction of tool on the arc of job and
Gl 7, G18 and G19 are used to select the plane of the Circular Arc.
Circular interpolation means the programming of circular arcs. A
single circular interpolation command block is capable of producing a
circular arc spanning upto 90° . By means of the consecutive command
blocks, it is possible to produce half, three-quarter or full circles. Hence,
an arc spanning any number of degrees can be programmed easily.
Circular interpolation is limited to contouring in a single plane i.e. in
 5.26 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING, 5.27

two dimensions only. When milling, this plane may be selectable as X-Y • CCW (Counter Clockwise). In this case as shown in Fig. 13
and Y-Z planes of movement. When machining an arc the following (c) the distance ofcentre of arc from starting point is I in the direction of
information must be specified. X-axis and distance K, in Z-axis direction will be equal to zero.
-x 5(0,0)
z
Y-Z Plane X-Z Plane
I< = U
I

-z.
'----------1,
F
Fig. 13 (c).
l
In some NC machines, there is no provision of I, J and K to define
the arcs. Hence, in such cases the value of radius 'R' can be directly fed
y X

to the machines. (Radius Method)

Fig. 12. Planes of movement.
An arc must end in the same quadrant in which it starts. Arcs
There are four dimension words per block required. Out of these which lie in more than one quadrant require two or more b) Qcks of
four, two are used for distance to the end of the arc and two for the information.
distance to the arc centre (the distances parallel to X, Y and Z axes are
addressed by I, J and K respectively. It is recommended that the feed function (f) be expressed by a four
The values of I, J and K can be fuuntl from the cent.re of arc digit number ranging from 0001 to 9999 Rnrl computed by
10 x Velocity along arc
Feed Rate Number (FRN) = ____;::,___:::___
w.r.t. datum (i.e. , Current location point or starting point) in
incremental mode. The movement of tool can take place i n one of Arc radius
two directions. (It may be noted that it has nothing to do with spindle
rotation).
• CW (Clockwise). In this case, the distance of centre point of
5.8.1 Circular Interpolation
arc from starting point 'S' will be taken equal to the distance equal to I In cutting arcs, the MCU uses the ability to generate angles to
for X-axis, K for Z-axis and J for Y-axis. For example, in case of a lathe approximate an arc. Since the machine axes do not revolve around a
only two axis X and Z are identified, hence for a curvature, only I and K centrepoint in a typical three-axis arrangement, the cutting of a true
will be measured. In Fig. 13 (a), the distance in 'Z'-axis is taken in terms
of 'K' and the distance in X-axis will be counted as zero for 'I'.
For Fig. 13 G02 X5 ZS 11 K9
I ·: Point E(X, Z) = (5, 8) and (I; K) = (3 - 2 = 1; 15 - 6 = 9))
t-,- K --J 5 (0,0) K
t
I
I
I

S (x3,z 1 5) f ,

I
0[>7 -r, · O
I

I
E (x5,z8)
I

-z--....-J· I

Fig. 14. Circular interpolation.

I

---· (a) (b) I =·3 - 2 = l; K = 15 - 6 = 9.

.... Fig. 13.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING 5.29
5.28 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
Machinist Shop Language for Problem

r
arc is not possible . The CNC machine calculates and then cuts a series As with linear interpolation, it is necessary for the cutter to be
of chord segments to generate an arc, as illustrated in Fig. 14. These positioned at the starting point of the cut (point of arc tangency) before
chord segments are very small and practically indistinguishable from a the commands to generate the arc given. To cut the arc, some new
true arc.
commands will be used
j'-•-- 20 ---
R7.5
(REF.) ARC : This command tells the machine to cut an arc. It is also
used with a direction command to define the arc direction to the
machine's computer.
CW : This stands for clockwise direction. When used with ARC,

l___J
27.5 it tells the machine's computer that a clockwise arc is to be cut.
CCW : This stands for counterclockwise. When used with ARC,
it tells the machine's computer that a counterclockwise arc is to be
cut.
A four-step procedure is used to cut an arc in Machinist Shop
XO 1----- -27 .5- •o-iJ
· --.. Language :
YO
Fig. 15. Part with radius to be machined. EVENT !
• ARC CW/CCW-The ARC command combined with either CW
Problem : Fig. 15 shows a part with a radius to be machined. In order
or CCW tells the machine that an arc is to be cut and the
to generate the radius, circ;ular interpolation will be used to send the
cutter from location #3 to location #4, Fig. 16. Assume, a 5.00 inch­ direction in which it is to be cut.
diameter end mill will be used (i.e., 2 . 5 inch radius). EVENT 2
' IP • X/Y coordinates of the centre of the arc- Both an X and
Y coordinate must be entered even though the cutter
may be positioned at one of the coordinates when the cut
I starts.
I
I
I #4 EVENT 3
• X/Y coordinates of the endpoint of the arc cut-Both an X and
Y co-ordinate must be entered. Ifno endpoint is entered, the
I computer will assume that the starting point is also the
I
I
I endpoint and generate a 360 degree arc.

, &=
I
I EVENT 4
I·
• ARC -The ARC command by itself constitutes the actual
cutting of the arc.
Assuming the cutter has been positioned at location #1, Fig. 6.23,
----=tl) #5 the program routine to cut the arc.will be as follows (absolute positioning
Fig. 16. Cutter path for part shown in Fig. 15 . is used) :
 FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING 5.31
5.30 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
For consistency with Machinist Shop Language, this text will use,
X-2.5 Y-2.5 FA ; Placing at loc 1 I, J and K as the absolute coordinates of an arc centre. It should be
Y30 FA noted that Fanuc and other similar controls use I, J, K as incremental
X20 FA I!
di.stances, and -ve values are not given because G02 and G03 itselfsu,ggest
ARC/CW which side to go.
X20 Y20 A ; Center Point As in Machinist Shop Language, the cutter must be positioned at
X30 Y20 A ; End Point the point of arc tangency before the commands are given to cut the arc.
ARC FA
I With some controllers, a 90-degree arc is the largest arc segment that
can be cut. Cutting 360 degrees must be programmed as four arcs of90
Y-2.5 FA
degrees each. Other controllers allow the cutting of a 360-degree arc i n
First the cutter is sent from location #1 to #2 in a normal straight- one block o f information.
.
lme feed-rate move (Y = 27.5 + 2.5 = 30). The cutter is then sent to.the In word address format, a three-step process is followed to cut an
start of the arc. This is also a straight feedrate move. The arc is then arc. All three steps are usually contained in one program line.
defined as being clockwise in direction. The X/Y coordinates of the arc
centerpoint <X20, Y20) are then given. The X/Y coordinates ofthe endpoint For Centerpoint Programming
of the arc cut (X30, Y20) follow. The ARC command is given last in the 1. Give the G code for circular interpolation in the direction
sequence. This initials the cutting of the arc based upon the information desired.
the computer received in the previous three events, moving the cutter 2. Give the X/Y coordinates of the endpoint of the arc, using X
from location #3 to location #4. and Y to define the point.
Word Address 3. Give the X/Y coordinates oflhe arc centerpoint, using I and J
Circular interpolation can be accomplished in two ways using word to define the point.
address format, depending on the controller. Most controllers accept For Radius Programming
information defining an arc by the arc centerpoint and endpoint of the 1. Give the G code circular interpolation in the direction desired.
cut. In addition, some controllers allow an arc to be defined by the radius 2. Give the X/Y coordinates of the arc endpoint, using X and Y to
and the endpoint of the cut. To use circular interpolation, some new define the point.
codes will be needed. 3. Give the radius of the arc preceded by the R address.
as
G02 : This code tells the MCU to cut an arc in a clockwise direction. The blocks to cut only the arc moving f om location #1 to #5 arc
r

G03 : This code tells the MCU Lo cuL an arc in a counterclockwise
direction.
I : This command defines the X-axis centerpoint of an arc. On
some controllers I is the absolute X coordinate of the arc
center. On others, the I is the incremental distance from the
current cutter location to the centre of arc.
J : This command defines the Y-axis centerpoint ofan arc. It can
be used depending on the controller, as the absolute Y
coordinate of an arc, or as the incremental distance from the •
current cutter location to the centre of the arc.
K : This command, used like I and J, defines the Z-axis centerpoint
of the arc if performing circular interpolation in either the XI
Z or Y/Z planes.
R : This defines the arc radius when the· radius is used instead of
the centerpoint.
follows :
By the Centerpoint Method
-----,---c::-::-c--:--------,
N ... GOl Y30
N ... X20 ·
N ... G02 X30 Y20 120 J20
N ... GOl Y-2.5
The first block is a straight milling cut to feed the cutter from
location #1 to location #2. The second block is a straight milling cut to
feed the cutter from location #2 to location #3 (the starting point of the
arc cut). The third block initiates circular interpolation in a clockwise
direction using G02. The X/Y coordinates of the arc endpoint and arc
centerpoint are given, using I to define the X-axis centerpoint and J to
define the Y-axis centerpoint. This block programs the entire arc, feeding
 5.33
5.32 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING

N04 GOO X30 <EOB>

the cutter from location #3 to location #4. The last block feeds the cutter
from location #4 to location #5. Note that GOl was specified to put the N05 G03 X30 Z - 45 105 KO <EOB>
machine back into the feedrate mode. (Here, I and J are taken in absalute [CCW circular interpolation to X30, Z = - 45]
mode otherwise they should be in incremental for FANUC).
N06 M02 <EOB>
By the Radius Method
N ... GOl Y30 Remember. (IO, K5) denote the co-ordinates of the centre of CO, - 5)
N ... X20 w.r.t. starting point (0, 0) in the incremental mode. (I5, KO)
N ... G02 X30 Y20 R7.5 denote the coordinates (15, 40) of centre of the second arc given,
N ... GOl Y-2.5 w.r.t. the starting point (10 , 40) on curve.
The first block is a straight milling cut to feed the cutter from Blockwise Activities :
location #1 to location #2. The second block is a straight milling cut to 1. Set the parameters in absolute mode.
feed the cutter from location #2 to location #3 (the starting point of the 2. Move rapidly the tool to its absolute zero as shown in Fig. 16.
arc cut). The third block initiates circular interpolation in a clockwise 3. CW circular interpolation i.e., G02 has calculations as
direction using G02. X and Y define the endpoint of the arc cut. The (a) X = 20 mm (Maximum width of movement ; same lathes
arc's radius is given using the R address. As in the preceding example, use t'his technique)
this block programs the entire arc, feeding the cutter from location #3 (b) Z = - 10 mm (Equals radius)
to location #4. The last block feeds the cutter from location #4 to
(c) I = 0 (Vertical distance of centre from 0, 0)
location #5.
(d) K = - 10 mm (Horizontal distance of centre from 0, 0 ;
normally -ve value is not given)
Example 3. To explain the use of circular interpolation function, the
following example will serue the purpose made for part shown in
4. Move rapidly leftwards = 30 mm for making next curve ofR5.

+
folLowi11g Fig. 1 7, from a steel bar of30 1nm diameter. (Only cu.rues
5. CCW interpolation i.e. G03 has calculations as :

J
a re to be made in finishing cuts).
RS (a) X = 30 mm ·(Maximum width of movement)
(b) Z = - 45 mm (Distance of left most corner of curve)
(c) I = 5 mm (Vertical distance of centre of curve from start of
curve)
·-
(0,0) z
(d) K = 0 (Horizontal distance)

L .______....,
,30
JI +x
6. Stop machine by M02 code.
11
1--, s-J 5 � 30 --1 5.9 PART PROGRAM FOR LATHE OPERATION
Fig, 17. In case of CNC lathe operations such as simple turning, taper
Part Program : turning, facing, thread, boring, parting off etc., only X-axis and Z-axis
NOl G90 <EOB> are involved. The X-axis and Z-axis are taken as the direction of transverse
motion of the tool post and the axis of the spindle respectively. During
G71
N02 GOO xo zo <EOB> preparation of the part programming for the CNC lathe operations the
002 X20 Z - 10 IO K -10 Fl50 <EOB> following method is taken as
N03
[CW circular in terpolation to X = 20, Z = 10/ (i) Always position the cutting tool very near to the workpiece in
the rapid mode (GOO).
 5.34 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING 5.35
(ii) For plai� turning, by using linear interpolation (GOl), move
the cuttmg tool to the required depth of cut in X-direction. 5. Position the tool at X = 0, Z = 1 mm for clearance. (N04)
(iii) Go along Z-axis to the required length of the workpiece. 6. Start cleaning cut for length Z = - 100 mm (N05).
(iv) Go to start point in rapid mode (GOO). 7. Move rapidly back to X = 1 mm, Z = 1 mm clearance position.
(u) R;epeat the points (i) to (iu) again and again till the required (N06)
_
d1mens1ons are obtained. 8. Position the depth of cut rapidly at X = - 2 mm rapidly.
Note : 1. GOl code is �sed �or taper turning also. It is because of machining 9. Start the cut for the rapdily.for Z = - 60 mm (NOS).
along a straight !me at an angle. ln this case, simultaneous motion
of cutting tool is required along both the axes, X-axis and Z-axis. 10. Retrieve back tool rapidly for X = - 1 mm, Z = 1 mm (right
2. In case of thread cutting, use G33 code along with some additional end). (N09)
parameters such as type of thread, depth of thread, and pitch etc. 11. Make similar cuts of X = - 3 mm, X = - 4 mm, X = - 4.5 mm
3. For circular profiles use G02 or G03 codes, in addition to the X and z respectively by repeating steps 8, 9, and 10.
values, the parameters for the centre of arc are also given in the 12. Position the tool finally at X = 5 mm, Z = 5 giving enough
programme with I & K words which are representing the centre of
arc required for circular profile. clearance for job removal. (N18)
4. For internal machining such as boring, interi1al taper etc. use the' Part Program is given as under for the same problem
above given method . Do it carefully.
To understand, the above method, more in details go through the NO! G90 G71 G94 M03 S80 <EOB>
following given examples N02 GO! X- 12.5 ZO F200 <EOB>
Exercise I. Operations facing, cleaning cut, reduction ofdiameter to N03 GOO Zl <EOB>

r
1 6 mm from 25 mm diame'ter.
N04 GOO XO <EOB>
Feed 200 mm I min, speed 800 rpm and dep th ofcut - 2 mm per cut.

+
NOS GOl Z - 100 <EOB>
-x N06 GOO Xl Zl <EOB>
4' �6 ·- - -- · - -· · - -Z •Z N07 GOO X-2 <EOB>
J rst cut
GOl Z - 60 <EOB>
---..-J - - �
- 6. 0..-- - (0 0) •X
NOB
..______, I N09 GOO X-1 Zl <EOB>
NlO GOO X-3 <EOB>
.... f-
-
.--- 1 0 0
] 2 nd cut
Fig. IS. Nll GO! Z - 60 <EOB>
The program can be developed in the following manner of the above <EOB>
Nl2 GOO X-2 Zl
problem (In absolute mode)
1 . Set the parameters e.g., Absolute, metric etc. (NOI). N13 GOO X-4 <EOB>
] 3rd cut
2. Move X = 0, Z = 0 at right end for setting ofzero position of Nl4 GO! Z - 60 <EOB>
the cutting tool w.r.t., the job as shown in Fig. 6.25. '
N15 GOO X- 3 Zl <EOB>
25
3. Face the job by moving the tool in X = 9 = 12.5 mm in -ve NI6 GOO X - 4.5 <EOB>
- ] 4 th cut
direction (inside). (N02) N17 GOI Z - 60 <EOB>
4. Move Z = 1 mm rapidly towards right side so that the face is Nl8 GOO X5 Z5 <EOB>
not scratched on retrieval of tooi:· (N03)
N19 M02 <EOB>
 5.36 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING 5.37
Exercise 2. Turning (Longitudinal, Taper and Transverse)
Block No. 5. Z-36 gives plain turning operation by using number
Raw Material. Aluminium rod of30 mm dia and 100 mm length. of cuts for a depth of 5 mm radially as the tool has come back to
Speed. 800 rpm. 15 - 10 = 5 mm depth.
Feed. 200 mm/min. Block No. 6. X5 and Z - 30 shows the taper turning operation.
Block No. 7. Shows positioning the tool back to (0, 0) for X = 1 and

10 30 ' Z = 66 (30 + 35 + 1 = 66 mm).

Block No. 8. Shows the end of program.

1
¢ 20
Exercise 3. ON CIRCULAR INTERPOLATION : (Lathe machine).
To perpare the part program for part given in Fig. 20 in both
(Absolute and Incremental) modes :
-�--""!:-·--!-� rl(
_..>------J

co O) .
l- 30+ 30 -t- 35 1 � �
70
Datum point 1 mm Start point

Fig, 19.
-z XO ZO
R15 23
Part Program

NO! G91 G71 M03 S800 <EOB>

N02 GO! X - 15 F200 <EOB> (x15,z70)
X=100
2=150
N03 GOO Zl <EOB>
N04 GOO XlO <EOB> 4 Programmed
Movo point ·
(x23,z62)
N05 GO! Z - 36 <EOB>
NOB GOl X5 Z - 30 <EOB> Fig. 20. Circular interpolation program example-Turning.
N07 GO! X5 Z66 <EOB> ABSOLUTE DESCRIPTION INCREMENTAL
N08 M02 <EOB> N030 GOO XO Z86 M03 -Spindle ON, Rapid cutter N030 GOO X100
start point- Z-64 M03
Block No. 1 . G91 Incremental mode, G71-metric programming, spindle
N035 GOO XO Z86 MOB To start of rapid,
start by M03 with a spindle speed of BOO rpm.
point 2, coolant ON- N035 GOO Z-1 MOB
Block No. 2, GOI-linear .interpolation, (X-15) shows the movement of
N040 G02 X15 Z70 10 K-15 -CW circular arc (quadrant) N040 G02 X15 Z-15
tool from its reference point to the centre ofjob doing facing with to point 3 10 K-15
feed rate of 200 mm/min (F200), faci.ng operation.
N045 G03 X23 Z62 1-8 KO -CCW circular arc N045 G03 X8
Block No. 3. GOO-shows the rapid positioning of the tool at location and (quadrant) to point 4 Z-8 18 KO
Zl represents movements of the tool, along Z direction, of 1 mm N050 GOO.X24 M02 -Retract tool, rapid, N050 GOO X1 M02
clearance. spindle OFF
Block No. 4. Tool moves 10 mm away from the centre. N055 X100 Z1 50 -Rapid backto datum point
· XlOO, Z150 N055 X77 Z88

f
5.38 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING 5.39

Exercise 4. Prepare part programming for threading operation on the

Thread = External
part as shown in Fig. 21. The data is given as under :

Infeed : 0.6 mm; 0.9 mm

Thread length : 55 mm
Spindle speed= 800 r.p.m.
Cutting speed = 62.8 m/min. Block No. 1. Rapid approach from some assumed poi�t.
Fig. 2l(a).

Pitch = 3 mm Incremental, Infeed I

mm/min = 800 x 3 = 2400 mm/min Threading with 3 mm pitch
Block No. 2.

SP = Start Point Motion C to D

Block No. 3.

= 5 mm away from work end and 0.5 mm Back to start point

Block No. 4.

from thread Infeed II

Block No. 5.

Repeat threading
Block No. 6.

Motion C to D
Block No. 7.

Block No. 9, Back to start point.

----- �m,., -----1
Block No. 8.

In case of CNC milling machine, the motion is possible in three

5.10 PART PROGRAMMING FOR MILLING MACHINE OPER A.TIONS

axes, X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis. In this case, the movement of Z-axis is
25,

taken as positive when tool moves away froin the job or vice versa. The
movements in Z and X-axes are the similar to the lathe bu t there is a
)

difference due to addition ofY-axis.

Y.J
For cutter radius compensation in milling oper ation take
5�
5.10.1 Cutter Radius Compensation

Part Program following instructions :

Fig. 21.

During writing a part program, first ofall, a cuttel' ofsuitable

NOl GOO X13 Zl15 FlOOO <EOB> diameter is selected and then program is developed for centre
line of the cutter.
N02 G91 GOl X-6 F300 <EOB> Take cutter radius compensation by taking difference in the
N03 G33 Z-5 <EOB> programmed diameter ofthe cutter and the diameter ofactual
N04 GOl X6 FlOOO cutter, and enter it into the control system. Afte rwards the
KS

control system will generate a new cutter path. This new

N05 Z55 <EOB> path will be separated from the programmed cu tter path by
<EOB>

N06 X-9 <EOB> the difference in the radius ofprogrammed cutter and actual
cutter.
N07 G33 Z - 55 K3 <EOB>
It is important to represent whether compensation is to be
GOl <EOB> made to the right or to the left of the tool when machining.
N09 GOO Z55 For this purpose, some G-codes are reserved, su ch as G40
NOB X9
<EOB>
G41 and G42 as shown in the table of G-codes on previous
. .. pages. G40 Cancels tr.e offset command.
• -
• <1
q
5.40 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING 5.41

The direction in which the cutter path has to be shifted is decided Part Program
by loo/ling in the direction of cut. In Fig. 22 if the direction of cut is
programmed in anticl ockwise direction of the over size cutter NOl G71 G90 G94 <EOB> Set parameters absolute
compensation would be provided to shift the cutter path towards right of N02 GOO X - 20 <EOB> Move in rapid at X
the programmed path (G42) and vice-versa. This facility of cutter radius = - 20 mm away from SP (WHY ?)
compensation is very useful and there is no need of changing the part
program. By assuming cutter radius equal to zero, part program can be N03 GOO Z - 10 <EOB> Move in rapid at Z = :... 10 mm
prepared on the basis ofactual drawing dimensions of the job. The cutter below from SP (top) ; inside. The
path then can be shifted by using relevant specified G-code. job.
For example, diameter of selected cutter = 30 mm, then difference N04 G42 D02 XO YO F2
. (O - 3o) . SlOQO M03 <EOB> Set speed and set tool at SP, cutter
1n rad'1us = -- - = - 15 mm, wh 1c ' h 1s
. stored m th e memory of the
2 compen (right)
control system, for cutter radius compensation under D02.
N05 GOl X70 <EOB> Straight line machining from
Note : Take D01 with G41, code and D02 with G42, code. SP to A
Exercise 5. Prepare part program for giuenjob as shown in Fig. 22 with N06 G03 X85 Yl5 IO J15 <EOB> Curved machining A to B
cutter radius compensation and direction of cut programmed in
CCW direction. The details are given as under : Thickness of
N07 GOl Y35 <EOB> Straight line machining B to C

job = 10 mm, programmed cutter diameter = 0 mm, Diameter

NOB G03 X70 Y50 115 JO <EOB> Curved machining C to D

3
N09 GOl X60 <EOB> Straight line machining D to E
ofcutter = 30 mm, Difference in mdius (O - oJ = - 15 mm which to NlO GOl X50 Y65 <EOB> Straight line machining E to F
2
be stored in memory for cutter radius compensation under address Nll GOl X45 Y50 <EOB> Straight line machining From
D02; Z = 0 is at the top surface of the job. F to G
Nl2 GOl X35 <EOB> Straight line machining G to H
Nl3 GOl X30 Y35 <EOB> Straight line machining H to I
Nl4 GOl Xl5 Y65 <EOB> Straight line machining I to J
Nl5 GOl XO Y50 <EOB> Straight line machining J to K
Nl6 GOl Y35 <EOB> Straight line machining K to L
N17 GOl X15 Y25 <EOB> Straight line machining L to M
Nl8 GOl XO Yl5 <EOB> Straight line machining M to N
t 1 4.2 N19 GOl XO YO <EOB> Straight line machining N to SP
N20 G40 <EOB> · Cancel cutter radius compensation
N21 GOl X-20 Z20 <EOB> Move in rapid to
X = - 20 mm and
Z = 20 mm to safe position
RIS

B
--------1/ N22 M02 <EOB> Stop program
A

Note : If radius compensation is desired, tool needs to be positioned firstly

away from SP by a distance more than its radius in both X and Y directions
Fig. 22.
5.42 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING 5.43

(See N02 and N03). After that giving straight line motion automatically Part Programme :
places tool properly to take care ofradius compensation. Clearly, this is
done in air without collision. NOl G90 G71 G94 <EOB> Set parameters
Exercise 6. Prepare a part programme for the given job whose details N02 GOO X - 10 <EOB> Move rapid at clearance
are given ·as under : X = - 10 mm from SP

Depth of cut = 3 mm
Speed = 1000 rpm, feed = 100 mm/ min N03 GOO Z-3 <EOB> Move in rapid tool for Depth of
cut = 3 mm
Tool position from the surface of the job = 10 mm N04 G07 G42 D02 XO
Thickness of job = 3 mm YO F200 S1000
SP = Starting point M03 <EOB> Set tool radius compensation
N05 GOl xso <EOB> Straight �illing from SP �P A
(0.0) S(O.O) point

tST-
N06 G03 X65 Yl5 IO Jl5 <EOB> Curve milling from A to B

r_·. ,[37 N07

NOB
GOl
GOl XlO
Y65 <EOB>
<EOB>
Straight milling B to C
Straight milling C to D
__
: rn .__. 55 N09 GOl XO Y55 <EOB>. Straight milling D to E
I -- •1 c NlO GOl XO YO <EOB> Straight milling E to SP
o p'-o---==---� ,
- (r
I Nll GOO G40 X-10 Z50 <EOB> Move in rapid X = - 10 r.p.m
Nl2 M02 <EOB> Stop program

�L
� JI Exercise 7. Part Program ofMilling Operation (Straight line) Fig. 24.
I
I

Tool Position = 10 mm above the job in Z direction and (-) 10 mm

in X-direction.
Tool Movements
Tool movement towards the job = (-) Z
B
RlS Tool movement away from the job = (+) Z
Starting point (- 10) mm in X-direction.
SP(C.O) ---
------,.-
� Part Programme :
Fig. 23. NOl G90 .
Note : (i) The cutter radius compensation is stored in D02. N02 Gl9
N03 GOO X - 10 YO Z - 20 ; Clearance & in-depth
(ii) Take Z = 0 at the top surface of the job.
N04 Gl7
(iii) G-42 compensation applied to shift the programmed cutter ·path to N05 GOl XlOO F200 Along AB
right, when viewed along the direction ofmotion. N06 GOl YBO Along BC
(iv) G-40 cancel cutter radius compensation. N07 GOl xoo Along CD
NOB GOl YOO Along DA
N09 GOO XOO ZlO ; Clearance
N09 M02
 5.44
FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING 5. 1 �'

The large offsets method leaves the Z-offset in the same location
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

. r-- 100 ---i

·1 as the machine zero. The machine is positioned to machine zero and
CT then the Z-offset is set. The resulting value in the registry will be 0.0000"
{

for the selected workplane. Next, each tool is inserted in the spindle and
0 r---�====:....__

carefully jogged down to the surface of the part (assuming that th � part
program uses the top surfac� as zero), and the tool length offset 1� set.
. 1 80 The resulting offsets will be relatively large negative numbers. Fig. �5
l illustrates the relationship between the actual length of the tooJand i ts
length offset value.
When the tool is called in the program, the machine will move the
Z-axis the value of the tool length offset plus the value specified in the
program. For example, imagine that the Z-offset has been set to zero
o Ab_ __ J

�� and the length offset pf a drill is - 10.505". If the program instructed the
B

drill to create a hole - 2.0" deep, then the tool would have to fllOVe -
12.505" before reaching the bottom of the hole.

X --+--"---r-----,f-J....:..- JI
1·1 ,.,

Fig. 24. Tool and job movements.

Note :
G 90 : Absolute dimensioning programming Fig. 25. (left) Tools of different lengths are positioned above the workpi ece at
the machine zero. (Right) When using the large offsets method, shorter tools
G 19 : YZ Plane selection
will have larger, negative compensation values than long tools. Short tools
G 00 : Point to point positioning
The second method for establishing Z-offsets is called the.reference
must move farther to reach the top of the part.

tool method. The reference tool method uses a standard tool niounted
G 17 : Linear interpolation (XY Plane Selection)

in a tool holder to establish the Z-offset. The setup person will jog the
As the cutter-radius can cause a· difference in the programmed reference tool down to the surface of the part until contact is rnade.
5.10.2 TOOL OFFSETS & WEAR COMPENSATION

path dimensions, similarly a different length of tool (e.g. drill) or worn Subsequent tools are also touched off on the top of the workpiece.
out tool can cause the path to offset in Z direction (normally). The tool Any tool that is longer than the reference tool will have a positive len�h
length offsets are stored through MDI as the tool offset or wear offset value, and any tool that is shorter than the reference tool will
compensation. The tool radius compensations are called by DOl or D02 have a negative value, as illustrated in Fig. 6.32.
etc., whereas Tool offsets are 11ither called by HOl, H02 etc or T-word For example,
(TOli is augumented as T0107; meaning that tool number 01 is selected'
from magazine but tool length offset or wear compensation value is stored NOlO M03 T03
in register 07. N020 GOl X20 Y20 ZlOO H09
The Z-offset can be established by two different methods. The first
method is the large offsets method; the second is the reference tool Means that the linear operation GOl will take place with tool
method. Number 02 with length. Compensation stored in identifier (Memory
Location Number) 09.
5.46 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING 5.47

SOME MORE SOLVED EXERCISES NB G OI X - 1 .0 Z - 26 F 200 <EOB>

1. Practice of step turning of a given piece of round block of N9 G 22 <EOB>
Aluminium rod as shown in Fig. 26. on T-70 CNC machine.
2. Develop a part programme for following lathe operation and
Given Data : make the job on CNC lathe trainer :
Speed ::: 800 rpm (i) Plain turning and fac.ing operations
Feed ::: 200 mm/min (ii) Taper turning operations
Depth of cut ::: 1 mm. (iii) Thread cutting operations
(iv) Operation along contour using circ"ular interpolation.
25. - Procedure :
-x Exercise 2 (a) PLAIN TURNING AND FACING OPERATION

--_t___:_____
10
Prepare the part programming for the turning and facing ofgiven
l.2 4
- 2 + +2 object as shown in Fig. 27.
Raw material � Aluminium rod of 20 mm
- - -}�
Speed ::: 800 RPM
--- - -
+x
----- 50
Feed ::: 200 mm/min
Depth of cut ::: 2 mm.
.­
(a)
� Tool

I
20 <P
_J -x
·- Z

(b) Fig. 27.

Fig. 26. Absolute System
Note. All dimensions are in mm. NOl G90 G 7 1 G94 <EOB> Absolute, mcLric. feed in mm/min.
·N02 GOO XO ZO M03 F150 S800 <EOB> Zero posiL1on setting, spindle 'ON'.
Incremental Program : N03 G O l X-10 ZO <EOB>
<EOB>
Facing operation gets completed.
Arter facing operation 1 mm axial
N04 GOO X-10 Zl
N I G OO X-5 Z - 000 <EOB> N05 GOO X-2 ZO <EOB>
clearance is given.
Depth of cut 2 mm is given.
N2 G OO X - 000 Z-3 <EOB> N06 GOJ X-2 Z-15 <EOB> Turning for length 15 mm.
N07 GOO X-l ZO <EOB> 1 mm radial clearance is given and
N3 G OI X-1 Z - 26 F 200 <EOB> tool comes to zero position.
N4 G OI X-1 F 200 <EOB>
NOB
N09
GOO
GOJ
X-2.5 ZO
X-2.5 Z-15
<E0B>
<E0B>
0.5 mm more dc1)th of cut is given.
Turning operation gels completed
N5 GOI X - 0.9 F 200 <EOB> for 15 mm leni:,1.h.
GOO XO ZO <EOB> Cuttmg tool moves 111 rapid to zero
N6
NJO
G OI X - 1.0 Z - 11 F 200 <EOB> position.

N7 <EOB>
Nll 11102 <EOB> End of program.
GOI X - 1.0 Z - 11 F 200
 5.48 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING 5.49

Incremental System Tool Position-5 mm from the Plain surface in X direction.

f-- -fEl. :
N O l G90 G71
1 mm from the job in Z direction.
N O l G 9 1 G71 G94 <E0B> Incremental, metric feed in mm/min.
N02 GOO XO ZO M03 Fl50 8800 <EOB> Zero position setting, spindle 'ON'. � -I
N03 GOl X-10 ZO <E0B> Facing operation gets completed.
N04 GOO XO Zl <EOB> 1 m!l) clearance is given lo Looi. -z
N05 GOO XS ZO

..
<EOB> Move in rapid with a depth of cul mm
2 mm.
N06 GOl xo· z-1s <EOB> Move for turning lo a length 16 mm. � ��
To o l

(15 mm actual lengU1 + 1 mm)

N07 GOO Xl Zl6 Fig. 28. (Incremental Mode).
<E0B> rapid by taking l mm radial
clearance to Zl6.
NOB GOO X-1.5 ZO Nl 001 X-5.2 F 100 • First cut with a depth of
<E0B> Move in rapid for depth of cut 0.2 mm.
= 0.5 mm.
(0.5 + l mm clearance) N2 033 Z-12.5 F75 • Tool move for threading for
N09 GO! XO Z-16 12.5 mm length.
<E0B> Move for turning to 16 mm length.
N3 GOO X 5.2 "' Retract back after the cut.
* Fast
( 15 mm actual turning + l mm
clearance). N4 GOO Z 12.5 position at the (0, 0)
N l O GOO X2.6 Z15 <EOB> Move in rapid lo zero position. position.
Nll M02 <E0B> End of program. N5 GOl X-5.3 F 100 * Second cut of . 1 mm depth
= 5 mm + .2 mm + . 1 mm.
Part Programming for Machining Straight Line : N6 G33 Z-12.5 F 75 • Threading for 12.5 mm length
with 75 feed.
In machining along a straight line, the cutting tool can move
N7 GOO X 5.3 * Retract back after cut.
only along straight lines which arc parallel to the mai n ,axis of
NB GOO Z 12.5 • PosiLion a t (0, 0) position.
motion of the machine tool. The best examples are in a shaper,

*
N9 GOl X-5.4 F 100 • Third cut of .1 mm.
planner, mil ling, lathe and slotting machine etc. The cutting of
workpiece is done when the cutter is moving either X, Y or Z axis or N l O G33 Z-12.5 F 75
N l l GOO X 5.4 * Retract back.
* at (0, 0)
in any inclined straight direction. Generally GOI code is used for
linear interpolation or cutting along straight lines. The other being N12 Z 12.5
GIO, GIL
*
N 1 3 GOl X-5.46 10 0 * Fourth cut of .06 mm.
Now the straight line machining process is explained by the
*
N 1 4 033 Z-12.5 75
following examples
Exercise 2(b) THREAD CUTTING OPERATION
N l 5 GOO X 5.46
N 16 Z 12.5 * Position at ( 0 , 0)
Thread length 12.5 mm (R.H.)
N 1 7 G22 * End of program.
Pitch 0.75 mm
Depth of Thread = 0.46 mm Fig. 29. Programming of thread cutting operation.
5.50 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING 5.51
.,.,.__ ,oo
Exercise 2(c) ON CIRCULAR INTERPOLATION (Lathe machine)
to perpare the part program for the part given in Fig. 30 as
under in incremental mode : 150
•�,1.L -
1
- t
-'------ _J -X
· (-1� {,1,0}
�(0.0)
,- - - -3
lS
,_...---
. ,,, --.-·l . A
¾).i
�r-- i
-z

� ;r0�� ---·_ -- -1D

Fig. 30.
Part Program
NOl G91 <EOB> : S�t increrhental mode _· _. e 20
N02 GOl X - 15 FlOO <EOB> : Facing cut
N03 G02 X5 Z - 5 IO K5 <EOB> : Circular interpolation (2) Now table moves to till the cutter get its position B i.e.
Fig. 31.

N04 GOO X6 Z6 <EOB> : Go to initial position X = 45 mm and Y = 35 mm from position A.

giving clearance (3) After getting this position, the cutter moves down upto
2 mm above the workpiece rapidly and then at appropriate
N05 M02 <EOB> : End feed rate till Z = 45 mm.
(4) Now table moves in X direction with appropriate feed rate
Note. The variance ofl and K can be found from the centre of given arcs w.r.t. to till cutter is at position 'C' from left to right.
(5) Now table moves in Y direction till the cutter gets position
Co-ordinates of start point, S : (- 5, 0) : 'D'.
datum point in incremental mode as follows;

- Distance ofS in X-direction from C(- 5, - 5) i.e. I = 00 because (6) Afte r· getting position 'D' by cutter then table mov�s in
no distance is moved in X-axis. X direction right of left.
- Distance in z-direction from C(- 5, - 5) i.e. K = - 5 mm. (7) By repeating steps (4, 5 and 6) complete the machining
operation.
Now we can prepare the part program for this job as
3. Develop a part progra mme for following milling machine

(i) Plain milling operation.

operation and mahe the job on CNC milling machine :

(ii) Slot milling operation.

NOl G92 XO YO ZO <EOB>

(iii) Pocket milling operation.

N02 G90
N03 GOl G78 X45 Y35 Z45 FlOO M03 <EOB>
<EOB>

A workpiece of 100 mm x 50 mm x 20 mm has to be machined

N04 G79 X165
Exercise 3(i) Plain Millin g Operation
<EOB>
all the top surface with an end cutter of20 mm diameter. Take depth
N05 G78 Y50

of cut 5 mm.
N06 G79 X45 <E0B>
N07 G78 Y65 <EOB>
NOS G79 X165 <EOB>

(1) First of all the tool and workpiece both are fixed on the
Procedure : N09 G78 YSO <EOB>

milling machine. Let this set position of the tool is A(O, 0,

NlO G79 X45 <EOB>

0). The workpiece is set on the machine bed and its top
Nll G80 ZO FO M05 <E0B>

surface is 40 mm above the bed : ··

N12 XO YO FO <EOB>
N13 M02 <EOB>
5.52 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING 5.53
Note : G78, G79 are mill cycles whereas G80 cancels them. These
are canned-cycles explained later in sub ·secti on. N5 001 M03 Z-520 F 325 S 800 520 = 500 mm standard down
Exercise 3(ii) Slot Milling + 20 mm depth of cut.
N6 G17
N7 001 X 160.00 Y 5500 F 200 Tool Reaches at pt. Q
( 16000, 5500)
NS 019 X-Zplane selection in order to give
the depth of cut
N9 001 Z-540 F 100 (Z-540 = - 520 + (- 20) depth/cut in
this cycle)
Fig. 32(a). NlO 017 X-Yplane.
1. For slot cutting best method is to choose the tool of same Nll GOl X 30 Y 55 F 200 (Tool Back to pt. P)
N12 G19
dia as that of the width of slot.
N13 GO 1 Z-600 F 100
2. If slot width is much more than that of the available tool
N 14 G17 (X-Yplane)
dia then cut the slot by successive cuts.
N15 GOJ X 30 Y 5 5 F 200
N16 G18
N17 GOl ZO F150
N18 017 �
N19 GOO XO YO
' N20 M30

Exercise 3(iii) Rectangular Pocket Milling [33(b)]

40
,. 20 •I
�5
,.1- - - - - - - .,

I
I I
I I
,o1 I I

_lJ
I I
---+---, I 25 40
I · I I
· 1 ·. I I
I I I
010,0)
Fig. 32(b).
20
L ..: _4 ___ J
I
I
3. By method of pocket milling (Best Suited). : _ 20·

NJ G90 Absolute Mode Fig. 33(a}

N2 G17 X-Y Plane NO Dl X400 ZO Tool Radius compensation in Dl.
N3 GO X30 Y55 tool at Pt. P Nl G90 Absolute mode
N4 G19 X-Z Plane. N2 M03 S 1000 Tool starts rotating C.W. at @ 1000
N5 GOl Z-5 F 325 R.P.M.
N3 G17 , X-Y Plane Selection
N6 M03 3800
N4 GOO X 3 0 Y 32.5 Tool at the mid pt. of Rectangular
pocket.
5.54 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING 5.55

Position preset at X = 0 ; Y = 0.
Exercise 3(iii) CIRCULAR POCKET MILLING
N5 G92 XO YO
N6 G18 X-Z Plane Selection
N7 GOl Z-5 F 200 Tool will move at the given feed rate
in Z dir.e ction to touch the job.
NS G92 ZO Position preset at Z = 0.
N9 G88 X 10 Y 12.50 Z4.5 K.5
D l F225 I

lI
40
Z = Total depth of Pocket ; K = Depth per cut.
Total Pocket size = (10.00 x 2) x ( 12.50 x 2)
= 20.00 X 25.QQ
= X x Y.
NlO G80 Fixed Cycle Cancel. o�--10--!-1-
5 J�------
Nll G18 X-Z Plane selection for lifting - JS
the tool.
N12 GOl Z 50 F 300 Fig. 34.
Nl3 Gl7 (X-Y Plane)
N14 GO X-30 Y-32.5 Tool at its starting point. Dl X250 ZO Tool radius compensation
N15 M30 Programme end & spindle stop.
Nl G90 Absolute mode selection
Note. G-92 Position Preset code must be used for pocket milling for N2 Gl7 X-Y Plane selection
Z position.
N2 GO X3500 Y4000 Tool at the centre position of the circular
GOO in Z axis is not allowed as it gives lot of errors in axis movements. pocket at Pt. (P)
Use GOO -+ G 0 1 with feed F 300 or ,any other suitable values. N4 G18 X-Z plane selection

N5 G 1 Z-500 F300 (Tool down to touch the job at the given

feed rate)

N6 G92 ZO Position present at Z = 0 (A must) Tool

dia = 5 mm (e.g.)
:. Tool radius = 2.5 mm = 250

N7 G89 M3 X1500 Z200 K15 F200

S1000 D 1

.,.

''
 FUNDAMENTALS OF PART PROGRAMMING 5.57
5.56 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

,';'.J tjo�s
M3 Tool starts rotating C.C.W. , mm d .
X 1500 Radius of pocket is given under x
Z200 = Total depth of pocket
Ufqlc o f
= 2.00 mm J1 mt� d i *

Kl5 -> Depth of cut per cycle

= 0.15 mm
so -...
�.....-so --,-Jo
F200 = Feed rate = 200 mm/min
S = 1000 Tool rotates at a rate of 1000 RPM
(0.0)
Dl Tool compensation
Fig. 26.
NB GBO Canned cycle cancel 6. Write a part programme for (L-Type) making part from a bar of
N9 GOl Z500 F300 Tool up fr
om the surface of job 45 mm dia. Make cuts of 2.5 mm (2 Nos.)
NlO G92 ZO Position preset at Z = 0 (A must)
N ll G17 X-Y Plane selection
N12 GO XOYO Tool back to the starting pt. 0(0, 0)
N l3 M30 Programme end
Note. ( 1 ) Do not use DOO command

EXERCISES
Fig. 27.
7. Write a part programme for milling a slot on part as shown in
Fig. 27 from a cube of 30 x 50 x 20 mm size.
1. Write the procedure of Numerical Control.
2. What is part programming? Explain the procedure for developing
manual part programme.
3. Explain the terms :
(a) Bit (b) Byte
· (c) Character (d) NC word
(e) Block (f) G-words
(g) M-words.
4. Explain the different tape programming formats used for
punching information on tapes.
5. Write a part programme for : (PTP)
Z level at 5 mm above the plate su�face.
_ Fig. 28.
Plate thickness = 10 mm.
 6 Advanced Part
Programming
6.1 INTRODUCTION
As slowly and steadily, the development took place in NC technology,
need was felt to make more complicated and sophisticated programmes
by the manual method itself. The simple geometric parts were replaced
by complex parts and stress was laid on to find a relation between
different operations done on a job. There are, a · number of machining
sequence consisting of some repetition work at some different locations
such as making equally spaced grooves or number of same diameter
holes or turning a job in a number of cuts. So it was necessary to make
the same set ofinstructions again and again in one prograni. This further
led to .larger programs and also it was very difficult to locate an error in
them.
Several advance techniques are used, such that a sequence can be
programmed just once and given an identity so that it can be called back
into the main program as and when required. These sequences are
referred to, in a number of ways e.g. cycle, subroutines, loops, patterns
and macros. The advantages of writing a part program with these
structures are
reduced lengths of Part program
reduced punched tape length
less time required to develop the program
No need to write the same tedious instructions again and again.
Less memory required for the whole progi:am at a moment in
. control unit.
- Easy to de-bug (or locate a fault) in a part program.
The techniques to ·;V;ite a part program, in a, reduced and efficient
way can be broadly categorised into two ways.
(a) Standardised fixed (canned cycles).
(b) Non standardised fixed cycle (Do loops, subroutines).

(6. 1 )
 ADVAN CED PART PROGRAMMING 6.3
6.2 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

6.2 S ANDARDISED FIXED CYCLE/CANNED CYCLE

�A number of basic machining sequences or cycles commonly used

!�,�.�� .
were standardised by this method. The machining cycles are identified Start position {R2 )

by assigned G-codes from G81 to G85 and when they are incorporated I F�ed· fRop1d

into a control system, they are refered as "fixed" or "canned" cycles.
"A canned. cycle is a combination of standardised machine m oues
which results in a particular machining function such as drilling, milling,
boring and tapping". By programming one cycle code number, as many
as seven distinct movements may occur. These seven movements would
normally take six blocks (lines) of program made without using canned
cycles. The corresponding instructions of a canned cycle are already
stored in the system memory. Consider the hole to be drilled in
Fig. 1.
lj
,�/401 1n · out
Z Deplh ·(R 3 )
Fig. 2.
The levels, namely 'Start position' and 'Z-depth' are generally
referred to as 'R-Planes'. R-Plane indicates the rapid plane up to which
the tool advances prior to contacting the part surface or the rapid pane
up to which the tool ·retracts after completing the cycle. The R-plane for
gauge height generally R2 is kept 2 mm above the machine surfaces and
about 5 mm for rough and irregular surfaces such as casting and forging
items.
The following examples are some basic and canned cycle codes
available with a number of machines, assigned by EIA.

6.2.1 Drill Cycle (G-81 )

T� The drilling cycle for G-81 code as shown in Fig. 3 is programmed

I
26 .
for the tool movements as follows.
(a) Tool moves rapidly in X and/or Y axis for reaching the location
of hole.
Z·Dcp1h l � (b) Rapid in Z axis to the gauge height or rapid plane first (R2).
(c) At a programmed feed in Z-a:xis to the Z depth or second rapid
Fig, 1. plane (R3 ).
(d) Rapid retract to R2•
The sequence of machine movements would be
(a) Positioning drill to the hole location. Initial position (R 1 )
(b) Low�r the spindle at programmed feed rate. \ X +Y
(c) Lift the spindle rapidly to start position.
Now consider another drilling of a hole as shown in Fig. 2.

t
Gauge
The same sequence a-b-c of spindle movement is nece�sary. The h e i g ht
only variation being the depth of travel (tO instead of 26). To program
such a sequence of moves, i·s quite simple; but if there were a large $
number of holes, then apart from boredown ofrepeating the instructions
for movements, the program itself becomes very long. By standardising
Z Depth (RJ)_
. ___ L__j
(fixing) the sequence of moves by a G-code, the only additional data Fig. 3.
required is new hole location, depth of ci'it, feed rate and spindle speed. . '
These four steps will be executed automatically in same order,
This data along with appropriate G-code is entered only once. 1wery time the G-81 code.
6.4 COMPUTER AIDEP MANUFACTURING ADVANCED PART PROGRAMMING 6.5

6.2.2 Dwell Cycle (G-82) 6.2.4 Peck Drill Cycle (G-83)

The tool movements will be as follows : This is different from the drill cycle in only that after every peck
(a) Rapid in X and/or Y to reach the hole location. tool retracts by small amount, system is well explained by Fig. 6. The
(b) Rapid i n Z up to R2 • tool is fed at feed rate for some midway depth from R1 and have a rapid
retract for facilitating chip clearance. Again feed in Z-axis and rapid
(c) Feed in Z up to R3 .
retract until the blind deep hole is drilled.
(d) Dwell for the amount of time selected which is usually 1 to 6 sec.
(e) Rapid retract to R 2.
X ·t-Y

Gouge
height ( R2l

Z-Depth (�---�--- Dwell

Fig. 4.
The dwell cycle is similar to G-81 except that it holds the tool rotating Rapid and feed
at R3 for some fixed time so as the hole could be made burr free. retraction for chip
clc'aranc� .
6.2.3 Basic Mill Cycle (G-79)
Fig.6.
The basic mill cycle (G-78) have fo'nowing tool movements shown
in Fig. 5 : 6.2.5 Bore Cycle (G-85)
(a) Table feed in X and/or Y direction to reach the starting point of Boring is almost similar to drilling except that the retract is at feed
milling. ra�e instead of rapid. Movements are shown i n Fig. 7 :
(b) Rapid movement in Z axis to gave height or R 2 plane. (a) Rapid in X and/or Y upto bore position.
(c) Movement of tool it feed rate in Z axis to R3 plane (Z-depth).
(b) Rapid in Z-axis to R2.
(d) Movement to remaining position if further programmed.
(c) Feed in Z-axis to R 3 •
X +Y (d) Feed retract to R 2 •
X +y
Gau g e
ht'1 gh t ( R 2)
Gauge
hei g h t ( R 2 )

Feed t o
. .. fo l l owing
' posit ions if
Z - Depth _______.,_______._
prog rommed { R3 )
F'ig. 5. Fig. 7.
6.6 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
ADVANCED PART PROGRAMMING 6.7
6.2.6 Tap cycle (G-84)
Example 6.1.
The tool movements are shown irl Fig. 8
(a) Rapid in X and/or Y to reach the point.
(b) Rapid in Z-axis upto R2•
(c) Feed in Z-axis to Z-depth (R3 ).
(d) Reverse spindle direction and fe ed retract to gauge
height.

30
(e) Reverse spindle direction again at gauge height.

X +V

Gaug�
h e igh1 (R 1)

·Position·
2- 100

�
Fig. 8. ·
�
2 5 mm
Tool movements are shown in Fig. 9 :
6.2.7 .Cancel Cycle (G-80)

(a) rapid in X and/or Y.

.ILLL.�����'-""- l
(b) cancel auy Z motion. fig. IO.
Sol. The calculations for Hole at A.
Rapid X = 20 mm = 20000
Y = 30 mm = 30000
Fig. 9. R-plane = (Approximately 3 mm above the surface to be drilled)
All the previously explained canned cycles are repeated again and = 100 - 3 = 97 mm (from Z = 0)
again at new positions until stopped by G-80 code. Z = Total travel + Compensation for drill end relief
Some less commonly used canned cycle are = (Depth of cut + Z0 travel upto surface)
G-33 developed for lathe works, which allows the program to call + Compensation for drill end relief
for thread cutting giving depth, cut distance, retract to clear part
= (25 + 100) + (0.3 x dia of drill)
and returned to starting position, all in one block/line of information.
G-28, G-29 may by used to define the basic thread pass for later = (125) + (0.3 X 13)
recall. = 125 + 3.9 = 129 mm (Approx.)
The calculations for Hole at B.
X = 20, + 40 = 60 mm
6.8 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFAC'.I'URING
\
ADVANCED PART PROGRAMMING 6.9
Y is same
(f) N006 : G80-Cancels the cycle and M06 stands for changing tool
Z will also be the same.

' -
i.e. returning the tool to magazine.

t
--
For the above problem, a drill cyc1 e G-81 used for drilling hole at
Example 6,2. Complete the columns in a part-program sheet to indicate

mo
position A first. The whole of the program can be developed in following the operations to be done on the job as in d�agram given below :

80 -
way :
(a) Set the origin (0, O,) at position 'O'.
(b) Give all the preparat,9ry functions for setting absolute coordinate
system etc. 2o + taP.5 f
• "@- - t&
--
(c) Now the G-81 function will bring the tool table to position A at
2---
0
rapid rate upto R-plane. S
rL
(d) Tool will be fed at feed rate upto Z-depth.

. _--'�-- 1 5-
/�- Ho+-
<f,- s ....._.
l_
(e) After reaching Z-depth the tool will retract to R-plane rapidly. ---+-. 2 Nos
e

1
(f) The procedure (c - e) will be repeated for hole at position B.
(g) Spindle is stopped and brought back to upper end rapidly.
The program with suitable documentation will be as shown below :

NOOl G71 G90 G94 <E0B>

N002 G92 XOOOOO YOOOOO zooooo 81000 TOl <E0B>
N003 G81 X20 Y30 Zl29 R97 F200 M03 <EOB>
<E0B>
Fig. 11.
N004 G80 M05
N005 G81 _X60 Y30 Zl29 R97000 M03 <EOB> .
<EOB>
-
The reference point is set at distance ofX = 10, Y = 10 as in figure.
N006 GBO M06
-
Explanation for each block :
(a) NOOl : G71 tells t�at all dimensions are in mm. G90 gives the Mill·
meaning that all dimensions are in absolute mode. (i.e. cutter
referenced from one point). G94 that the tool feed is given in pos"ii ion
mm/min.
100

l .___
(b) N002 : G92 code is for setting the absolute zero datum point. X, mm
Y, Z have usual meaning. SlOOO mean 1000 RPM is spindle
speed. TOl is for the code of drill.
(c) N003 : G81 for canned cycle for drilling position (20, 30, 129) ___
1---
-+- _._
_--I
M ___
:_
with R-plane as 97 mm and Feed 200 mm/min. M03 stands for 1 00 m m
spindle start.
Fig. 12.
'
(d) N004 : G80 for cancel cycle. M05 for spindle stop.
(e) N005 : Same as N003 except the·X location changed.
6.10 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
ADVANCED PART PROGRAMMING 6.11

....
0
M
0
lQ
0
The programme is explained as blockwise follows
Note : The programme is without the setup conditions and is in a
a Absolute mode. Feed and speeds can be assumed depending upon
....
' II
....
0 0
operation and also tool numbers can be taken arbitrarily.
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0() � -st< 0 '<I'
NOOI : Spot drill of3 mm <I> is T1 (Tool # 1) at location D
M
0 X = 100 (Reference) + 65 = 165 mm = 165000
Y = 100 - 20 = 80 mm = 80000

N002 : Spot drill at location C

CJ() 0 Z = 3 mm only = 3000
-st< 0
-st<

0 X = 100 + 40 = 140 mm = 140000

....
0

N003 : 3<!> spot drill at location B

0 0
Y, Z remains the same hence need not to be changed.
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 lQ lQ
0 0 0 C"1 C"1
en (j) � 0 0
0 0
X = 100 + 10 = 110 mm = 110000
0

N004 : 3<!> spot drill at location A

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O ·
0 0 0 0 0 0 lO lQ
Y = 100 - 35 = 65 mm = 65000, Z same.
....
0 0 0 0 0 0 <N t-­
0 0 lQ 0 0 lQ lQ cn
0() (j) � CJ() (j) � -st< 0

X, Z = same, Y = 100 - 10 = 90 mm = 90000.

N005 : Tool spindle at X, Y same position 'A' but with 18 mm dia

0
and after that the tool is changed by M06 code.
0 0 0

....
0 0 0 0

.... .... ....

0 0 0 0
IQ 0 lQ 0
� -st< � ....
drill (for 20<!> tap),
Z = 7.5 (job thickness) + 1.5 (clearance) = 9.0

N006 : Same as N005 except Y location at 65000 or 'B'.

mm = 9000

N007 : 15<!> hole at location C as previously.

....
0 0
0 0

CJ CJ CJ CJ
0 (j) 0

.... ....
0 0 CJ() CJ() t-- CJ()
0 0

N009 : G89 for tap at location A, Z = 12.5 mm = 012500

NOOS : 15<!> hole at location D as previously.
-st< ....

NOOIO : 20<!> tap at location B (only Y changed).

NOOll : Cancel all the canned cycles by G80 and position the tool
turret at location rapidly.
X = (X0 + length of part) - (Step width) + (half of cutter dia
i.e. 7.5 mm)
= (100 + 80)- (3.8) + (3. 750)
= 179.950 mm = 179950
Y = (Y0 - width of part) - (half of cutter dia i.e. 7.5)
- ( 1 mm additional for compensation)
.--<
, 0 .--<
<N M -st< lQ � t-- 00 0) .--< .--<
<N
.--<
M
.--<
"<!'
.--<
lQ
.--<
= (100 - 50) - (3. 75) - 1.0
0
0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 = 45.250 mm = 45250.

_ _______________ N0013 : Yend = 100 + 3.75 (half of cutter dia) = 103.75 = 103750
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z··Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
NOOI2 : G79 - Basic Mill cycle actuated
___.
N0015 : End Program by M02.
� ...._ _.._

J
6.12 /' . COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING ADVANCED PART PROGRAMMING 6.13

Special 'G' or 'M' codes are used for controlling these loops in
It is often the case, that manufacturers of a NC machine control different NC systems. Do�loops are very useful in operations like turning,
�N-STANDARDISED FIXED CYCLES

unit wish to include cycles that are not commonly used. But still in a boring and milling. If n = number of times to execute a loop and
particular job or a few jobs some portion of the programme needs to be m = block number upto which loop is repeated.
repeated, which do not fit into 'Standardised' categor,y. Some of the Non­ Then, the general format of implementing a Do-loop is as
standardised cycles are or (Dn Nm) or (= Nm l n)
(a) Do-Loops/Subprogramming
(i) DO n
(b) Parametric subroutines
(c) Macros. (ii) X/YIZ I
(iii) ENDDO
- 'DO ' is the command to repeat operations that following (ii), 'n'
Loop is used for turning and milling operations particularly when is the number of times the operations are to be repeated.
6.3.1 Do-Loops

reducing raw material to the required size by making a series ofroughing

- XI YI Z is the Cartesian coordinates information for loop. 'T
cuts and then m aking a finishing cut. "Do-loop is a no. of steps
indicates that . the XI YI Z coordinates have incremental
positions now.
(or operations) repeated or.fer a number of equal steps for a previously

Consider the component as shown in 'Fig. 13, to be reduced from · � ENDDO is the END of DO loop.
fixed number of times. "

100 mm � to 44 mm � for the length of 75 mm, by a series of cuts, each

'
of 4 mm depth.
Important Note :

The single cut is ptogrammed only for once along with the feed
(i) Do-loops always are ·implemented on INCREMENTAL mode because

rate, but is repeated with the help of "loop count," command in main
each previous position becomes reference for next iteration.

programme. This loop count can be changed by the user to as many

• • .
A

(ii) Do-loop is actuallyjumping back to an already written initial portion

times as necessary for reducing the step to diameter of 44 mm. The loop
Example 6.3. Make a part program ofthe working having 5 nos, holes
of the program for the number of times a 'Loop count'.
count in this case will be
L.C. = (Rounded to nearest integer) as shown in Fig. 14 with the help of Do-loop. Given (0, 0) at lower
D0 - DI., X -----
2 depth of cut
1 left corner of the workpiece. Firstly mark the drill positions with a

100 - 44 1 56 1
spot drill and then drill holes with 6 mm drill. The sheet thickness

= --- x - = - x - = 7 times (i.e. Z = OJ.

is 6 mm. R-plane may be assumed at 2 mm above the plate surface
2 4 2 4
Hence the loop will be repeated 7.
Depth of cut:

-- r - - - ----
---.--- - __ [ 4 m m (iti or� loop)
T
1004'
10mm 10mm 1 0 mm

D o - Loop moves are incremental

--I
Fig. 14. Do-loop moves are incremental.
_
---. 75. ..
,.
Fig. 13.
 6.15
6.14
ADVANCED PART PROGRAMMING
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING .

Sol. The data for Hole at 'A' N007 G50 End loop

X = 5 mm NOOS GSO G90 M09 Cancel cycle, set absolute mode,

coolant off
Y = 10 mm
'
Load second tool, 6<!> drill
Z = Plate thickness + Clearance N009 M06 T2
Set speed, feed an'cl start rotation
= (6 mm).+ (0.3 x dia of drill) NOlO S3500 F210 M03
G81 G99 X5 YlO Z-8 ROZ MOB Drill cycle as at block N004
= 6 mm + 2 mm = 8 mm { - ve J NOll
Start loop for 4 times
R = 02 mm (given)
N012 G51 N4
Increm�nt X in loop, Y, Z, R be_ing
The programme in simple terms will be as N013 G91 X + 10

Step 1 Pick spot drill (tool # 1) and set speed, feed etc.
. same as N011
End loop
I Step 2
G50
Mark with spot drill at position 'A' i.e. (5, 10).
N014
Cancel drill, Absolute system and
Set incremental mode
N015 GBO G90 M09
Step 3 coolant off
Step 4 DO (repeat) 4 times Loop upto N006. N016 M30 End program
Step 5 X = X + 10 ; and mark with drill
Step 6 END of DO loop. Note : sometimes M98 is used instead of G51.
Step 7 Cancel cycle and change 6� drill (Tool # 2) Example 6.4. Make a part-programme for the part shown above, w�th a
Step 8 . Set absolute mode and position tool at (6, 0) series of equally spaced grooves. Only grooves are to be machin�d
Step 9 Drill hole at position 'A' i.e. {5, 10) with a tool of 1 mm Radius from tool reference point as shown in
Step 10 Set incremental mode. figure. Assume the (0, 0) at left centre of the shaft.
Step 11 DO (repeat) 4 times LOOP
Step 12 X = X + 10 ; drill hole
Step 13 END of DO loop.
Step 14 End of Programme.
Naturally some G-code or M-code (M98) is used to implement this
DO loop, which depends from machine to machine e.g. G51 for start of X
Loop and 050 for End of Loop. Part programme for above is :
NOOl G71 G90 G94 Metric, Absolute feed in
mm/min
N002 G92 XO YO zo Set datum zero
N003 S0500 FI05 M06 Tl i Set speed, feed a�d change Fig. 15.
tool TL
Sol. The logic for the programme will be :
g system.
1. Set the speed, feed, zero position and dimensionin
N004 GSl G99 X5 YlO Z-S R02 M03 MOS GSI-Canned dril cycle, with
= 21 mm
2. Reach the position X = 20 + 1 (Tool reference point)
floating datum M03-spindle
start MOS-coolant ON
N005 G51 L4 or D4 N006 Start Loop for 4 times Reach the position Z = 20 + 1 (Tool reference point) = 21 mm
N006 G91 X + 10 . . Increment X coordinate in loop. 3. DO (4 times) loop
Other coordinates and 4. Set incremental mode
operations as· previous because
GSl not cancelled
 ADVANCED PART PROGRAMMING 6.17
6.16 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
6.3.2 Parametric Subroutines
5. Move tool inside the job by 5 mm with proper feed 6.
Consider a component as shown in Fig. 17, which has a repetition
Move out 5 mm rapidly. feature namely square recess.
7. Z � (10 + 10) for next groove.
8. End ofDO-loop

D
Square recesses
5. Cancel cycle D but of
differef'll sizes
6. End of programme.
The programme will be as :

NOOl G71 G90 C94 FSO Set metric mode, Absolute and
D D
feed in 80 mm/min
Fig, 17.
N002 C92 XO Set absolute zero at left centre of
Writing a programme for such a component would involve making
zo
shaft.
a cycle of some moves which can be referred to as a "routine" for producing
N003 GOO X21 Z21 TOI M03 Go rapidly at X = 21 mm and
Z = 21, select tool# 1, start spindle just one recess.
"A subroutine is a portion ofa programme, complete in itself, which
N004 G51 I.4 or D4 N008 Start Lhe loop for 4 times
is stored in computer after programming once. It is called with new
N005 C91 Set incremental mode required data when required again in a program". It is usually placed at
N006 GOl X - 5 Move tool inside 5 mm at feed rate the end of main programme. Consider another example in Fig. 18.
N007 GOO Z + 5 Move tool out back rapidly Loop
NOOS GOO Z + 2 Set tool at next groove location
N009 G50 End of loop 0./ 3
NOlO G90 MOS Set back absolute mode and stop 0 0 -$'. 0
spindle
NOll G30 End of programme 0
0
e -a e
if.--1 ©""- 2
5 ...---....��; ,,...... .
i--20-8- 20
.
l ___
I .

Fig. 6.18.
X A group of 5 holes occurs in same geometric p,.attern. A simple
solution may be giving a Do-loop, but making 'subroutine' will-�implify
further the programming by placing the single patterµ in 'Subroutine',
even if the holes at loc;ition (1) are of different size than at (2).
The major difference between canned cycles and subroutines is
that canned cycles are more of fixed type and they cater for easy
Fig, 16. programming of machine features that are often required, hence are
more suitable for general situations. But if sometimes a part requires a
The figure shows how the moves in a loop are calculated and pattern, that is required a no. of times on a particular component, then
programmed. a subroutine is the best solution. The parametric subroutine is useful
 ADVANCED PART PROGRAMMING . 6.19
6.18 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
6.3.2.1 Nesting
for turning, roughing cuts, thread cutting, keyway milling, drilling etc.
where a sequence of motions is evolved. A few of them are given in The best way ofwriting an effici_e nt part programme is to place one
Fig. 19 below : or more loops in a subroutine i.e. repeating some pattern at a fixed
relative position within a subroutine program. This is known as "Nesting"
of subroutine. This is explained with the help of Fig. 6.19(b) and
Fig. 6. 19(c).
Normally the machine movements (operations) are written in a
subroutine without dimensions and while calling the subroutine, the X,
Y, Z etc. parameters are passed simply. The· general format for writing
(a) Turning subroutine a subroutine is :
1: Subroutine n
2. Program information

3. Enf of subroutine.

( b) Milling subroutine 6.3.2.2 Defining a Subroutine

(a) The subroutine is not defined by a subroutine number but is
simply added with a sequence number foilowing the main
program.
Primary
(b) All blocks in a subroutine are numbered from 'NOOl' onwards
as if independent program.
Again some G-cpdes or M-codes are to be assigned for :
(i) Jump to a subroutine location (Call a ·sub) by a code
e.g. G25, M98, G37
{c) Nesting oftwo subroutines. (ii) Start of subroutine
Fig. 19.
P+ loc L +·location
The table given 'below shows the difference between canned cycle, e.g. G25, [ or ] • G38
loops and subroutines : add address
(iii) End of subroutine
Canned cycle Loops Subroutine
e.g. G26, M99, G39.
1. Consist of some very These are, repeating These are, repeating some Note : L code is used to describe how many times a subroutine is to be
common (general) some moves on a moves (operations) on a repeated.
moves of different component for a fixed component for a variable
For our reference purpose, we will use M98, P + loc. address, M99
mies coded. no. of times. number of times.
for respective coding of Begin, Calling and End of subroutine.
2. They don't allow They allow to change They allow to make their
optimisation of only the no. of times own cycles with different Example 6.5. Make use of subroutines for making part-programme of
program in their operations are to be parametric dimensions at part shown in Fig. below :
· movements fixed repeated. ... different locations i.e. user The thickness of plate is 5 mm. R-plane may be assumed at 2 mm
for operation. defined canned cycles. , ubGve plate surface. Z = 0 at plate surface.
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING ADVANCED PART PROGRAMMING 6.21
6.20

5Hot.c s, 6 + each Explanation : (Main Programme)

NOOl & N002 Settings feed, speed & tool.
Locate tool above
'•
N003

�����-· �--.....
N004 Call the subrouting for "drilling fins holes and
locating drill at a distance of 50 mm".

Fig.6.20.
Sol. The part programme will be
Main Programme : Fig. 21.
1'1005 Call subroutine for two times for at 70 mm (i.e. at
NOOl GOO G71 GSO G90 Metric mode, cancel any p�evious cycle.
Set absolute mod�. location 50 mm apart) and 120 mm (i.e. at location
50 mm + 50 mm apart)

.
N002 S3500 FlO('i M06 'l'l M03 Set speed, feed, replace tool and start
spindle N006 Cancel cycle

GOO X20 Y20 MOS Set position to 'A' N007 Retract tool
N003
End.

.
N004 P009 M98 Call the subroutine of drilling 5 holes,
NOOS
at program location 'P009' (Subroutine)
N005 L009 02 CaU the subroutine '009' two times NOOl Incremental mode
for locations at 70 (B) 120, mm N002 Drill here itself because drill located at centre of
N006 G90 GSO ZO M09 Absolute mode, cancel, cycle coolant off. pattern.
N007 GOO XO YO M05 Rapid to (0, 0) spindle stop. Z-depth = (Plate thickness + Chip clearance)
NOOS M30 End of programme = 5 mm + 0.3 x dia of drill
N009 009 : ·start of subroutine =5 + 0.3 x 6 = 5 + 2 = 7 mm
NOOl G91 Set incremental mode R = - 2 mm (given)

N002 G81 Z7 R - 02 Drill hole at that very location N003 Drill by moving on path ( 1 ) i.e.
i.e. centre X f-- X - 10
N003 X - 10 Y + 10 Drill hole at location (1) Y f-- Y + lO
N004 Y - 20 At location (2) N004 Drill hole following path (2), i.e.
N005 X + 20 At location (3) X f-- same
N006 Y + 20 At location (4) Y f-- Y - 20
N007 GSO Cancel cycle N005 Drill hole following path (3) i.e.
N008 GOO X + 50 Y - 10 Mo;,;e to next relative position B X f-- X + 20
N009 M99 Return back to main prog. Y f-- same
 ADVANCED PART PROGRAMMING 6.23
6.22 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

Drill hole following path (4), i.e. The most basic command to call a parametric program is very
N006
X f- same similar to the command that calls a subprogram. One popular command
to call a parametric program is g65 or even M98. The command
Y f- Y + 20
N007 Cancel cycle don't drill more NOSO G65 P1 00Q
NOOS Locate drill at 50 mm apart on X-axis and 10 mm Calls program 1000, just as the previous M98 or G51 command
below Y las t position, i.e. does. Also, the parametric program 0 1 000 must end just like a
X f- X + 50 subprogram, with an M99.
Y f- Y - 10 To this point, there is absolutely no difference in how the control
Return. will execute these two commands. In both cases, the control will jump
N009
,, to program 01000 and continue from there. When the M99 is .executed
� iCROS at the end of program 01000, the control will return to the main program
Macros arc another type of subroutines which are given an identity to the command after the calling command.
and stored within memory or macrofile used for machining a complete However, the G65 command allows an argument list of variables
component . A macro may have fixed dimension s or it may have to be included in the command. The variables in the argument list are
parametric variables. This is also sometimes referred to as only simple letters like A, B, C, D, and so on. Each of these letters will
'Parametric subroutines'. These are vcrv useful when programming represent a variable to be passed to the parametric program. Each letter
a family of parts that have same shape b�t vary in size as shown in will be followed by a numeric value which specifies the value of the
Fig. 22 : variable.
I Here is a more extended example. Say· you were developing a
parametric program for the grooving application. One of the first steps
to developing any parametric program is to come up with your wish list
'+'1

call statement. Here is an example call statement that includes an

argument list of variables to be passed to the parametric program :
NOSO G65 P1 000 W.20 T. 1 25 A2.5 0.25 C.01 5
(a) has two dias 4> 1 and $ 2 . The programmer determines the meaning of each variable to be
used in the argument list. In our case, W represents the width of the
grove, T represents the tool width, A is the large diameter (current
stock diameter), D is the depth ofthe groove, and C specifies the chamfer
size to be made on each outside diameter corner.
Many features of computer programming languages are also
available in parametric programming. If you know BASIC (or any
computer language) as it applies to computer softw are programming,
( b) has 4>2 portion increased in length.
· you are well on your way to understanding parametric programming. If
you are not familiar with BASIC, a beginner's book about BASIC. It will
truly help you to understand the implications of each feature used in
¢1
· - j__ -
___. _ --- parametric programming.
The basic structure of a parametric program is also remarkably
similar to a software program written in BASIC. How loops are created,
how arithmetic is done, the use ofvariables, and unconditional branching
are almost identical. The first example of parametric program, since it
will resemble a BASIC program very closely.
(c) has 4> l portion increased in length. (d) has 4>2 portion eliminated.
r,!_ nn
6.24 COMPUTER AIDED :MANUFACTURING
Along with these computer-programming-related features, most
versions of parametric programming allow many CNC control-related
features. For example, most versions of parametric programming allow
access to tool . offsets, current axis position, current state of all modes,
and much, much, more. This combination of computer-related features
and CNC.-control-related features blend parametric programming into
an extremely powerful CNC programming tool.
6.4.1 The Featu res of Macro/Parametric Programming
Generally speaking, parametric programming feattJres can be
divided into two basic categories, computer-related features and CNC­
control-related features. The computer-related features of parametric
programming remain remarkably consistent from one control type to
the next. For this reason, we can be reasonably specific about the use of
features in this category.
However, the CNC-control-rclated features vary dramatically from
ime manufacturer to the next.
6.4.1.1 Computer-related Features
As st�ted, if you have experience with any computer programming
language, you will find these features to be quite familiar.
6.4.2 Variable Techniques
Variables are storage locations in which values are placed. You can
think of variables as like tool offsets in this regard. With a tool offset, a
value (a tool length, tool radius, etc.) is permanently stored within the
offset (until changed). The control will use the tool offset in different
ways, depending on how the program is written. If instated by a G43 and
an H word on a machining centre, the offset will be taken as the tool
length value. If instated with a G42 and a D word on a machining centre,
the offset will be taken as a cutter radius compensation value. Truly,
most CNC controls will not know the meaning of the value stored in a
tool offset until the program is executed.
Like offsets, variables are storage locations. Like offsets, a value
(sometimes the result of a calculation) will be stored within a variable.
Like offsets, the meaning or use of the variable will not be known until
it is referenced in some way during the parametric program. Like offsets,
most controls allow you to sef:' their current values on the display screen.
However, some variables cannot be,entered or changed through the
disp�ay screen as offsets can.
ADVANCED PART PROGRAMMING 6.25
The use of variables is much more fli;ixible than tool offsets. h,
almost all cases, a tool offset is used only with a form of compensation.
On the other hand, a variable can be used to represent almost anything,
depending on the application. Among the . things a variable can be used
to represent an axis position, an arc radius, a chamfer size, . a spindle
speed, a feed rate, .and a tool diameter, just to name a few. Actually, your
imagination and application are the only things that limit what variables
can be used to represent.
Variables can also be used as storage locations in which the results
of arithmetic calculations can be held. These variables can be used later
in the parametric program as axis positions, circular radii, or whatever
you wish them to represent. A variable which is the result of a calculation
can be used to help with the parametric program's logic. Counters and
flags are examples of variables used in this manner.
For the version of parametric programming we presenting,
variables are always designated in the body of'the parametric program
with a pound sign (#). For example, #101 is variable 101, #102 is variable
102, and so on. Keep in mind, however, that not all versions of parametric
programming use this technique. You must be prepared for variations.
Truly, the reasoning related to why variables are used remains constant
for all versions of parametric programming. Only the way they are
referenced in the parametric program will vary.
Generally speaking, there are four types of variables used in
parametric programming. Here is a discussion of each type.
6.4.2.1 Arguments From The Call Statement
This kind of variable is placed in the call statement and passed to
the parametric program. These variables are actually letter addresses
(A, B, C, etc.) following by a numerical value with a decimal point.
Variables (arguments) from the call statement tell the parametric
program how to behave. They fill in the blanks for the current time the
parametric program is to be executed. For example, if the letter R is to
represent the radius of a bolt-hole pattern in a parametric program, the
word R3.25 in the call statement will inform the parametric program
that the radhs of the current bolt-hole pattern to be machined is 3.25
in.
Keep in mind that there are some letters that cannot be used as
arguments in. the calJ statement. Certain letters, like N, O, G, P, and L
are not allowed, since they conflict with letters which are used for other
purposes in the call statement. Here is a list of letter addresses allowed
as arguments in the call statement :
 6.27
6.26
ADVANCED PART PROGRAMMING
COMPUTER AfDED MANUFACTURING

They must be converted to their local variable equivalents. W in the

A, B, C, D, E, F , H , I , J, K, M, Q, R , S , T , U , V, W, X, Y, and Z
parametric program must be represented by #23, T by #20, A by #1, D by
The parametric programmer determines the meanings ofeach these
1/7, and C by #3. Though this may not make much sense yet, when you
variables in the call statement. The programmer must choose them
HCC an example a little later, things should clear up nicely.
wisely, trying to come up with a logical meaning for each letter. For
example, T may represent the tool width or diameter, D may represent Because there is no logical order to the local variable numbers,
the depth of cut, F may represent t <'d rate, R may represent a radius, most parametric programmers will use the letter addresses to represent
and so on. This wise selection ofh. f add,·esses in the call statement variables coming from the call statement as the parametric program is
makes it easy for everyone using the parametric program to remember written. They will write them, knowing that they must be eventually
the variable names. converted to their local variable equivalents.
Everyone who uses the parametric program must have a clear Local variables are only remembered during the execution ofthe
understanding of which variables (letters) must be placed in the call parametric program specified by the current call statement. As· soon as
statement as wel1 as what each one represents. the M99 is exe_cuted, all local variables are forgotten. That i s , they are
set back to vacant (having no value).
6.4.2.2 Local Variables
When passed to a parametric program , the arguments from the 6.4.2.3 Common Variables
call statement cannot be represented as letter addresses. This is because Common variables are used for two basic purposes. One is as a
the control would confuse them with the actual letter addresses used for place in which to store the results of arithmetic calculations. Variables
normal CNC commands (X, Y , and Z for axis position , F for feed rate, H used.in this manner can be referenced later in the parametric program
for tool offset number, and so on). and can be used to represent almost anything.
For this reason, arguments coming from the call statement must Common variables can also be used to represent the value included
be represented in the parametric program by local variables. For the after a letter address, in place ofan actual number, such as the value of
most popular form ofargument assignment, local variables range from
any CNC command. For example, #100 is variable 100. Say its current
#1 th rough #26. Herc is a conversion table that shows the local variable
value is . 3.500 (calculated earlier in another command). If the control
number that corresponds to each letter address allowed in the call
rends the command
statement.
A #l B #2 C #3 0 #7 E #8 F #9
N040 GOO X#100
it will move to an X position ofthe currenL value of variable #100. In this
H #ll 1 #4 J #5 K#6 M #l3 Q #l7
case, it will be just as ifthis command were given :
R-#18 S #19 T #20 U #21 V #22 W #23
N040 GOO X3.5
X #24 Y #25 Z #26
The number of common variables available within parametric
Though these local variable numbers follow no logical order, this programming varies from one control to the next. Normally the minimum
is the way variables coming from the call statement must be represented number available is 50 , and the variables range from #100 through #149.
within the parametric program.
However, many controls offer more common variables (sometimes as
For example, consider the call statement given earlier for the an option that must be purchased at extra cost).
grooving example :
Common variables are slightly more permanent than local
f\!050 G65 P1 000 W.25 T. 1 25 A2.5 D.25 C.015 variables. On most controls, common variables arc remembered until
In program number 01000, yoi:t cannot use the letter W, T, A, D, the control's power is turned off. Then they are set back to vacant (having
or C to represent values of arguments coming from the call statement. no value).
6.28 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING ADVANCED PART PROGRAMMING 6.29

Permanent common uari '!bles. With most controls, there is a style machined to a deeper depth. In this case, everything about this milled,
of common variable that will _be remembered even after the power is configuration will be a variable.
turned off (just like tool offsets). Everything else about this variable
type is identical to common variables. There arc usually at least 10
permanent common variables and they will range from at least #500
through #509.
These variables are helpful for applications when a continuation of 4.00
the parametric program is required from day to day (after power-up). A0.25 (lyp) -
One example of this kind of application is a tool-life management system.
With a tool-life management system, the parametric program must be
able to keep track of each tool's current elapsed cutting time in order to 0.25 (�Pl •-
make decisions as to when tools should be changed. In many cases, this

1
will require the parametric program to remember a tool's elapsed time
from day to day. In this application, pennanent common variables make

__· J
an excellent location in which to store each tool's elapsed time.
6.�.2.4 System Variables

--L __
System variables allow access to many CNC-control-related 0.25
5.00
functions. Tool offsets, axis positions, and current modes (absolute versus
·L
__
incremental, inch versus metric, etc.) are among the accessible features.
These variables and their corresponding numbers vary greatly from one
control to the next.
They normally range from ltlOOO through #7000, though as stated,
Fig. 23. Dra·wing for parametric example program for call statement,
the numbers may vary. One popular control uses the #2000 series with
variable, and arithmetic techniques.
which to access tool offsets. For example, #2001 contains tho value of
Part of preparing to write a parametric program is to mark up the
off:o;et 1, #2002 contain� the value of offset 2, and so on.
drawing or make a sketch showing what variables will be used in the
W0 will continue the discussion of system variables quite a bit
call statement to tell the parametric pro·gram how to make the workpiece
later.

6.4.3 Example Parametric Program Showing Call Statement,

currently being machined. Fig. 24 shows another drawing with all

Variables and Arithmetic

variables to be used in the call statement.
Keep in mind that you, as the programmer, will choose the letters
representing variable names. You may or may not agree with our chosen
With what you know so far about the call statement, variables, and
names. As you develop your own parametric programs, you can choose
arithmetic calculations, you should be ready to look at an example.
any letter you·wish from the list given earlier.
Though it is simple, it stresses all key points made thus far.
As you can sec, there are more variables than were on the original
Look at Fig. 23. Say the outside milled square shape of this
drawing. The desired tool size and the machining feed rate are
workpiece represents but one workpiece in a family. Your company must
given. Here is a main program which will use the parametric
machine this configuration in many different workpieces. However, other
program. Believe it or not, when the parametric program is finished,
workpieces in the family are of different sizes. For example, some are
this main program will correctly machine the workpiece to your
longer or wider, while some have more o� less stock to be removed.
specifications.
Some have a larger or smaller radius in the corner. Some must be
6.30 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING ADVANCED PART PROGRAMMING 6.31

Main program : Every time the parametric program references a variable coming
00048 (Program number) from the call statement it must be in the form of a local variable. For
(1-in end mill) exainple, if you wish to reference the length of the workpiece (X from
N005 G54 S350 M03 ('furn spindle on at 350 RPM) the call statement), you must use the local variable #24.
NOlO GOO X-.6 Y-.6 (Rapid over to workpiece) Knowing this, you should be ready to look at your first parametric
N015 G43 HOl Z. l (Rapid down to just above workpiece) program. Though this program happens to machine the part starting
N020 G65 PlOOO X5. Y4. D.25 W.25 R.25 F5. T.5 from the lower left corner and mills in a conventional milling manner,
motion could be generated in any method desired.
(Machine entire outside shape)
N025 G91 G28 ZO (Return to reference position in Z) Example 6.6. Parametric program :
N030 G28 XO YO (Return to reference position i n X-Y) 01000 (program number)
N035 M30 (End of program) (Calculations)
#101 = #20 + 01 (Used for clearance position)
#102 = #24 - #23 - #18 (Sets X position at right side arc tangency)
#103 = #23 + #18 (Sets X position at left side arc tangency)
#104 = #23 - #20 (Sets X and Yat lower left corner)
#105 = #23 + #18 (Sets lower arc tangency in Y)
R #106 = #25 - #23 - #18 (Sets upper arc tangency in Y)
y #107 = #24 - #23 - #20 (Sets right side po;;ilion)
#108 = #20 - #18 (Sets arc radius)

w
#109 = #25 - #23 - #20 (Sets to surface in Y)
-¼-- (Cutting motions)
GOO X - #101 Y - #104 (Move to lower left position)

____ -
l,_
GOl Z - #7 F30. (Fast feed to work surface)
_.,
\lj '

.,._
(" ,
________________, 001 X #102 F#9
G03 X #107 Y#l05 R#l08
(Move to beginning of lower right arc)
(Form lower right arc)
Pmg,am "� �\
GOl Y#l06 (Move to beginning of upper right arc)
x - - ---_J G03 X #102 Y#l09 R#l08 (Form upper right arc)

-. J�-----'"---'-
GOl X#l03 (Move io beginning of upper left arc)
Other variables I

I..__---�
F • cutting feedrate G03 X #104 Y#l06 R#l08 (Form upper left arc)

:f
T • tool raq,us GOl Y#l05 (Move to beginning oflower left arc)
G03 X #108 Y#106 R#l08 (Form lower left arc)
Fig. 24. Variable names for parametric example program. GOO Z.1 (Rapid away from workpiece in Z)
M99 (End of parametric program)
Line N020 is the call statement and tells the parametric program
the size of our current workpiece with filled-in variables. Remember Notice first that the parametric program has no sequence numbers
that these variable letters cannot be stated in the parametric program (N vc..ords).
as letters. They nwst be converted to local variable numbers to avoid
confusion with true CNC letter addresses. Here is a list of the letter 6.5 MIRROR IMAGE
variables used in our call statement along with their corresponding local It reverses simply the sign (+ve or -ve) of an axis direction as in
variable numbers Fig. 25.
X #24 Y #25 D #7 W #23
R #l8 F #9 T #20
 6.33
6.32
ADVANCED PART PROGRAMMING
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

Calling the centre line of this part as XO, YO th pattern is machined.

Sub program (003)

Then mirror imaging along X-axis by calling subroutine and then

mirroring both ·components along Y-axis to get final shapes.
0003 :

M98 P002 (Call Subr at Joe = 00_2 for I)

LJ I �
- -· t ----x
M70
M98 P002
(Mirroring in X-axis = ON)
(CalJ Subr at Joe = 002 for II)
X-
M80 (Mirroring in X-axis = OFF)
� 17 M99 (Return)

Sub program (002)

0002 :

zo
Fig. 25.
GOO XlO YlO (Rapid at corner point 10, 10)
Example 6.7. Mahe the triangles as shown in Fig. 26 in first, second,
third and fourth quadrant by mirroring in X-axis and Y-axis. GOl F25 (Reach at surface slowly)
G91 (Incremental Mode)
ly
�O) i �
( 1 0,,0'. GOl Z-2 F25 (Feed the tool = 2 mm depth)
G90 (Back to Absolute mode)
GOl XlO Y40 F40 (Start act of vertical line)
GOl X40 YlO (Diagonal line)
�
I
(40 , 1 0)
( - 1 0 , 1 0)j( 1 0 , 1 0 ____ __ X
(-40, 1 0) GOl XlO (Back to 10, 10 horizontal line)
X (-�. - l�Q) i ( 1v40,- 1 0)
GOO XO YO (Position at origin)
M99 (Return)

!
Note : This program first makes I through subroutive 002 : and then mirroring
(-1 0,-40) ( 1 0,-40) it on X-axis makes II by again calling 002 :.
This full procedure is calJed again (nesting, Call with in call) by mirroring
Fig. 26. Iv as Y-axis and making III and IV.
Sol. Main Program :

1. What are canned cycles ? Explain with sketches canned cycles

EXERCISES
NOOI G21 G94 G90
for drilling, tapping.
(mm mode, feed mm/min; Absolute cord)
N002 M03 S2000 (Start spindle, speed = 2000 RPM)
2. What is the importance of using subroutines in a part
N003 GOO XO YO Z2 (Rapid at origin, 2 mm above the piece)

programme ? Explain nested subroutines . with an example.

N004 M98 P003 (Call Subr. at loc = 003 for I and II)

3. What is the word address format of DO loop, subroutines .

N005 M71 (Mirroring in Y-axis ON)

4. Write a part programme to mill slots of a part shown in

N006 M98 P003 (Call Subr. at Joe = 003 for III and IV)

Fig. 27 :
N007 M8l CY-Mirroring OFF)
NOOB M30 (End Program)
 Automatica lly
7 Programmed
Tools (APT)
7 .1 INTRODUCTION
The parts as discussed i n previous chapters were not so
complex. They required a very few number of instructions o r
sequence o f operations. However, most of the parts machined on
conventional N/C are more complex. Hence, the m anual part
programmes .become lengthy and very tedious in terms of defining
parameters.
Comp ztter-Aided Part Programming (CAPP) offer solution
to these type of complex programmes. It makes use of repeated
pattern·s of events which occur oftenly pn most of the Engineering
components. The part�programmer is not required to learn about
the specific coding foi·mats of different NC machine tools. But has to
learn a NC programming language, which is independent of an NC
machine.
With the advent programming langu ages the job of part
programmer has reduced to
(i) define the geometry of workpiece.
(ii) specify the sequen�e of operations and tool path.
The job of computer in CAPP consists of the following steps
(a) Input translation
( b ) Arithmetic calculation
(c) C utter offset computation
(d) Post processor.
The method of making a component with the help of a "Part­
Program" and "Computer Programme" is comparitively shown in
Fig. 1 .
Difference between Manual and CAPP Systems
A computer program known as "Post-processo;-'' generates a long­
series of co-ordinate values which 'define the path to be followed by
cutter tool. The main advantages of using a computer-aided part
programming are
(7.1)
7.2 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

(a) Time saved in making long part-programme.

AUTOMATICALLY PROGRAMMED TOOLS (APT) 7.3

(e) Sometimes some machines also provide the facility to give

optimum path which should be followed to take lesser time.
(f) Also a graphical plot of the path is sometimes shown.
� (g) No need to learn machine-dependent part programming.
z -:--
·-___ os
a a- (h) Programming languages have english-like statements.
z.o,is There are many types of programming languages available or
Computer Aided Part Programming assisting in preparation of control
tapes. These are translated by the 'Post-Processor' or simply
'Processor'.

V - oxis
Jt,--
. ,.;, � .....___.._., 7.2 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

.---
· M cu Different types oflanguages available for NC programming are
7.2.1 APT
V • A• i s
-- - -, APT is an acronym for Automatically Programmed Tools. It is
-l
1
I Prcporot1on the oldest and largest Computer Aided Programming Language which
MC V I of punchcd topc I is developed by MIT. It is used for 5 axis control of the "tool" in
for control
I i----r----' I
I three-dimensional space. The tool can be a drafting pencil, a point
I
• • Computrr os I
spray nozzle or even a cutting flame torch.
Fun tion i n 1
i, !..J . Post proce ss or This language is nowadays used for positioning systems as well
1
computrr as to perform the mathematical calculations required for complex
continuous path surface applications.
Prnccss
loyoul and 7.2.2 ADAPT
port program
It is an 'Adaptation' of APT. It was a smaller version of APT
Computer
1 for proccssing used on small computer. It is very suitable for 2 ½ axis control.
Component
dctotlrd
drawing 7.2.3 AUTOMAP
Another subs'et ofAPT used for Numerical control programming.
7.2.4 EXAPT
Extended subset of APT using same instruction with additional
boring and turning data also. Sometimes having facility to
Component automatically calculate feeds and speeds.
detailed
drawing
7.2.5 PROMPT
Fig. 1. Interactive language mainly designed for lathes, machining
centres and flame cutters etc.
(b) Simplifying the part-programming procedures.
(c) Lesser errors. 7.3THE APT LANGUAGE
(d) Automatic generation of codes, The APT language is the NC language. It is also used as the
computer program which performs the calculations to generate cutter
positions based on APT statements.
7.4 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
These statements are given as under
(i) 9-eometry Statements/Definition statements ( Define the
geometric elements of the workpiece).
(ii) Motion statements/movement statements (Define the path
taken by the cutting tool).
(iii) Post processor statements
(Define the feeds and speeds and to actuate other fe atures
of the machine).
(iv) Auxiliary Statements/Miscellaneous statements
(Define the part, to,ol tolerances etc.).
It is a 3-D system that can be used to control up to five
axes. This can be used to control a variety of different
machining operations.
7.4 APT PROGRAMMING SEQUENCE
There arc approximately 400 words in APT vocabulary. The
operations of developing a programme in APT are followed in a
sequence as follows
(a) Labelling the part. The part on the drawing is drivided
into some basic geometric elements like lines, planes and
circles. Different elements arc given diffe rent labels and
names. These elements are also needed to be specified by
their cartesian co-ordinates.
(b) Prepare the program manuscript. The programme in APT
is then transferred on manuscript paper ; the four type� of
instructions are written in a program :
General information used to identify the part such as PART
No., diameter of the cutter tool with CUTTER/.0975. This
Lype of information is required by Post Processor for
calculation and identifying p u rpose, coming under
Miscellaneous information: NO POST, CLRPRNT, INTOL
and OUTTOL are other statements coming under this
category.
Geometrical statements that define the geometry of the
tool movements with refrence to workpart. The starting
of these statements is from defining points by POINT
statement. These all are almost self-explanatory.
Movement statements directing the sequence of movement
of tool for following a particutar path.
- Auxiliary statement for setting speed, feed and tool change
etc.
AUTOMATICALLY PROGRAMMED TOOLS (APT) 7.5
(c) The program either typed with keyboard on computer or
punched on cards or tape.
(d) In some cases, the computer produces the computer tool
positions.
(e) The final computer output after post processing is given
on magnetic tape or punched card.
(fJ This magnetic tape or punched cards are fed into Reader
Unit of machine to start machining.
The syntax rules of APT are very near to FORTRAN l anguage.
It uses alphabets from A, B, . . . . . . , Y, Z and numerals O, 1, 2, 3, . . . . . . ,
8, 9 . Special symbols used are : 'f used sometimes for separating a
single statement into two parts ',' (comma) for seperating different
entities. '( )' used for nested definitions. Arithmetic operators are '+'
(add), '-' ( subtract), '*' (multiply), 'f (division), '**' for exponentiation.
The symbols used for defining geometric elements are :
- POINT
- LINE
- CIRCLE
- PLANE
- CENTER
- RADIUS.
7.5 PART GEOMETRIC DEFINITIONS IN APT
The general form of an APT geometry statement is :
Symbol = geometry type/descriptive data
Pa �ts of a drawing are defined by different elements like point,
plane, circle etc. and their relations. A few of them are explained
below on the basis of the above geometric statement.
7.5.1 Defining a Point
Point is the smallest and basic element required to define al1
other geometries. It is defined in one of the following ways :
(a ) Cartesian Co-ordinates. The point is defined as :
Symbol for point = POINT/Xcoord ' Ycoord ' Zcoord
e.g. Pl = POINT/6, 5, 3
has a meaning defining a point Pl at
X = 6.000
Y = 5.000
and Z = 3.000
7.6 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING AUTOMATICALLY PROGRAMMED TOOLS (APT) 7.7 .

1.5.2 Defining a LINE

A line can be defined in one of the following ways :
(a) By joining two points.
LNl = LINE/PT l , PT2
wh ere PTl and PT2 arc the symbols of two points at the ends ofline.
e , /"'P r,
Fig. 2. (a)
(b) By intersection of two lines l Fi g. 3. (a)
e.g. P l = POINT/INTOF, L l , L2 (b) By a point and parallel line.
where Ll and L2 are the symbols of two lines. LN2 = LINE/PT2, PARLEL, LNl
where PT2 i s a point through which the line passes and LNl is a
symbol of Line to which a parallel line is drawn.

Fig. 2. (b)
By centre of circle
(c)
Pl = POINT/CENTER, Cil
where Cll is the symbol of a circle. Fig. 3. (b)

G
(c) By a point and a perpendicular line.
LN2 = LINE/PTl , PERPTO , LNl
where PTl is the symbol of point through which the line LN'2 will
pass perpendicular to line LNl.

Fig. 2. (c)
(d) By intersection of a Line and Plane.
Pl = POINT/INTOF, PLl, LNl
where PLl is the symbol for plane and LNl for a line.
Fig. 3. (c)
(d) By a point and Tangent to Circle
Ll = LINE/PT2, LEFT, TANTO, CRl
where PT2 is the symbol of point through which the line passes and
is drawn tangent to the left side of circle (symbol) CRl.

Fig. 2. (d)
7.8 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING l,'vTOMATICALLY PROGRAMMED TOOLS (APT) 7.9

7.5.4 Defining a Plane

A plane can be defined by one of the following ways
(a) By three points :
SIDE = PLANE/Pl, P2, P3
where SIDE is a plane passing through Pl, P2 and P3.

F-;;;J
Fig. 3. (d)
7.5.3 Defining a Circle
Circle can be defined i n one of the following ways
(a) By centre point and radius :
CRl = CIRCLE/CENTRE, PTl, RADIUS, 205
* p3_ _J
L----
where PTl is the symbol of centre point of circle CRl and 20.5 is the Fig. 5. (a)
radius of circle. (b) By a point and a parallel Plane
TOP = PLANE/P2, PARLEL, BOTTOM
where P2 is symbol of point through which plane 'TOP' passes and is
parallel to plane defined by symbo.l 'BOTTOM'.

L! P2 * ;z] rop

.l/'
�-----;, 1
•

Fig. 4. (a)
(b) Centre point and a point on circumference !/.ottom

Cl = CIRCLE/PT!, PT2
where PTl is the centre point and PT2 a (symbol of) point on (c) By two points and perpendicular to other plane
Fig. 5. (b)

circumference .
PLl = PLANE/PERPTO, PL2, PTl, PT2

.r.\ where PL2 is other plane and PTl and PT2 are points .

u.�\"'
�T2 Cl P T l _=JS

(c) Centre point and tangent line

Fig. 4. (b)

Cl = CIRCLE/CENTER, PT2, LNl

where PT2 is the symbol of centre point and LNl is symbol of a line It may be noted that all geometric definitions except POINT
Fig. 5. (c)

tangent to circle. are definitions of surfaces. Some modifiers such as LEFT and RIGHT
are used to define the direction sides of a geometry. Sometimes X

c, 'Y/
� / LNJ SMALL and X LARGE are used for telling computer to use the
smallest or largest value respectively for X Coordinate.
7.6 MISCELLANEOIJS/AUXILIARY STATEMENTS
These are the statements which are like misc.ellanRn ts codes
Fig. 4. (cl or for setting feed, speed or tool change statements .
 AUTOMATICALLY PROGRAMMED TOOLS (APT) 7.11

7.10 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING (a) Simple Tool :

Or
CUTTER/d
7 .6.1 Spindle Speed
This can be clockwise or anti-clockwise. It can be set as CUTTER/d, r
(a} Clockwise : e.g.
SPINDU2000, CLW CUTTER/28.4 describes that cutter has 28.4 mm diameter.
where 2000 is RPM. (b) Complex :
( b ) Anticlockwise
CUT'.l'ER/d, e, f, b, h
SPINDU2500, CCLW
r, a,

SPINDUOFF --+ generates M05 code

(spindle off)
7.6.2 Feed Rate
This will generate an F code and is 'modal' (i.e. remains in effect
until cancelled or changed).
Feed rate is defined in two ways :

Or
(i) FEDRAT/[Feed rate value], IPM

FEDRAT/[Feed rate value], MMPM

'1PM' stands for Inches Per Minute and
'MMPM' stands for Mm Per Minute. (a) (b)
Fig. 6.
Or
(ii) FEDRAT/[Feed rate value], IPR
where d, r, e, f, a, b, h are explained by the figure.
FEDRAT/[Feed rate value), MMPR The values should be given as in sequence. If there is no such
dimension, then val�e O may be given for that value.
'IPR' denotes Inches Per Revolution and
'MMPR' dentotes Mm Per Revolution. 7.6.5 Motion Statements of Tool
The motion statements of the tool comprise of :
7 .6.3 Tool Change
This command calls for an automatic or manual tool change to
i
GO UP
the value given in offset register that is given after putting 'f in the GO L FT

yi ·
command. It is also of two types :
(i) Where a preset tool is used :
LOADTUl, LENGTH, 20 -
/ GO FWD
C,0 BACK ---
where 'l' is the tool number and '20' is the tool length
hence 20 will be added to Z-axis movements, automatically.
(ii) Where preset tool is not used :
LOADTU2
/
GO RG T
It may be noted that LOADTL also unloads the previous GO DOWN
tool and replace it into the tool magazine.
7.6.4 Tool Definitions Fi g. 7.
These statements correspond to defining a tool geometry, to be
used in machining. There are two ways in which tool can be defined :
. 7.12 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING AUTOMATICALLY PROGRAMMED TOOLS (APT) 7.13

(a) Initial Position. General format of i t is : These three geometric surfaces are explained as in Fig. 8 below.
FROM/x, y, z i.e. FROM/6, 7 , 8
whereas x, y, z are the cartesian coordinates of initial position of the
cutter centre or refrence point. It can be given in the form.
FROM/PTl
where PTl is already defined point. Another standard statement is
FROM/SETPT for starting. point.
(b) Point to Point Motion. These are in two forms :
(i) GO TO/Symbol for geometry e.g. GO TO/PTl
This statement is used to position the cutter above required
location e.g. locating drill above a hole to be drilled.
(ii) GODLTA/dx, dy, dz
This is incremental instruction used to make movements of Fig. 8.
the tool in specified direction (say x or y or z) from its current position. - The Drive Surface is the surface along which the cut is
e.g. GODLTA/0, 0, - 50 feeds drill 50 mm into work. made by next motion statements. The side of the tool is
guided by DS for producing the desired shape of part.
The GODLTA command is useful in drilling and related
operations. The tool can be directed to a particular hole location The Part Surface is the surface which guides the cutter
with the GOTO statement. Then the GODLTA command would be point or tool bottom.
used to drill the hole, as in the following sequence : The Check Surface stops the tool thus indicating the end of
GOTO/Pl motion. This order of defining the surfaces is followed .
GODLTA/0, 0, - 50 The four modifiers arc
GODLTA/0, 0, + 50 - TO
(c) Contouring Motion Statements. The general format ofit - ON
lS : - PAST
GO/symbol for geometric expression - TtNTO
e.g. First three of them are illustrated by Fig. 9.
GO/TO, LIN l , TO, CIR2 TANTO is used for Check Surface(s) being tangent to the Drive
means tool movement touching the surface ofLINl onwards touching Surface(s) mostly for circles.
the contour of CIR2.
(d) Intermediate Movement Commands. In directing the tool
to follow a contour six tool direction commands are used
GOLFT (Just Touching
GORGT TO to the Surface)

GOFWD (On the Surface)

GOBACK
GOUP (Touching the Surface
GODOWN. PAST on the far Side)
These six commands are used rp,ostly with one of the four
Fig. 9.
modifiers to define the "check surface", "drive surface" or "part
surface".
 AUTOMATICALLY PROGRAMMED TOOLS (APT) 7.15
7.14 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

The general form of these statements is :

GO/ [P�J[s:::.}[P�}[S::J.[Er}[�.]
f-- so

(a)

u:l____
Any of the part may be omitted and is optional.
(b) Motion word/Drive surface, Cutter specifier, Check surface
so
e.g. GO RGT/Ll, PAST, L2
(meaning that move on the right side along L l until
1·
past L2). r-40

7.6.6 Auxil iary and Post Processor Statements � - - - - - --1 /

A few of them are :
S E T PT '
35
(a) MACHIN/UNIV for defining the name of machine.
(b) COO LNT/ON I
and
COOLNT/OFF
for switching coolant ON/OFF\ <o o> I
(c) FINI advising the computer that program is terminated.
(d) END It shuts down the NC machine including
MCU by generating M02 function.
(e) FEDRAT It stands for feed rate which is different for
different machining operations. ·
Example 1. Make a program in APT for the part shown in Fig. 10 on
Mri p� Fig. IO.
Sol. Define the Geometrics and motions as in Fig. 1 1 TOPSRF = PLANE/PTl , PT2, PT5
PART PROGRAM : BOTSRF = PLANE/PARLEL, TOPSRF, ZLARGE, 20
Part No. WSHOP - PRACTICE $$ Define the circles and lines ...
MACHIN/UNIV CIR1 = CIRCLE/CENTER, PT3, RADIUS, 25
$$ Geometrical points are defined. . . LN l = LINE/PTl , PT2
SET PT = POINT/0, 3 5 , 0 LN2 = LINE/PT2, LEFT, TANTO, CIRl
PTl = POINT/40, 35, - 2 LN3 = LINE/PT4, RIGHT, TANTO, CIRl
PT2 = POINT/40 , 135, - 2 LN4 = LINE/PT4, PT5
PT3 = POINT/90, 1 1 0, - 2 LN5 = LINE/PT5, PTl
PT4 = POINT/115, 60, - 2
$$ Now define the tool, feed and speed...
= POINT/60, 35, - 2 LOADTL/1
PT5
CUTTER/20
$$ All points are defined...
FEDRAT/50, MMPM
$$ Now define the two surfaces ...
SPINDL/2000, CLW
$$ Rest are the motion statements ...
7.16 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING AUTOMATICALLY PROGRAMMED TOOLS (APT) 7.17

Note. The important instructions defined are explained as

r - - -R_:..-_
i o hi
- -- - - (a) BOTSRF. It is a surface parallel to top surface and on the
LN2 ', Forw ci rd
;• PT2 ----=-- CIR 1 " large side of Z by 20.
(b) LN2 : The line # 2 passes from PT2 and is tangent on the
\

I
left side of CIRl.
I (c) LN3 : The line #3 passes through PT4 and is tangent on
I
LEF T t L N 1 Forward the right side of CIRl.
I (d) GO/TO, LNl, TO, BOTSRF, TO, LN5 : It means that locate
the tool to initial position. LNl is the Drive Surface (DS)
I

PT 4 !
/
along which the tool will move next. BOTSRF is the PART
I
L N � ,, Surface (PS) at which the tool will be located throughout
. ..; ____J PT !
�� �� � ,, R 1 gh1
the operation and LN5 is the Check Surface (CS) for this
- -- position.
Righi
,::T O P S R F
6

� �-----'
,
.__
· ./ .
BOT S R F

Fi g. 11.
FROM/SETPT f
GO/TO, LN l, TO, BOTSRF, TO, LN5 (
GO LFT/LNl, PAST, LN2
GO RGT/LN2, TANTO, CIRl Fig. 14.
GO FWD/CIRl, TANTO, LN3 (e) GO LFT/LNl, PAST, LN2 : Move in the left direction along
LINE #1 until LINE #2 is passed.
GO FWD.LN3, PAST, LN4
GO RGT.LN4, PAST, LN5
GO RGT.LN5, PAST, LNl
GOTO/SETPT LN 2

FINI
END.

J
LN 1

LNJ

8
PH LN2
)

PT4 Fig, 15.

LNI�

Fi g. 12. Fi g. 13.
7.18 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
AUTOMATICALLY PROGRAMMED TOOLS CAPT) 7.19
(f) GO FWD/CIRl, TANTO, LN3 : Move the tool in the
direction of motion (forward) along CIRCLE #1 until the Sol. The direction of movements can be defined by figure 18.
LN3 becomes tangent to it.

, .,
-- - ',
FW D

,I'
,

• t
t ' PT3
,
CIR 1

LFT
LN 3

Fig. 16.
Example 2. Make the part program for the part giuen in Fig. 1 7 FWtl FWD
giuen below using both the tools · o f mill a n d drill. Assume Fig. �8.
thiclmess of plate = 15 units and Setpt at (0, 20, 0) and Z = 0 at
$$ Define the points (startpoint over surface and centre of circles)
the surface of the job.
SET PT = POINT/0, 20, 0
10 q, , 3 HOL E S Pl = POINT/20, 20, - 3
P2 = POINT/5 0 , 80, - 3
P3 = POINT/80, 20, - 3
$$ Define the two surfaces.

i
60
TOPSRF = PLAN:E/P l , P2, P3
l
LEFT

BOTSRF = PLANE/PARLEL, TOPSRF, ZLARGE, 15

$$ Define the three partial curve circles
l 20
10R CIRl = CIRCLE/CENTER, Pl, RADIUS, 10

J__
-2 0
CIR2 = CIRCLE/CENTER, P2, RADIUS, 10
RIGHT

CIR3 = CIRCLE/CENTER, P3, RADIUS, 10

$$ The three lines of which are tangent to two circles.
LNl = LINE/LEFT TANTO, CIRl, LEFT, TANTO, CIR2
LN2 = LINE/RIGHT, TANTO, CIR2, LEFT, TANTO, CIR3
LN3 = LINE/RIGHT, TANTO, CIR1, RIGHT, TANTO, CIR3
$$ Feed and speed statements.
LOADTLJl
Fig. 17.
CUTTER/20
FEDRAT/50, MMPM
SPINDL/8000, CLW
7.20 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING AUTOM LY PROGRAMMED TOOLS (APT) 7.21

$$ Give the initial position

/

�C RO STATEMENT IN APT
FROM/SET PT The MACRO statement is the only one powerful feature of the
$$ Define line # 1 as DS, BOTSRF as PS other features of APT. It is almost similar to a subroutine in
GO/TO, LNl, TO, BOTSRF, TANTO, C!Rl FORTRAN and other computer programming languages. The purpose
in using a MACRO subroutine is to reduce the number of statements
GOLFT/LN l, TANTO, CIR2
required in APT program. So, with this the part programming job
GOFWD/CIR2, TANTO, LN2
becomes easier and consuming less time. This MACRO subroutine is
GOFWD/LN2, TANTO, CIR3 defined by a general statement given as under :
GOFWD/CIR3, TANTO, LN3 Symbol = MACRO/parameter definition(s).
GOFWD/LN3, TANTO, CIRl For naming the MACRO symbol, the rules are the same as for
GOFWD/CIR1, TANTO, LNl any other APT symbol. It must be of six characters or fewer and at
GOTO/SET PT least one of the characters must be a letter of the alphabet. The
$$ Note that all the above commands are in forward parameter definition(s) following the slash would identify certain
$$ direction i.e. Direction of motion variables in the subroutines ·which might change each time the
subroutine was called into use. The above statement- works as the
$$ Now start the drilling.
title and first line of a MACRO subroutine and it would be followed
LOADTU2 by the set of APT statements that comprises the subroutine. At the
CUTTER/10 end, last statement in the set m ust be the APT word TERMAC
FEDRAT/50, MMPM (signifies the termination of the MACRO).
SPINOU2000 , CLW To operate the MACRO subroutine within an APT program, the
$$ First hole. following call statement would be used
GOTO/Pl CALL/symbol, Parameter Specification. In this, the symbol
GODOWN/PAST, BOTSRF would be the name of the MACRO that is to be called and the
GO UP/ ON TOPSRF parameter specification identifies the particular values of the
parameters that arc to be used in this execution of the MACRO
$$ Second Hole
subroutines.
GOTO/P2
The following example will give help to understand the use of
GODOWN/PAST, BOTSRF
the MACRO statement and how the MACRO would be called by the
GOUP/ON, TOPSRF main APT program.
$$ Third hole Example 3. We will refer back to the drilling operations of Example
GOTO/P3 2. In this example the GODLTA sequence was repeated in the
GODOWN/PAST, BOTSRF program a total of three times, once for each hole. This represents
GOUP/ON, TOPSRF an opportunity to use the MACRO feature in the APT system.
$$ End ofjob The four point locations (PO, Pl, P2 and P3) would be defined
GOTO/SETPT just us they are in Example 2. These points would be used in
the MACRO subroutine and main APT program in the following
FINI.
way :
7.22 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
DRILL = MACRO/PX
GOTO/PX
GODLTA/0, 0, - 3
GODLTA/0, 0, + 3
TERMAC
FROM/PO
CALL/DRILL, PX = P l
CALL/DRILL, PX = P2
CALL/DRILL, PX = P3
GOTO/PO.
In the above example, the number of APT motion statements
in the main program has been reduced from eleven to five. The reader
can visualise the power of the MACRO fe ature for a programming
job in which there are a large number of holes· to be drilled ,The
savings in the required number of APT statements would be 66 � %
3
in this case, since one call statement replaces three motion statements
in the program.
7.8 MANUAL DATA INPUT (MDI)
To avoid the use of punched tape, MDI involves the entry of
part programming data through a CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) display
at the machine site and this programming process is carried out by
the operator of the same machine before starting to manufacture
the products. Those NC systems equipped with MDI capability, possess
a computer (or micro computer) as the control unit.
MDI sys �ems a�e designed to facilitate the part programming
process by us1 � g an interactive mode to assist the operator through
the programmmg steps. It queries the operator about the details of
the machining job so that the operator types-in the program
responding to the sequence of questions. These MDI units use the
shop language rather than alphanumeric codes. This makes the
system easier to operate and no extensive tr'aining is required in NC
part programming. Only the operator should be able to read the
engineering drawings and be familiar with the machining process.
Main Features of MDI
(i) It appropriates for work parts which are simpler in
construction than the usual N· c jobs and small batch sizes
· which are not likely to be repeated.
AUTOMATICALLY PROGRAMMED TOOLS (APT) 7.23
(ii) In many MDI systems, the optional feature given in which .
programs can be extracted from computer memory for long­
term storage in anticipation of a repeat order.
(iii) Magnetic tape cassettes are used as the general storage
device instead of using punched tape. The magnetic tape
cassette can be stored in a part program library and then
used to re-enter the program into the MDI system's control
memory when needed.
Advantages of MDI
(i) The main advantage of MDI is its simplicity.
(ii) It represents a relatively easy way for a small shop to make
the tra11sition to NC systems.
)
(iii) There is a minimum of change in normal shop procedures
.needed to use NC systems featuring MDI.
(iv) The shop is spared the expense of tape punching equipment
etc. normally associated with NC, since no punched tape
is employed with MDI.
Disadvantages of MDI
(i) Part programs should be relatively short and simple.
(ii) Complicated jobs cannot be handled due to long part
programs.
(iii) The machine tool itself is not productive for which
programming is being accomplished.
(iv) A costly equipment is being utilized to prepare the part
progrnmming.
(v) The more complicated the program, the more time is taken,
when the machine is not cutting the metal.
7.9 ON-LIME EDITING OF PROGRAMS
As explained in Section 7 .8 through MDI unit, the part program
can be entered at the shop floor site. The imperfections and flaws
can be seen directly, due to the cutter radius compensation or
dif erence in zero-setting. Various solenoids and contactors that have
f
to be switched ON/OFF and there are many limit switches and
proximity switches that are to be sensed. These provide more reliable
operation. The on-line editi?-g of programs aids in following ways :
(a) Real or J>olar Co-ordinates. The dimentions can be given
in Cartesian or polar on the real job (master) and the calculations
 7.24 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING AUTOMATICALLY PROGRAM11ED TOOLS (APT) 7.25

are made automatically by the program with reference to the ze;o (d) Tool Path Generation and Simulation. The tool path
point. generated can be seen graphically on the screen (CRT) and can be
checked whether tool collides the fixtures and error can be spotted
--------------------. without actual machine operation. The display window can show the
three planes, so that the part can be shown as blowing up, iqhere is
an error. in the program.
In CNC machine, an alpha numeric Keyboard is available for
inputting the part program in APT or other computer language. The
'Multi job' is used to set X-axis, Y-axis, Z-axis position on the machine
or j o b itself or giving direction to the tool without program
intervention. The "Machine Control Panel" contains all standard
.
Set Pl
elements fo r operating the machine such as mode selector switch,
X=0.000 spindle speed and feedrate override switches and direction keys for
Y=0.500
Z=l .000. jogging 9tc.
7.9.1 SettingTool Offsets
® "Tool offsets" are the features provided by most NC machines,
B ,. m m @ m m ill @ [I] which usually take care of the deviation of programmed tool from
m @ ill @ m m m m m & the actual tool. These provisions make part programs more flexible
0 0 0 0 0 0 EJ 0 0 0 and easier to create. Tool offsets are used for (a) flexible positioning
oooa� o o o a1 of holding fixtures (b) Multiple part positioning.
In both the above cases, the part's zero, is therefore offset from
the machine table origin. Tool offset can be used to compensate for
this, during program execution. Similarly, if more than one part are
to be machined in a single setup, then they can be machined one
after the other without stopping machine. The MCU (Machine Control
( 1 ) CRT Di � play (2) Key Switch (3) Emergency Stop (4) Switches Unit), takes the offset values from various registers in memory stored
(5) Indicator (6) Alpha Numeric Key Board (7) Multi job. by programmer by using special codes and thus adds them to the
Fig. 18(a). basic dimensions, without needing to change the program. The tool
f
(b) Cutter Radius Compensation. The selected tool/cutter of sets can be of two types :
f
may be dif erent from the one that is programmed. The control unit (1) Tool Nose Radius Compensation (for lathes)
automatically takes into account the radius of selected tool/cutter Or
and contour co-ordinates can be changed making a new tool path. Cutter diameter compensation (for milling machine).
(c) Complex Geometry Part Interpolation. Complex contours (2) Tool length compensation (for lathe, drilling, tapping etc.)
can be given directly on the machine with transition points entered With qualified tools, pre-setting of tools has become obsolete.
throug� tool tip movement at specific points, by tracing an existing But offsets have provided more flexibility. For lathe, an "Automatic
part with a probe or stylus. The integrated geometry processor Tool Calculation" key is provided on the panel, which can be used to
_
au�o �1atically calculates the missing intermediate points, permitting align the tool-tip with the cross-wire in microscope. The slide-position
efficient programming on shop floor. information is stored and used by the MCU as tool :.. :et for
 AUTOMATICALLY PROGRAMMED TOOLS (APT) 7.27
7.26 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
2. Make a part program in APT for·
compensating the tool wear.
Another way to do the same is to hold the blank in fixture and
using 'Multijog' switch, keep the tool moving in X, Y, Z directions
till it touches the workpiece 'zero' position . This is the software based
setting of tool offset.
7. 9 .2 Job/Workpiece Setting
Zero shift dials for bothX and Y axes are provided on the console
indicating the exact position of the table from an electrical zero
permanently located outside the working range of the table. When �ETPT
using hand controls, changing of the zero shift dimension will
automatically cause the table to move until it occupies the position Fig, 19.
indicated by the dials. The main function of the control is to position Assume Z = '2..0 mm at part surface and plate to be 20 mm
the reference point of a workpiece or fixture, a spigot or reference thick.
faces. Without changing his position, the operator can quickly align 3. Write a part program in APT for :
the reference point with the drill spindle, u.sing the zero shift controls
and suitable gauges or dial indicator.
Having aligned the two puints, the dimensions recorded on the
dials show the exact distance of that point from the permanent
electrical zero. A further feature using tape is that the programme
can be interrupted at any time and started again without losing the
reference point, because all tape commands are fo� table position
relatP.d to the permanent electrical zero.
The hydraulic system which controls the turret head feed motion,
turret indexing and clamping operations, comprises one section with (O.O)
so ---
pump and tank unit, powered by a 2 hp moto r, while the other section . L.,...___
I
is the control panel carrying all the control valves. Fig. 20.
EXERCISES 4. Make out a drawing of part defined by following APT
1. Fill in the blanks : statements :
(a) ADAPT stands for SETPT = POINT/8, 26, 3
(b) The basic geometric definitions are __________ , Pl = POINT/8, 0, 3
and P2 = POINT/22, 20, 3
PLNl = PLANE/SET PT, Pl, P2
, ____ .
(c) The six basic tool motions are ___ P3 = POINT/22, 20, 3
·--- is the command to define initial position
P4 = POINT/8, 20, 3
(d)
of tool.
P5 = POINT/23, 23, 3
(e) The three surfaces which·'plan the tool motion are
_______________ , and P6 = POINT/0, 23, 3
 8
7.28 COMPUTER A1DED MANUFACTURING

LNl = LINE/P5, P6
Miscellaneous Practical
LN2 = LINE/P2, P3 Topics in CNC
LN3 = LINE/Pl, P2
LN4 = LINE/Pl, P4
8.1 INDUSTRIAL SOF JWARE
Cl = CIRCLE/CENTER, 8, 21, 3, RADIUS, 10
Software, is what allows computers to accomplish the elaborate
C2 = CIRCLE/CENTER, 22, 21, 3, RADIUS, 10 feats of automation that are possible today. Generally, industrial
(Hint : Fig. 21) software falls into three functional categories : development, simulation,
l1 und control.
Computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided manufacturing
<CAM) and computer-aided engineering (CAE) are among the most
familiar examples of development and simulation software packages.
Currently, more than 200 such packages are deistributed by as many
manufacturers. Specific standards do not exist in this area, primarily
Fig. 21. because there is no industry l eader (such as IBM or DEC). In addition,
even though CAD, CAM and CAE have clearly defined duties, they all
work from the same data base.
8.1 .1 Computer-Aided Design (CAD)
Conventional CAD systems are nothing more than interactive
electric drafting facilities. Basically, they allow the user to define the
size, shape, and dimensions of the part being designed. Depending on
their level of sophistication, they may model the part as a wire frame, a
surface, or even a colour-shaded solid that can be rotated in three
dimensions. The end result is usually a machine-generated drawing that
can be used as the blue print for machining the part. A CAD system has
two obvious advantages over conventional drafting techniques
1st, the process is faster and more flexible (that is, mistakes are
easily edited).
2nd, the entire drawing exists as a data base on some sort of
permanent storage medium in the computer.
It can be called up at any time and modified, or used to perform
tests and simulations required for other phases of the project.
Simulation using CAD systems is becoming more popular as the
power of the software increases. Today, factory simulation programs
are available that will allow the user to model and test each fact of the
automation process before it is installed. These programs can accurately
animate robot arm and gripper movements, operating procedures, and
(8.1)
8.2 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
t'a.ctory floor traffic flows. Some packages will even track inventory costs,
work in progress, and overal cycle times. The advantage of such systems
is that they allow detection of mistakes that would otherwise go
unnoticed until after the machinery has been installed. They ensure
proper placement of rob·ots and fixtures and help reduce the time
required to test such fixtures for repeatability and accuracy.
In an effort to provide compatibility between CAD, CAM or CAE
systems from different vendors (no standards currently exist), many
software companies are giving serious thought to standardization. Two
systems nov, exist that define how data should be exchanged betwen
CAD and CAM systems from different vendors. The Initial Graphics
Exchange Specification (IGES) and tho Product Definition Exchange
Specification (PDES) have both been developed by the National Bureau
of Standards. Both specifications propose that data from a given CAD
system be converted to an intermediate format by a preprocessor. This
data would then be converted to the format required by the destination
CAD system. Theoretically, these specifications would provide industry­
wide compatibility.
8.1 .2 Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM Software)
The CAM software or GNC (Graphic Numeric Control) as it is
popularly known, is the software that prepares the CNC program from
CAD database itself. GNC uses the database of CAD files in IGES (Initial
Graphic Exchange Specifications) format, and can create the database
using its own commands.
Several software packages, available in India are GNC, smart CAM,
CAMAND, mater-CAM, NC polaris. A CAM system is often integrated
into a CAD package (hence the acronym CAD/CAM). The function of
such packages is to generate information that will be useful in actual
.../
production. For example; most CAM systems are capable of generating
the punched tape used by numerical control (NC) systems. Numerical
control systems are responsible for three-dimensional machining ofwood,
plastic, or metal parts. The tape provides the commands that guide the
cutting tool so that the finished part looks exactly like the image
generated by the CAD system. Computer numerical control (CNC)
machines provide the same production service but receive their
commands directly from a computer data base (rather than a punched
tape). Many CAM systems are cap.able of $"enerating this data base
directly from the information provided by the CAD package. In addition
to NC and CNC data base generation, many CAM systems will provide
information about tool selection, tool path routing, cost, scheduling, and
inspection.
MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL TOPICS IN CNC
8.3
In th�s � �ystems, simple commands are entered through keyboard,
mouse or digitiser, to define the tool movements. The resulting sequences
o � mo� ements �uch as collision can be edited/changed and repeatedly
vISuahsed, until the output program is perfect. _The outputs of a GNC
software can be one or more of the following :
1. CNC program. Once a perfect machining has been simulated
on the screen, the command can be given to generate an NC or CNC
program, which is directly ready for production run.
2. Plots of drawing. CAM softwares are capable of automatically
calculat��g the dimensions of the part .produced alongwith its angles
and radn added to the text. These dimensions are incorporated in the
drawing and can be plotted on paper for reference.
3 . Models. The ideal CAM system would produce finished
products directly from the CAD data base. That is, information from this
data ba�e would be down-loaded directly to the machine tool or tools
resp ons1ble for production. This ideal is perhaps closer to becoming a
_
reality than one might think. The CAD/CAM systems of at least one
man ufacturer will produce actual models from the CAD data base. This
_
part1 �ular manufac �urer takes advantage ofthe tendency of certain liquid
plastics to harden m the presence of light. A laser, driven by the CAD/
CAM software, traces the outline of the object on the surface of a vat of
photosensitive liquid plastics. As this outline hardens, it is drawn down
into the l� quid, allowing the laser to trace out and harden the next layer
_
of the �bJect. In th1 � manner, the object is built up in thin layers, until
the fimshed model 1s later raised from the vat. The models are accurate
to about 0.005 in. and can have complex internal structures.
4. Operati ? n sheets. CAM softw ares ·are also capable of
_
generatmg operat10nal speficications for the use of operator on the shop
floor such as speed, feed, cut etc. and the sequence of operations.
5. Text files. Each output of GNC/CAM software can be taken in
standard ASCII, text file. These files are acceptable as a standard
throughout in each type of software for changing/editing.
8 . 1 .2.1 Modules of CAM Software
Most of the GNGs are divided into two components 'or modules :
(a) Geometry definition.
(b) Machine tool operations.
This basic geomet� definition module provides facilities for creating
the shapes to be used m the subsequent machining. Two dimenstional
shape can be easily constructed. Additional facilities are available in
8.4 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
many GNC systems for the creation of three-dimensional surfaces. As
in manual drafting construction lines are first created on the graphic
screen. These can comprise of straight lines, circles and points. User
defined variables can be incorporated in the commands enabling the
rapid re-creation of similar diagrams. When the construction lines are
_ Before calculating cutter offsets, we must generate the tool path.
complete the required shapes is created by 'tracing' round the a!)propnate
sections of the lines. A range of standard shapes can also be created
using commands available. These include planes, cones, cylinders and
spheres. Surfaces can be created by rotation or translation of lines or
curves. These can be defined using the two-dimensional geometry
definition module, or curves created within the three-dimensional module
itself.
After the drawing of a part's surface has been created, 'tool
movement' commands are given through keyboard o r mouse, in
interactive mode on the screen. "Tool Path" is simulated and if error
movements are edited "Viewports" can be created for seeing the part
from different planes.
Finally, the estimates for machining times are also generated.
Sometimes a GNC software also provides facility for defining a
geometrical different tool from standard ones and adding it to its library.
·This module is known as "Tool Defintion" part.
8.1 .2.2 Tool Path Generation
There are four steps for good GNC software using CAD database :
(i) Recognition of machined surfaces
(ii) Tool path generation.
(iii) Tool path verification._
(iv) Collision detection.
APT and other languages use geometry statements to recognise
the tool path.
NC programming based on APT uses only unoriented, unbounded,
single surfaces. APT does not recognize connected surfaces. This is why
APT cannot be used directly with solid models that use orientatble and
bounded surfaces (faces). In an attempt to enhance NC programming
capabilites, machining free-form and sculptured surfaces have received
wide attention. These capabilities enable machining synthetic surfaces
which are usually represented in a parametric form.
In cutting free-form surfaces, one is faced with the problems of
cutter offset, accuracy, and cutter interference with the workpiece (tool
g�uging) . Customarily, ball-end (or ball-nosed) cutters are used in these
MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL TOPICS IN CNC 8.5
circumstances and the calculation of cutter offsets is achieved by finding
the directions of normals on the surface. Having determined the
directions of normals, the tool is then offset by the radius of tho cutter
along the normal vectors over the surface.
To mill a surface parametrically, cutter location points are generated
using the surface definition and stated machining parameters. These
points are stored in the CL-file. The ball-end cutter tip is directed to
move in straight line segments to each point. The fewer the points, the
more rough the resulting machined surface. However, large point files
should be avoided to minimize storage, computation, and milling time.
For example, ifwe choose a step size of0.1 in both the u and v directions
of a parametric surface, and assuming both u and v have a range from 0
to 1.
8.1 .2.3 Optimization of NC Tool Path
CAD/CAM systems are currently generating the cutter path for
many NC operations. However, no mathematical model is available for
creating an optimal path. By utilizing such a model, the minimum length
of cut could be identified for all kinds of surface feathres. In the following
section, a prelim inary study on NC tool-path optimization, which was
conducted exclusively for face-milling operating, is presented.
Analytical Cutter-Centre Location and Tool Offset
The following examples . show the mathematical foundation of a
computed cutter path. The method illustrated is implemented in MAPT.
The method uses homogeneous coordinate transformation to convert a
complex geometry program into an easier one. Directions of cutter motion
and offset can easily be taken care of by this method. The reader may
extend this idea to solve many other related probl•ms.
Algebra provides the foundation for CL data generation. However,
when one wants to implement some procedure to compute CL data,
problems may occur. This is especially true when one tries to write
t·omputer programs for the computational procedure. Here is an example.
Suppose that we want to find the cutter-centre location after the following
APT command is issued (see Fig. 1.).
8.6 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL TOPICS IN CNC 8.7

x and y.
We know that by solving the following simultaneous equations, we In this ideal case, the following procedure provides the solution for
x-a a-c
can obtain the X and Y coordinates.
1. If I e - g I � s; then there is no solution.

x-e e-g
ll :
y-b = b-d

r
2. Otherwise, x = 0

Y = f + (- e) e
-g
lz : = f -h .
y-f f-h
1, Now the equation is how to transfer a pair of arbitrary lines, that
is, l 1 and Z 2 , to this ideal situation. Let us find- the angle, 0, between the
Y-axis and l 1 so that l 1 is lined up with the Y-axis (see Fig. 3). The next
step is to rotate about the Z-axis for 0.
The rotation transformation matrix is
cos0 sin 0 0 0
Current
cutter
location

1
1 0
-sin 0 cos0 0 0
RTz(0) =
O 0
Fig. 1. Calcul ating the cutter·centre location.
However, in reality, problems occur when :
0 0 o. 1
I. b - d ,; 0 or f - h = 0
2. l l 11 lz y
a-c
3. b - d -> 0, - -> 00
b d
4. It is impossible to tell wheter the tool goes to the left or right­
hand side of Z1 in order to determine the tool offset.
In the following, we present a new approach to find the exact
location of the cutter c�nter. \
. . .
First let us examme an ideal s1tuat10n, where l 1 1s on the Y-axis
and the cu�rent cutter location i s right at the origin ofthe X-Y coordinate
system, as shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Rotating l 1 for 0.
Y= 1 1 The following is the solution procedure for a general case
1. Find 0.
2. Translate the current cutter location to the origin oftheX-Y
(g,h) co�rdinate system. Rotate 0 about the Z-axis.
[e' , f ' , 0, 1] = [e, f, 0 , 1] . Tran(a, b, c). RTz(0)
fg' , h ', 0, 1] = fg, h, 0 , 1] . Tran(a, b, c). RTz(0)
3. If [e' - g '] oo o, stop. (No solution is found) o is a very small
number arbitrarily chosen by the user.
4. Find a for the tool-offset calculation (see Fig. 4).
5. Calculate the tool offset :
x' = 0
Fig. 2; l1 is lined up with the Y-axis.
8.8 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL TOPICS IN CNC 8.9

y' = \ (r2· - e ' ef'' -- gh')' \ + (flag) -._

r
s1na
The procedure that finds the cutter-center location is as follows
(see Fig. 6)
-1 for TO l. Find 0, the angle between l 1 and the Y-axis.
where flag = { 0 for ON } l2 2. Translate (x0 , y0) and rotate 0 about the Z-axis.
1 for PAST [ x; , y[ , 0, 1 ] = [x i, yi, 0, 1]. Tran(x0, y0 , 0) . RTz(0)
y = l 1' 3. R' = R + (flag) . r

where flag =
lJ �
-1 PAST
�� ] c1

If I x; I > R' I , no solution is found.

4. Transform the solution back to the original coordinate system.
[x, y, 0, 1] = [x ', y', 0, 1] . RTz (- 0) . Tran(- x0 , - y0 , 0) (x, y) is
the solution.

Fig. 4. Calculating tool offset. y·

6. Transform (x: y ' ) ·back to the original coordinate system.
[x, y, O, 1] = [x, y, 0, 1]. RTz<- 0). Tran(- x0, - y 0 , 0) (x, y) is
the solution.
The same procedure can be applied to find the cutter-center location
for this command (see Fig. 5).

GO {��} , { ��
li
} , c1
PAST

c,
Fig. 6. The tool path generated by a MAPT statement.
(c,d)
(o,b )
Compulsory Geometry
•
(x, ,Y1 ) In preparing NC part programs, we have to deal with the geometry
of many different objects. Under these circumstances, having the
knowledge of computational geometry is helpful. In this section, we
provide some basic formulas that can serve as a starting point for further
study.
1. Tangent of a curve. The tanget of a curve y = f(x) at point
p(x l y 1 ) is computed from the following equations : See Fig. 7.
(xo ,Yo ) '
Fig. 5. A different example for calculating cutter-centre location.·
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL TOPICS IN CNC 8.11
8.10
. . . (1)
y = y 1 + f ' (x1 )(x - x 1 )

f '(x) =
df ... (2)
(x)
dx
Y - Y1 _ df _ dy ... (3)
x - x 1 - dx - dx
2. Tangent at point p. The tangent at point p with parameter
t = t 1 is calculated from the following equations (See fig. 7) :
X = x(t1 + t x (t 1) ... (4)

y = y(tl + t Y ( tl)
where t = parameter for the new line

X (t) = dtat t = t 1
. dx

The advantages of tool path verification are to check :

.
dt d
Y (t 1 ) = y at t = t1
Fig. 8. Tool path simulation.

3. Normal to a curve. The normal to a curve is available from the 1. The cutter removes the necessary material from the stock.
following equations (See Fig. 7) : 2. The cutter hits any clamps or fixtures on approach.
X = x(t 1 ) - ty'( t 1 ) 3. The cutter passes through the floor or side of a pocket, or
through a rib.
. . . (5)

4. The tool paths are as efficient as they could be.

y = y(t 1 ) - , x (t 1 )

Other advantages include rapid turn around of program

development, rapid training for potential NC programmers without
\ y=f(x)
danger, and freeing machine tools to only cut real parts (no testing of
programs or training individuals). In addition, tool path verification by
software reduces the wear on machine tools. When polyurethane foam
is cut, for verification purposes, it rises in the air and then falls into the
machine gears where it acts as a grinding paste.
Even with tool path verification, some machining problems go
undetected. For example, problems such as tool chatter and stock
warpage (due to heat stresses resulting during machining) are simply
Fig. 7. Tangent of a curve.

beyond the scope of verification. However, tool verification detects the

As seen in previous section, lots of co-ordinate values are calculated majority of errors in general.
8.1 .2.4 Verification of Tool Paths

_
by MCU for tool path, which cannot be verified manually. Hence, Graphic
Numeric Control (GNC) simulation on the screen/visual display provides
A CAE system provies analysis and simulation features not suported
8.1 .3 Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE)

the user to see movement of tool before actual production run, relative
by mot CAD/CAM systems. Primarily, parts are modeled with complex
to jigs and fixtures.
tn athematical expressions. By simulating deformations, the program
11llows stresses throu� ut the part to be observed and analyzed.
8.12 COMPUTB;R AIDED MANUFACTURING
Likewise, application of a simulated stress will result in deformations
that can be analyzed. If a particular characteristic proves unsatisfactory,
the geometry or composition of the part can be altered before actual
production. A technique called finite element analysis is an increasingly
popular method by which a complex part is analyzed. Basically, it consists
of breaking the part down into geometric shapes that are easily modeled
by mathematical expressions. The interaction of these finite elements
is then analyzed as the part is subjected to stresses or deformations.
The CAD/CAM/CAE systems are by no means limited to the creation
of machine parts. There are, for example, a multitude of software
packages available today that are intended to be used specifically for
circuit design. These systems (many of which will run on PCs) usually
have libraries of commercial components and assemblies that may be
added to the design simply by pressing a key and browsing through the
selections. Many packages will automatically route a printed circuit
board to support the hardware in the schematic, in addition to producing
the NC tape that will control the drilling machine. Some of the more
sophisticated packages will even perform analyses of noise, cross talk,
and . electromagnetic interference (EMI).
The cost involved in carrying out a machining operation can be
8.2. OPERATION COST OF CNCs
divided generally into the following groups
(i) Non-productive cost.
(ii) Metal removing cost.
(iii) Tooling cost.
These are goverened by the choice of the machine for the processing.
With the use of CNC machines costs at serial no. (i) and (iii) are bound
to come down still the manufacturing cost of CNCs can be divided into
the three major subheads as :
(a) Preparation cost.
(b) Machining cost.
(c) Miscellaneous cost.
In CNCs, the major cost of preparation involves the programming,
8.2.1 Preparation Cost
test running and debugging of a 'Part Program '. Another part of
preparation cost involves the design of special jigs and fixtures, such as
pallet shuttles for quick changing ofjobs between two machining cycles.
The first part is not generally much if 'GNC' software is used for
Auto-generation of NC program. The cost involves the rate . of
MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL TOPICS IN CNC • 8.13
programmer-hour and the no. of programmer-hours actual ly consumed.
Gener�lly �he rate depends upon complexity of parts and the no. of
operations involved. · ·
Programming cost = Time taken x Rate/Programming-h our.
The second part can be calculated by adding the sum of salaries,
overheads and material used by design departm ent d uri, ng the
devel.opment of a particular jig and fixtures.
The machining cost is calculated by adding sum total of the operator
8.2.2 Machining Cost
salar� for a particular batch order, machine hours
multiplied by the
mach:�e hour rate and the overhe ads during produ
ction such as
electnc1ty etc.
Afterwards this whole cost is divided by no. of units produced in
the batch so as to get the machining cost per piece/u
nit.
Machining c:.ost = (Machine hours for batch x hou y rate)
rl
+ (Salary for operators) + (Overheads)
There are some indirect related costs, which must be c onsidered
8.2.3 Miscellaneous Cost
.
while �orking out the operating cost ofCNCs. They are chargable as on
the umts to be produced on CNCs. They include
(i) Depreciation cost of CNC.
(ii) Supervisory and maintenance cost.
(iii) Office/workshop floor cost.
n a previous chapter, topic 1.22, we had discussed the selection
. �
8.3 ECONOMICS OF CNC
cr1tena for the parts "".hjch are suitable for_ manufact ng n CNCs.
_ _ uri o
y1ce-versa 1s true for selection criteria of CNCs machines. In order to
Justify that a job be prooess,ed by NC, it is not necess y that the job
ar
possesses every one of these attributes. However, th more of these
e
char�ct�ristics that a e present, the more likely that
� the part is a good
app�1cat10n for numencal control. In addition to the points discussed in
sect10n 1.22, we have some other factors also which ake CNC s as
' m '
viable for use, such as :
(i) Costly skilled labour. Labour costs is minimised in case of
CNCs and the worker's job is merely reduced to small muscle
p�wer and no skill.
(ii) Large number ofoperations. In case of components i nvolving
large number of tedious and complicated operati o , s, it is
better to go for CNCs.
 -
8.14 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING MTSCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL TOPICS IN CNC
8.15

(iii) Larger ratio of non-cutting time to cutting time. The jobs

which have larger setup time, follow up time, are feasible to Q = J2�D
manufacture on CNCs.
(iv) Rush orders for a part. When a part is made on highest where Q = Economic order quantity
priority, then CNCs can cope up with the emergent situation. S = Set-up cost per batch
CNCs are more economical in long run, as labour costs continue to D = Average demand for item per unit time
increase and programming cost as well as hardware prices are coming
C = Carrying cost per item per unit time
down day by day. Better machine utilisation is due to lesser tool changes
and reduced inspection cost. In a given example, the demand for the chair is 390 over the given

8.4 ECONOMIC BATCH PRODUCTION

quarter, which represents a weekly demand of 30. Let us assume that
the s�t-up cost is equal to Rs. 940/-. Furthermore, assume that the
The CNCs are mostly utilised where batch production is going on. carrymg cost = Rs. 10/- per unit per week. This gives :
The batch size should be such that it has least total cost (LTC). There
2(940)(30)
are two methds for calculating quantities with LTC. Q= = 7 5 um' ts
8.4.1 Economic Order Quantity
,-�1-0--

Large batch sizes result in high inventory levels, which are As shown in Table 1 , an order for 75 units is placed as required. If
expensive in terms of the cost of capital tied up in inventory. Small the net requirements are less than or equal to the lot size, then the
batches imply a proportionately lower inventory cost. However, there is amount specificed in the lot size is ordered. Otherwise the order size is
a set-up cost incurred with the placing of an order or the start-up of a equal to the net requirements and is of course greater than the EOQ
new batch on a mahcine. The impact of the lot size on cost is respresented val_ue. A weakness of the EOQ technique is that large quantities of
_
by the economic order quantity (EOQ) model in Fig. 9. umts which are not immediately required are carried in stock. In the
The economic order quantity attempts to minimize the sum of set­ examplem 50 units are carried unnecessarily in inventory in weeks 4
up and inventory costs. The EOQ model is based on an assumption of through 6.
continuous steady state demand, and it will perform well in situations
where the actual demand approximates this assumption. The more Table 1. Economic or.der quantity
discontinuous and non-uniform the demand, the less effective the EOQ Item : Office Chair Part number : JS - JOO
method will prove to be. The order quantity is speficified by the economic Wee/i number 1 3 4 5 7
order formula
2 6 8 9 10 11 12 13
Gross
requirements 60 25 15 40 65 20 70 20 45 30
Scheduled
receipts 70
Projected
inventory 5 15 -10 - 25 - 25 - 65 - 130- 130- 150- 220- 240-
...,(/)
285- 315
Net
0 requirements 10 15 40 65 20 70
(.) 20 45 30
Set-up and Planned order
inventory cost receipt 75 75 75 75 75
Planned order 75 75 75 75 75
Lot size

Fi g. 9. Economic order quantity model.

 MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL TOPICS IN CNC 8.17
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
8.16
order is not taken until week 6, as there are no requirements for any
8.4.2 Periodic Order Quantity units in week 5.
e is base d on the sa1:1e
The periodic order quantity (PO Q) techniqu
t chnique the order quantity
8.5 COST ANALYSIS IN C N C OPERATIONS
thinking as the EOQ method. For the EOQ � There are two aspects of the cost analysis. The first deals with the
vanes. However, for _ the P?Q
is contant while the ordering interval introduction of numerical control into the plant. The second is concerned
e the order quantity vaties.
model the ordering interval is contant whil with the justification of a particular NC machine tool.
Thus :
For an all-conventional machine shop deciding on the possible
Q ... (6) introduction of numerical control, the decision should be based on
T= D whether NC will meet the needs ofthe shop better than current methods.
where T = Ordering interval Determining how appropriate numerical control is for a given machine
Q = Economic order quantity shop (or pressworking plant) should include consideration of the
D = Average demand per unit time preceding list of job characteristics for which NC is appropriate. If the
units, while the average shop processes a high proportion and/or number of parts that fit these
For example, the EOQ is equal to 75
characteristics, then numerical control is suitable. One� the decision is
demand is 30 units per week, giving
made to proceed with NC, a substantial commitment is required by the
75 . . . (7) company management. Introuducing NC requires the training of
T = - = 2.5 weeks.
30 machine operators, part programmers, computer specialists,
Table 2. Periodic order quantity maintenance personnel in some way or other is required to make the
installation a success.
Part number : JS - 100
Item : Office Chair The second aspect of economic analysis deals with the justification
13
f an individual NC machine tool. The methods for evaluating an
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Week number 1 2 3 4 5
vestment proposal are presented here. Although different companies
Gross
15 40 65 20 70 20 45 30 ave their own ways of deciding on capital equipment proposals, the
requirements 60 25
pi.cal factors that should be included are presented in the NC machine
Scheduled
onomic analysis form presented in Fig. 10.
receipts 70
There are several methods of evaluating and comparing investment
Projected
5 15 -10 _ 25 _ 25 _ 65 - 130- 130-
150- 220- 240- 285- 315 roposals, including the following
inventory
Net 1. Payback period method
65 20 70 20 45 30
40
requirements 10 15 2. Present worth (PW) method.
Planned order
90 95 While we are discussing the economics, we would like to stress
25 105
receipt at a decision on automation should not be based on economic
105 90 95
Planned order 25 Htification alone. Many factors should be considered that are difficult
quantify in terms of economics, for example, safety, quality, job
In this example, the ordering interval alternates b�tween 2 and 3
tisfaction, floor space, etc.
weeks, except when zero requirements in a given _ penod_ extend the
ordering interval. Table 2 shows that the first order � s required at week
3. The next order is expected two weeks later, i.e. week 5. However, the
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL TOPICS IN CNC 8.19
8.18

The payback-period method is used to estimate the

number of years
8.5.1 PAYBACK PERIOD

required to recover an initial equipment investmen

Proposed Equipment :

t. Payback does not

consider the time value of money. As you will
I. Required Investment

see later, the payback­

1. Installed cost ofproposed equipment Rs.
period method does not provide a precise evalu
ation of the project. It
· 2. Disposal value of any equ,ipment retired

does, however, produ ce a quick indic ation

on how attractive is a
3. Capital required in absence ofproposed

particular project. Payback may be the most

widely used procedure in
equipment

industry to cost justify projects. A commonly

4. Total investment released or avoided (2 + 3)

used indication of an
acceptable project is to have a payback period (N)
5. Net investment required {1 - 4)

B. Losses less than 1.5 years.

That is to say that any equipment that is used
II. Effect of Investment on Operating Costs

in industry must pay for

itself within 1.5 years of installation. Although
A. Savings

the period for payback

varies throughout industry, 1.5, years seems to
6. Direct machine operator labour

be the most common

meter used.
7. Programming costs
8. Inspection costs

The payback period, N, can be defined as

9. Indirect labour

N = Co
10. Fringe benefits

Sa
11. Tooling (expandable tools)
12. Tool setting

where C0 = initial investment

13. Fixtures

Sc, = annual savings

14. Supplies (cutting fluids, etc.)

Example 8.1. A machine shop crl!re� emplo

15. Maintenance
16. Scrap and rework
ys 5 machine operators,
17. Downtime (excluding maintenance) 3 material handlers, and uses '10 conventiona mach
l ine tools. Based
18. Power on a shop modernization study, 6 or the 10 mach
19. ine tools can be
Floor space released or added replaced by 2 machining centres. After the syste
20. Property taxes, insurance m is implemented,
only 2 machine operators are needed. However, an
21. Workpart handling NCprogrammer
will have to be hire. Some of the loading I unloading
22. Inventory (storage, insurance, etc.) worli can also
be done by 2 pick-and-place robots. It is suggested that
23. Safety -estimate a value an automated
material-handling system will repalce the 2 material
handlers. After

B. __
24. Flexibility - estimate a value
a simulation study is conducted, it is show
25. Other factors specific to proposal n that the new system
can increase produciton by 50%. We are interested
26. Totals (sum 6 through 25) A. __ to know whether
I the project is cost justifiable to implement. All
27. Net gain (26A - 26B) _Rs,,_ I equipment costs
III. Effect oflnvestment on Revenues include installation. The cost data are :
A . Gains B. Losses
Operator rate (including overhead) : Rs. 30,000
28. From change in product quality /year
NC programmer rate (including overhead)
29. From change in volume of output : Rs. 40,000 /year
30. Totals (28 + 29) A. ___ B. ___ NC machines cost : Rs. 70, 000 and Rs. 1,00,000,
31. Net gain (30A - 30B) Rs .___ respectively
Estimated salvage value of 6 existing machine
IV. Other Factors Related to Proposed Equipment s : Rs. 60,000
32. Estimated service life = ___ years J Robot cost : Rs. 50,000
Rs. ___ I
33. Estimated salvage value I Automated material-handling-system cost : Rs.
34. Depreciation method : ----------·-------- ll 50, 000
Rate ofreturn = ___ % Additional annual maintenance cost, Rs. 40,
35. 000 Iyear.
Fig. 10. NC machine cost analysis form.
8.20
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL TOPICS IN CNC 8.21

Solution. Values for (PI F, i, j) can be found in almost any compounding

C0 = NC machine cost - salvage value of existing machines interest table. (PIA, i, n) is the annual-worth to present-worth conversion
factor
+ robot's cost + automated material-handling-system cost
= Rs. 70,000 + Rs. 1 , 00, 000 - Rs. 60,000 + Rs. 50 ,000 (l + i) n-l
+ Rs. 50,000 i(l + i) 11
(PIA, i, n) =

= Rs. 2,10,000
Sa = Labour savings - programmer cost - maintenance cost
= Rs. 30,000 x (3 + 2) - Rs. 40,000 - Rs. 40,poo
= Rs. 70,000
Rs. 2,10,000
N = Rs. 70,000 = 3 years.
Although the payback period is long, there are other benefits that
are not considered in the economic-justification process. For example,
the new system with its greater production capacity, better quality,
shorter product lead time, etc. Not placing an economic value of these
factors severaly handicaps the justification of automation applications.
The use of the payback method also is a deterrent to automatation
applications sinr.e the capital requirements for automation applications
are usually high and and a short payback term is normally not possible.
The PW method considers time value of money. Usually the time
8.5.2 Present Worth Method
The before-tax present-worth method does not take into account
the effect of taxation on the investment.
Example 8.2. Now we analyze the previous exam.pie using the p resent ­
worth method. Let us first assume that the project life is 10 years,
and there is no annual adjustment for the ope rator and programmer
rates. The salvage value of the proposed equipment after 10 years
is 10% ofthe purchase value. The minimum attractive ra te ofreturn
is 15%.
Solution.
PW = Rs. 2,10,000 + Rs. 70,000 (PIA, 15, 10)
+ Rs. 27,000 (PI F, 15, 10)
= - Rs. 2,10,000 + (Rs. 70,000 x 4.8004)
+ (Rs. 27,000 x 0.2231)
= Rs. 1,32,126.
Since PW is greater than 0, the project is said to be justifiable.

value is represented by interest rate, i. All the costs and savings in

future are converted into their present worths by using appropriate NC machining has completely changed the appearance of the entire
8.6 PRACTICAL CNC MACHINES

interest factors. We know, industry. It has impacted almost every aspect of manufacturing­
accuracy, repeatedly, flexibility and economics in a positive and profound
F = Present value, P x 1 + -
( .
£-)
manner. One of the effects of NC has been that the proportion of time
Future value, spent by metal cutting metal under the control ofprogram is significantly
100
Time

greater than with manually operated machines. This is not the only
Hence,
reason why CNC is being applied to even general purpose machines
such as lathes, drilling machines and versatile machining centres etc. A
Present worth, =
F
i few of them are described here.
1 +-
p ( 100
) Time

(P / F, i, j) is the future-worth to present-worth conversion factor The machining centre, developed in the late 1950s, is a machine
8.6.1 Machining Centres

1 tool capable of performing several different machining operations on a

(PIF, i, j) = Workpart in one setup under program control . The machining ce.ntre is
(l + i)i
npable of milling, drilling, reaming, tapping, boring, facing, and similar
8.22 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL TOPICS IN CNC 8.23
Jperations. In addition, the features that typically characterize the NC
machining centre include the following
• Automatic tool-changing capability. A variety of machining
operations means that a variety of tools is required . The tools Z-oxis
are contained on the machine in a tool magazine or drum.
servomotor
When a tool needs to be changed, the tool drum rotates to the
proper position, and an automatic tool changing mechanism, :pindle motor
operating under program control, exchanges the tool in the
spindle and the tool in the drum. .Tool
magazine
• Automatic workpart positioning. Most machining centres have
the capability to rotate the job relative to the spindle, thereby
permitting the cuttin'g tool to access four surfaces of the part.
• Pallet shuttle. Another feature is that the .machining centre
has two (or more) separate palets that can be presented to
the cutting tool. While machining is being performed with
one pallet in position in front of the tool, the other pallet is in
a safe location away from the spindle. In this way, the operator
can be unloading the finished part from the prior cycle and
fixturing the raw workpart for the next cycle while machining
is being performedon the current workpiece.
Machining centres are classified as following, according to the
orientation of machine tool spindle
(a) Vertical machining centre.
(b) Horizontal machining centre.
(c) Universal machining centre.
(a) Vertical machining centre. A vertical machining centre has Fig. 11. Vertical machining centre.
its spindle on a vertical axis relative to the work table. It is .6.2 Turn ing Centre
typically us�d for flat work that requires tool access from the
he succe�s of the machining centre has resulted in the development
top. But these are not suitable for large widths as this . �
fs1m1lar �achme tools for other metal working processes. One example
increases the throat distance.
s the turmng centre, designed as a highly automated and versatile
(b) Horizontal machining centres. A horizontal machining centre achine tool for performing turning, facing, drilling, threading, and
is used for cube-shaped parts where tool access can best be elated operations.
achieved on the sides of the cube. The horizontal machining These are the lathes, which can also be classified as horizontal
centre has its spindle on a horizontal axis. X-axis traverse is nd vertical. The universal lathes in addition to X and Z-axis the
provided by table or column and Y-axis by spindle head Z­ -axis i.e. rotation of spindle can also be controlled.
axis is provided by headstock or column or by saddle.
(c) Universal machining centres, are similar to horizontal .6.3 CNC Punching Press
machining centres but spindle axis can be tilted from In CNC press, complex contours can be cut by plasma arc or a laser
.
horizontal to vertical position. This is equivalent to 5-axis ttmg, for sheet metal work. Automatic material handling ancl tool
machining, the most versatile machine available. nngers are used. A linkage line as shown in Fig. 12, produces twelve
heel disks per :1-inute by four. This is fully automatic line, but any
rPss can be used1 mdividually with hand feeding, or presses can be used
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
8.24
in groups of two or three and the line can be extended at a later date if
necessary.
The construction of the transfer feed and stack mechanism is shown
in Fig. 12. A double-acting hydraulic cylinder mounted vertically on the
side of each press operates a gear rack that drives a pair offeed channels
left and right. These movements are the 'feed advance' and 'return',
respectively. A second hydraulic cylinder is suspended from the channels,
and operates a rack which is connected to a series of gear trains mounted
along both channels at 24 in centres. Feed fingers are mounted on small
rancks protruding from the these gear trains, and they are driven in
and out by the stroke of the cylinder. These movements are the clamp
and unclamp actions. The cylinders are actuated by four-way solenoid
controlled valves, all pilot operated.
Blanks are loaded into baskets which hold 100 blanks or sufficient
for 8 minutes run. These baskets are applied to the stack feed device of
· the first press in the line, which device can be re-loaded without
interruption of the automatic action. The components then travel
Fig. 12. Linkage line for wheel disk manufacture.
automatically through nineteen stations to completion, flip over fingers
being used to turn the blank over preparatory to the final pressing stage.
8.6.4 CNC Grinding Machines
The grinding process is unique compared to other machining
processes in that there is a very heavy "tool" (wheel) wear and that the
process is very senstitive to process parameters like grinding pressure,
speed and feed rates and flow of coolant e tc. CNC has been successfully
applied to all types of grinding machines. The workpiece size control is
MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL TOPICS IN CNC 8.25
�chieved .by some _ m�thod of automatic wheel wear compensation
mclu?ed m the grmdmg cycle or through an interactive in-process
gaugmg system which is interfaced with the wheel in-feed drive. CNC
can be used either to regulate the machine slides to generate a workpiece
or to dress the wheel to the required shape to enable plunge grinding.
8.6.4.1 Surface Grinding
In horizontal spindle reciprocating table surface grinding machines,
.
m many cases, CNC is applied only to the wheel head slide (Y-axis) as
the mos� critical operation in these machines is the depth control.
Convent10nal hydraulic drives are retained for feed and longitudinal
tr �vers� . In so �e machines the cross feed is also replaced by an electric
dnve with a timer circuit �r open loop control for feed. A closed loop
�ontrol on the cross feed runs can be used directly to generate contours
m the Y-Z plane while reciprocating the table in the longitudinal axis or
to contour dress th:'e wheel for plunge grinding. In some cases the table
longitudinal traverse is also provided with an electric drive. By adding
_
a fourth rotary axis, the surface grinder movements can also be used to
generate involute surfaces of a gear tooth.
8.6.4.2 Tool and Cutter Grinders
CNC has �een applied to complex tool and cutter grinders involving
� s man?' as eight axes. In these machines the control system is
mteract1ve. The control system working in an interactive mode with
the part P:ogram residing in the memory leads the operator step by
step reducing the programming effort to the absolute minimum.
8.6.4.3 Cylindrical Grinding/Centreless
In many cases CNC is provided only for wheel head slide to control
.
diameters. In some cases CNC is provided for longitudinal traverse and
wheel head traverse (2-axis) to control length of shoulders and diameter
steps. Worpiece size is achieved by dressing the wheel with reference to
fixed ?ressing point or by use of an interactive size control unit. Such
machmes can generate solids of revolution involving tapers, circular
ar�s and curved surfaces. Similar controls are available for internal
grmders.
8.6.4.4 Profile Grinders
CNC has been used to advantage even on optical profile grinders.
The control system has linear, circular and helical interpolation to
generate complex contours, and has provision to dress the wheel and to
c6mpensat� for whee � wear. Optics serve for tool setting, positioning
the workpiece, checking wheel dressing and inspection of workpiece
without removing it from the fixture.
8.26 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL TOPICS IN CNC 8.27

Sometimes called travelling wire EDM electrical discharge wire

8.6.5 CNCWire-cut EDM
The basi-: principle of EDM (Electrical Discharge Machining) is
createring out of metals, resulted due to sudden stoppage of electron
beam by the solid metal surface of the anode. The surface of anode,
facing the direct electrical pulse reaches the boiling point. This is
equivalent to an explosion proc�ss. The shock wave thus produced,
spreads from the centre of explosion, inside the metal and on its way
crushes the metal and deforms its crystals. A suitable voltage is applied
across two electrodes separated by a di-electric fluid to break the di­
electric. Due to this breaking of di-electric, electrons are liberated and
accelerated. Thus due to collisions, secondary emmissions are followed.
Temperature rieses upto 10,000 ° C due to this avalanche causing
vaporisation of the hardest electrically conductive material.
'Wire-cut EDM' is used to produce the hard surface, on soft and
touch but cheaper backing material for blanking or piercing dies and
punches. The hard surface materials are cut out of thin sheets of hard
and wear resistant material, maintaining proper clearance for cutting.
8.6.5.1 Equipment
The basic units consisting an EDM equipment are (Fig. 13) :
• Machine tool structure with work positioning unit.
• Servo head and for tool feed .
cutting is a process that is similar in configuration to bandswing except
in the case of WEDM the "saw" is a wire electrode of small diameter.
Material removal is affected as a result of spark erosion as the wire
electrode is fed (from a spool) through the workpiece. In most cases,
horizontal movement of the worktable, controlled by CNC on modern
machines, determine the path of cut as illustrated in Fig. 5. However,
some WED machines move the wire horizontally to define the path of
cut, leaving the part stationary. On both types of machining
configurations, the wire electrode moves vertically over sapphire or
diamond wire guides, one abov'e and one below the workpiece. The
electrode wire is used only once, then discarded because the wire looses
it form after one pass through the workpiece. A steady stream of
deionized water or other fluid is used to.cool the workpiece and electrode
wire and to flush the cut area.
Nozzles for

• Power supply.
Wire di-electric
with

• Di .electric fluid system.

Total changer Servo head Workpiece
(for CNC) motions

Machine
structure

Power
supply
Working tonk cum
'--......
Meu

Viewed from above, the electrode wire cuts a slot or "kerf'. The
Fig. 8.14. Scheme of electrodischarge wire cutting.

idth of the kerf is the wire diameter plus EDM overcut as illustrated
Fig. 15.
Handwheels/motors
and ballscrews
Positioning
work table
Fig. 13. Scheme of an EDM Equipment . .
8.28 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL TOPICS IN CNC 8.29

linear and rotary pallet shuttles are described in section 4.4 and finally
the swarf removal/handling device is described in section 3.7. Feed line
for presses is also described; in this chapter.
Workpiece

A camshaft with the three cams is driven by a motor mounted on

8.7.1 In-Feed andWork Ejection for._Centreless Grinder

top of the control wheel casing (Fig. 16). One cam actuates a crank and
C R p A ll

Starter or threading holes are required. In steel or other material

Fig. 15. Definition of kerf in wire-cut EDM.

a drilled hole suffices for carbide; the hole may have to be produced by
EDM or m ircor EDM.

The use of numerical control with EDM machines is recognized as

8.6.5.2 NC Control of EDM

a method to increase table-positioning efficiency, such as that used in

the case of multiple cav'ity work, and to cut dies and punches with
travelling wire EDM. Numerical control is also in orbit-EDM machine
tables, especially for large-mold workpieces. The addition of NC to the
vertical ram movement makes it possible to EDM at different angles.
Using an automatic electrode changer with the NC machines makes
the EDM process completely automatic from roughing to finishing
operation.
The speed control used with orbiters is more complicated than the N H
one used with rotating spindles. A manual variable speed control is not
G

effective for orbiting. In orbiting, material is cut on one side at a time.

L

For example, in the case of a rectangular electrode, the penetration on

K

the narrow side will be more than that on the long side, causing the
X

servo to bounce up and down in a 'roller coaster' motion as it orbits

round the cut. Speed controls with gap sensing capabilities are used to
avoid this situation. So the speed orbit is not constant and hence
controlled by servo-devices. More sophisticated control units features
horizontal servo capabilities with the ram of the machine tool locked.
These units are used to automatically machine an under cut to
preselected size.
Q

CNC requires special material handling, automatic feed ines and

8.7 MATERIAL HANDLING IN CNC N

even ejection devices. for operation. ATC (Automatic Tool Changer) is w

already described in section 4.5; Work holding devices including the Fig. 16. In -feed and work ej ection mechanism for centrele.;s grinder.
 MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL TOPICS IN CNC
8.31
8.30 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
Blanks are supplied down chute A which is inclined downwards
link motion to operate the in-feed of the control wheel, the second and has a stop at the lower end, while the completed workpieces are
operates another crank and link motion to control the magazine feed, discharged down a second chute B. Parts are successively transferred
while the third operates a switch controlling a solenoid-actuated device to and from the working position, where they are supported on two shoes
which ejects the workpiece from the grinding position at the end of the C, by means of arms D and E, respectively. Secured to shafts mounted
operation. in the housing F, these arms are operated in unison, and are arranged
The camshaft A is rotated by the reduction gear B from the pulley to swing in separate parallel planes to prevent mutual interference.
C. The cam E controls the angular position of the swinging lever F by
means of a roller track. The roller carried by the lever Fis held in position
J for 180 degrees of its rotation of the shaft and in position H for the
remainder of the revolution.
The lever F is connected by a short link to the crank G which is
clamped to the control wheel in-feed sleeve H. The crank G, therefore,
takes the place of the control wheel in-feed lever usually provided on a
centreless grinder. For adjusting the amount of feed, the crank is
provided with a short projecting arm carrying an adjustable stop, which,
at the end of the feeding movement, contacts a fixed surface Y, the
remainder of the stroke of the lever F representing lost, notion against
the spring ,T.
The workpieces to be ground are fed into the machine from a
vertical magazine K, and the bottom component in the magazine is D E C
transferred to the grinding position between the grinding wheel L and
the control wheel by the slide M operated by connecting rod and lever Fig. 17. Cincinnati patent electro-hydraulic loading system.
from the shaftN. The latter is oscillated by a system of links and cranks During the progress of grinding, the arms are swung to the position
from the cam P on shaft A. Motion is transmitted from the cam to the shown, and the shafts on which they are mounted are then moved axially
rocking cam follower lever R and then to the long connecting rod S. The to insert cylindrical carriers into the bores of the lowermost blank on
latter is pin-connected at its bottom end by way of the spring link T, to a the supply chute and the part that is being ground. After grinding has
crank fixed to the shaft N. Normally, the compression spring contained been completed, the wheelhead is retracted to oparate a limit-switch to
in T is stif enough to transmit the full motion of s. If, however, the
f
cause the arms to be swung in opposite directions, to deliver fresh and
magazine slide should jam, and t thereby be held stationary, the spring completed parts to the working position and the discharge chute,
is compressed, enabling the members S and R to operate without damage.
respectively. During these movements the parts slide across a backing
To enable the magazine feed to be rendered in operative at will, the
plate and are thereby retained on the carriers. Motion is imparted to
short lever U is provided. This is provided on a fixed bracket and is
the arms through gearing and a common rack which is mounted between
slotted to clear the rod S. When swung into position, so that the rod S is
guide rollers in the housing and is traversed by means of a crank. With
positioned within the slot, the lever U prevents the movement of the
link T, the motion of the rod S being taken by the spring. this arrangement the speed at which the arms are swung is reduced
gradually as they approach the end of their movements, to avoid shock.
8.7.2 Milling Loading Device Next, the arms are again moved axially to withdraw the carriers from
This is shown in Fig. 17 and is a patented electro-hydraulic unit for the parts, and the arms are subsequently returned to the original
automatically transferring ring-shaped workpieces to and from the positions in readiness for the next cycle.
working area of a centreless grinding machine arranged for plung
grinding.
8.32 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICAL TOPICS IN CNC
8.33

9. Two alternative production methods have been proposed : one a

�anual method, the other an automatic machine. Data are given
A m the following table

Manual Automatic
First cost Rs. 15,000 Rs. 95,000
Annual operating cqst Rs. 30,000 Rs. 10,000
Salvage value 0 Rs. 15,000
E Service life (years) 10 7
Select the more economical alternative if
the two alternatives
are equivalent in terms of capability.
10. Explain �ny two methods for the cost analysis
Fig. 18. Hopper loading method for shaft ending and centering machine. of CNC machines.
Shortly before completion of a loading movement, a cam operated
limit switch is actuated to initiate traverse of the wheelhead of the
machine towards the support shoes for the work in preparation for
grinding. Simultaneously, a magnetic chuck mounted at th� nose of the
workhead spindle, (arranged at the rear of the working position, as
viewed in the diagram) is energised to provide for driving the work during
grinding, also the de-magnetiser G, which serves to hold the finished
part at the top of the discharge chute when the carrier is withdrm,vn.
At an early stage when grinding, the de-magnetiser is de-energised
to permit the completed part to roll down the discharge chute, and the
electrical supply to the magnetic chuck is reversed when the wheel­
head is retracted, to release the workpiece in readiness for unloading.

EXERCISES
1. What do you know about CAM softwares ? What are the features
· provided by a typical CAM software ?
2. List the operations that could be performed on a machining
centre.
3. Describe the features of a ho.rizontal machining centre.
4. What is meant by a universal machining centre ?
5. Discuss the application of con1puter numerical control to
grinding machines.
6. Describe a CNC wire EDM machine.
7. What are the economical considerations for the use of CNC
machines ?
8. What are the different operating cost parameters of a CNC ?
 9 CIM and Robotics
9.1 MANUFACTURING CELL
A manufacturing cell is the newest concept of a system composed
of manufacturing and assembly linked by a "pull", pull means
Almost no
work in progress (WIP)
within the cell

Machine
small
inexpensive
dedicated
single-cycle

Vertical
milling

/
I
,,. '''

'"
I \
I One por.l \

I at a lime \
I
I and multiple
I machine ''
I
I handling '' Finished
goods
I
I
I
\
One 1
port \
between ,
mac hines ',
' Poth of
/
',
,------
worker ,,-"
_

Griding
machine

Fig. I. Manned cell.

(9.1)
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFAC'!'URING
The se cells are segregate� from
9.2
re quiremen t c auses ite m s to mov e .
ation and proce_ss accordm g to
the o thers mak ing a group of oper
c e ll usu ally incl udes all th e
se quence and group of prod ucts . The
o r suba ss emb ly.
proc essing ne ed e d for a c ompl ete part
ena bl�ng worke rs to move
Cell is often configured in U- shape ,
and unlo ading. The se can b e of
fro m machine t o mac hine , load ing
two typ es :
f it ar e
(a) Manned cell. Th e ke ypo int s o
(i) Mac hines are simp ler ones .
se qu en ce.
(ii) M achines are arrang e d in pro cess
(iii) Cel l i s d esigne d in U-shape .
(iv) One piec e at a tim e i s mad
e within the cell .
dle mo�e than one process.
(v) Workers are supposed/trained to han
(vi) Cycle time of a cell dictates
th e production rate .
Cell member
controller
CNC
grinder
\ -obot
�roller ) [D
[D
Cell
member
controller
Fig. 2. Unmanned robotic manufacturing cell with decoupler.
CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.3
(b) Unmanned cell. The unmanned cel l is al so ba se d on ab ov e
keypoints exce pt that :
(i) CNC machine tools are used.
(ii) Robot is us e d for m aterial handling.
(iii) Decouplers are useu for se parating functionally dependent
proce sses and al s o to check critical dimensions and al so
locat e them for robot gripper.
It may be not e d that manufacturing cell s are u seful o nly where
continuo us flow manufacturing is to b e do n e .
Manufacturing cell s are dev e loped according t o thr ee ba s ic
9.2 STRATEGIES OF MAKING MANUFACTURING CELL
strategi es : pro cess strat e gy, part geometry strat egy, or product
strategy. The se strategi es arc not all the approaches available for
c ell formation, but rather some techniques from whi ch some of th e
ben efits of cellular manufacturing can b e quickly a chi eved.
Proc ess strategy is u seful wh e n g e ometri c information on the
9.2.1 Process-defined Cells
part s you wish to-ce llularize, is not available or the part s appe ar to
be ge ometrically dissimilar. This m eth od assists in defining cells wh en
understanding of manufacturing processes is l es s.
G eometric data are not needed to create cells based on processe s.
Parts that all go to one key machine are selected and th e c e ll i s built
around . that machine. Curre nt ro utings are e xamined to find key
ma chine tool s and to select candidat e parts that hav e co mmon
routings, th e n c ells are develo ped for the part familie s .
Part g e ometry strategy i s u se d wh en geom etric information is
9.2.2 Cells Defined by Part Geometry
available, the a s so c iated manufacturing pro c es ses are well-known,
and the parts look the same or very similar. In other words, ge ometry­
based ce ll s group parts based on common geo m etric characteristics.
As with proces s c ells, curre nt pr o du ctio n data are u se d to examin e
routings. Howev er, new routing s arc the n d eveloped for th e target
pnrt groups ba sed on part featur e analy$ es. Co nsiderati on is give n to
Jroup t o oling, machine l o ading, part s and us age.
Product s trategy applies to c ell s intended to minimize inventory
.2.3 Cells Developed Around a Product
r c ells that will be linked t o an as sembly line in support of ju s t-in­
me (JIT) manufacturing m eth o d s .
Product-focused cells are minifactori es, dedi cate d to produ cing
product-that could be ah a ssembly, a suba ssembly, or a fini sh ed
rimary part. Th e bill of material s d etail s all th e c o mpone nt parts
 9.4 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING.

that are going into the subassembly. Then a common routing is

developed for these component parts. As a result, often a factory CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.5
within a factory, incorporating both process and geometry-based cells
are developed, focused on a common assembly family. for manufacturing of parts whose design is changed in random
The result of these strategies is the grouping of simple, flexible patterns, is known as Flexible Manufacturing System.
machines to meet required cycle times while eliminating inventory, Generally, FMS includes following subsystems of production (a)
··
floor space, transportation distance and quality problems. Cells can Fabrication (b) Machining (c) Asse�bly.
compete with multistation high-speed automatic equipment because
cells can be set up and deb ugged quickly, thereby providing rOMPO
: � ENTS OF FMS
manufacturing flexibility. Whenever additional capacity is needed, The primary components of FMS can be categorised into two
s replicated. parts :
Hardware, such as CNCs; conveyors or AGV (Automated
NSFER LINES Guided Vehicles) and Robots.
Transfer line·s are highly automated machines, which a"re used Software, such as CNC programs, Inventory program,
to transfer the parts automatically from one workstation to other Robot program
arranged in single-line flow pattern. Generally the components consist of :
These make a part of the unmanned cell. The transfer lines are (i) NC or CNC machine tools.
almost similar to transfer machine except that they are made to (ii) Material handling system.
accommodate l arger workpiece and can be conveyed to larger number (iii) Cutting tool.
of workstations and operations.
These can be designed
(a) With buffer (temporary in process) storage.
(b) Without buffer storage.
For production of a car engine blocks at the rate of 100 per
hour, an automated transfer line is needed to speedily produce and
assemble them. But, the design changes of these are avoided and
also they must be operated for longer periods of time to justify their
cost. Hence, they in nature are a part of 'Fixed Automation'. They
are generally of three types as shown in Fig. 3 .
(a) In-line type.
(b) Dial table type.
(c) Drum type.
/
� FMS (FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM) (a) In-line type
With the development of NC machine tools in 1950s, products
were manufactured under progr�mmed control. These were made to
meet the requirement of design changes, mass consumption. Hence,
combination ofNCs with transfer-lines led to the birth of flexibility
instead of fixed, which was called as Flexible Manufacturing System
(FMS).
A series of automated machine tools or CNCs, linked with
autonwtic material handling system and a central computer control

• •h

(b) Dial table type

9.6 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
ClM AND ROBOTICS 9.7

(iv) Work holding devices (Pallets).

(u) Computer control networks.
(ui) Inspection station.
(uii) Cleaning and debarring stations.
I n addition 'Human factor' also contributes in following ways :
(1) Development of programs.
(2) Data and program input.
(3) Tool setup (one time).
( ) Maintenance and repairs.

(c) Drum type ANTAGES OF FMS

Fig. 3. (1) Decreased setup time which is only for once.
(2) Decreased labour cost-both
(3) System is generally designed for a_ variety of parts within
same family.
(4) Parts can be fed randomly.
� �

0 (5) Production is maximised with the optimised sequence of

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machinery.
(6) Reduced/zero work-in-process (WIP).
(7) Higher machine utilization or throughput .

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· O

C �M (COMPU � ER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING)

CIM is just an extension of CAD/CAM. The term CIM is coined

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tc use the computers to
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(b) plan the production.
(/) ::,
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0

Fi g. 4. Design of a flexible manufacturing system (FMS).

 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.9

' r.�ystems i n C I M are based o n principles of Group

9.8

�cally CIM is more concerned with information-processing

Tee�;� (�T) and classification and coding systems. Parts having
�;�� required to support the production operations. CIM
possesses a wider meaning than CAD/CAM.
User
sepcification CAO CAPP CAM

Product

similar process plans make a part family. Families are used to identify
Fig. 6.

mac �ine groups, leading to the design of manufacturing cell and

assembly ce s.
AN, a Japanese technique based on pull rather than push
sy is also applied in CIM. In ideal CIM, it is possible to take
design specifications of product from the user specifications as :
Specifications are put in CAD database which converts it into
CIM covers all

process plan and NC part program is automatically generated through

¼ CAD/CAPP/CAM. This was also explained in one of the previous
/ Fig. 5.

chapters.
is total integration of all activities done by computer for

computers in following components :

�e ideal CIM system uses
the busin;ss of a production firm.

. (1) Order receipt.

Z.n::jor modules of CIM are
9.8 �-���S OF CIM

(2) Design (CAD).

( 1) CAD
(3) Computer aided process planning (CAPP) ·
(2) CAPP
(4) Production.
(5) Dispatch and shipment. .
./ (4) ;MRP (Material Requirement Planning)
(6) 1\fter sales service and maintenan ce.
(3) CAM

has not only focused on basic manufacturing system, but (5) DAS and DCS (Data Acquisition and Collection Systems)
ra how to use computers and robots to do dirty work such as : (6) CAQC (Computer Aided Quality Control)
Loading/unloading. (7) MHS (Material Handling Systems)
Line balancing. (8) BDPS (Business Data Processing System)
Inventory control. (9) LAN (Local Area Network of Computers)
Process planning. (10) ASS (Automated Storage Systems)
Using JIT (Just In Time) technology with manufacturing
and assembly cell.
Because of its high cost, CAM is applied only in companies which
8.9 CAM IN INDIA
The purpose of CIM is to share information between Design,
are very established ones; in India, CAM as already explairted, is the
Engineering Manufacturing and the support departments ·such as
use of SPM (Special Purpose Machines), NC machines and robots in
sale/purchase and personnel department, thereby leading to factory
uf future. n1anufacturing and assembly line of a production system.

9,10 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
Larger.mumber of CNCs have been started being used in mass
production industries, heavy engineering and hazardous chemical
industries( The main industries, which have revolutionised their
productiori with CAM concepts in India are
(1) HMT, Tractor Division, Pinjore
HMT, in addition to production of CNC turning centres (STC
25) uses vastly its own machines and SPM tapping lathe and Double
Head Milling Machine, Inclined SPM Boring Machine, CNC 4-head
boring machine; SPM Cam Cutting Lathe; MI trainer milling machine
having copying attachment.
In foundary, shell moulding (Shalco machines) are used and
there in 1980, machine tools pallet were conveyed through automatic
roller conveyer. Patterns and heavy castings are conveyed by
"Overhead crane". Machine tool division set up in 1961, later on
started . producing CNC machining centres.
In 1976, vertical Milling Centre VTC-1200 was made. In 1992, it
pr�duce9 HMC-20, Horizontal Machining centre which got the IMTEX
award at Delhi Exhibition in 1994-95.
It has 24, 30, 60 tool magazine options simultaneous 3-axes
travel is possible. HTC-600, has'face and milling head and continuous
rotary table of 36,000 position and 5th rotary axis also. It has fast
cam operated tool changer. Some of other major developments in
India are :
1. HMT has now a separate CIM division.
2. Hero Honda Motors Ltd., also has CNC turning centres.
3. Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), has robots and CNC
installed in their Aerospace Division.
4. Escorts Yamaha, has CNCs as well as rqbots installed for
assembly work.
5. Heavy Alloy Penetrator Project (HAPP), Trichy has a full
fledged flexible Pallet System.
6. Bausch and Lamb, SRF bearing, Samtel India has already
installed FMS (Flexible Manufacturing Syst� ms).
According to a report submitted few years back to Government
ofindia, in 7 big industries, there were only 21 robots. Academic and
R and D institutes had however 19 robots. Overall robots were 101,
· of ind ustrial robots that require more precision and sensory sr .,�u � ticated
including master-slave manipulators. But in addition to medium
industries following big giants are using robots as :
CIM AND ROBOTICS
9.1 1
1 . Maruti Udyog Ltd., Gurgaon is using robots for welding
purpose and robot arms for tightening screws and assembly
of doors on car body.
2 . Bharat Electronics Ltd. (BEL), is using pick-n-place robot for
coating of phosphor layer on the inside of the television picture
tube (CRT).
3. Larsen-and-Toubro (L and T), has robot installed at their power
plant used for machine loading.
4. Control Machine Tool Institute, Bangalore has developed FMS
based on robot, CNC lathe, conveyor and DC motor driven 4
axis arm.
5. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay (BARC) is using a
mobile robot of Repair, Maintenance and servicing of their
atomic reactor. Another articulated robot which is being used
in hot cell has 5-axis movements.
�so:rs
Robot 1s the offset of the second industrial revolution. It once, a
creature of science fiction and movies like 'Star Wars', is today a reality.
But the images conceptualised in the novels and movies tend to present
the behaviour ofrobot as human-alike. ;But in real sense, a robot is a re­
·
programmable machine having some human-b ody like structure.
Qompared to humans, robots yield more consisten t quality, more
predictable output and are more reliable. Similarly, robotics differs from
conventional automation, in its ability to perform on its own, going to
the extent of unmanning many operations. Robots have relieved man of
tedious, repetitive, mindless and hazardous jobs. Robots are just suitable
for real life applicati ons in automate d manufac turing and non­
manufacturing environments. They multiply the human energy-both
mental and physical. Automation and Robotics are two, closely related
technologies. The robotics are a part of 'Programm able Automation'
and 'Flexible Automat ion', both. However , i t is closer to the
Programmable Automation.
Use of 'Industrial Robot' was pop�larised as explosion in 1960s
along with CAD/CAM, leading to industrial automation. But the growth
of robotics slowed in 1980s, till date inspite of expectations, due to the
fact that the robots are being used in simpler, repetitive task, which do
not require high precision. But the 21st century predicts the man1ifacture
applications.

9.12 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
Appendages with- oxes
that allow movement
Fig. 7. Basic Components of a Robot's Manipulator.
'9).. 1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF ROBOT
/ In India, the Indus Valley Civilisation (5000 BC) was discovered
with toys that could move and duplicate the motions of wild animals as
puppets. Even epics like Ramayana and· Mahabharta depicted the flying
'Pushpak Vimans ' and fire weapons/arrows similar to missiles. These
were Indian concept of Robots, where as the term 'Robotics' was actually
coined by Isaac Asimov in around 1940 and had an origin in science
fiction only. But it was Karel Capek, whose play used the word Robota.
Some of the landmarks in the development of present day Robot are as
follows :
1921-1922 Czechoslovakian play writer Karel Capek
used a concept in his play Rossum's
(i)
Universal Robot (RUR). Robota in Czech
language means forced or compulsory
labour. Rossum and his son design a
human-like machine for serving humanity,
'
which later turns a dreadful creature.
(ii) 1954 G. Devol, known as father of Robot, firstly
patented his first point-to-point control
robot in USA.
CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.13
(iii) 1959 Planet Corporation, USA sold the very firs't
commercially available Robot.
(iv) 1967 George Devol, now working for Unimate
Inc., started producing the Industrial
Robots which were used for spray
painting.
(v) 1972 Continuous work at MIT (Massachusetts
Institute of Technology) since 1968
produced reimlts. General Motors (GM)
collaborated with Fanuc.
(vi) 1974 AL-the first Robot Programming
Language was developed at Stanford.
(vii) 1978 PUMA (Programmable Universal Machine
for Assembly) robot made by Unim.ate Inc.
for assembly, based on designs from a study
by General Motors (GM).
(viii) 1980 Tpe Robot Institute (RI) which is the
largest academic robot lab in US, at Mellon
was formed.
Robots of present time are fitted with various types of sensors,
information analysers and actuators. In simple terms, it is the machine
with some degree of intelligence, to be operated under the control of a
mini or micro-computer. These types ofrobot are-also sometimes referred
to as 'Industrial Robots'. The arm of the Industrial Robot is the most
widely used anthropomorphic (human like) characteristic. _This arm
combined with programming facility, makes it best suitable for variety
of production tasks e.g. material handling (pick and place), assembly,
spot welding and spray painting. It is therefore, we can say a concept of
a computer coupled with a flexible manipulator.
In many applications, robots are programmed by a teach-by-show
technique using either a pendant or a textural language. Increasingly,
though, there are moves to program robots using CAD/CAM methods
with a level of automatic programming. Methods for programming robots
are discussed in detail in the next topics but it is necessary to discuss
robots themselves before going on to the subject of programming them.
 CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.1 5
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COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

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 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
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9.16
V human beings unless it is in conflict with the first
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�BOT ANATOMY AND MANIPULATOR
Robot Anatomy is concerned with the physical construction of the
is sometimes referred to as Manipulator. The manipulator of an
body, arm and wrist of the machine. The body, arm and � rist assembly
industrial robot consists of a series of joints and links. Robot anatomy
deals with the types and sizes of these joints and links and other aspects
of physical construction of manipulator.
; Links are rigid components of the manipulator. The purpose of
1 joint is to provide controlled relative movement, between the two links
- Floor
. �.
Fig. 8. Series of Link-Joint combination (Anatomy)
Most of the robots today are mounted on a base, which is fastened
to floor
• Body is attached to base and arm assembly is attached to the
body.
• At the end of arm is the wrist; and the wrist consists of a number
of components which allow it to be oriented in a variety of
positions.
• To the robot's wrist is attached a hand, which is technically
known as "End-effector". Although end-effector is not considered
as a part of Robot's Anatomy.
• The arm and body joints "Position" the end-effector; whereas
wrist joints "Orient" the end-effector.
Relative movements between the various components of the body,
arm and wrist are provided by a series of joints. The manipulator may
be thought of as a set of bodies connected in a chain by joints. These
bodies are called links. A joirit is similar to joint in human body. Each
joint, or axis as it is sometimes called; provides the robot with a degree-
CIM AND ROBOTICS
9.17
of-freedom. Due to mechanical design considerations, manipulators are
constructed from joints which exhibit just one degree of freedom. Most
manipulators have
- revolute (R) joints or
- prismatic (P) joints, which are sliding joints.
It is very rare in robots that a mechanism is built with a joint
having n > 1 degrees of freedom.
Fig. 9. Revolute joint (R). Fig. 10. Prismatic joints (P).
out of which one is input link and other the output link.
The links are numbered starting from the immobile (fixed) base of
the arm, which might be called Link-0. The first moving body is Link 1
and so on. Typically all manipulators have five or sixjoints, because the
description of an object in space require six parameters-3 for positions
and 3 for orientation. The unimation PUMA-560 is a robot with 6 degrees
of freedom and all rotational joints (6R mechanism).
�ypes of Joints
The number of degrees offreedom that a manipulator possesses is
the number ofindependent positional variables that need to be specified.
In case of typical industrial robot, since a manipulator is normally an
open kinematic chain, because eachjoint position is usually defined by a
single variable so the number ofjoints equals the number of degrees of
freedom.
- In the case of rotary or revolute joints, the displacements
are called "Joint Angles".
- If some manipulators contain sliding or prismatic joints
where relative mot;ion is translation, it is called "Joint Offset".
Nearly all the robots have mechanical joints, which can be of five
types. Two of them provide translation motion and other three provide
1. L-Joint (Linear Joint). This joint provides a translational
Rotory Motion. These are of following types
sliding motion type of relative movement between the input link and
the output link; whereas the axes to two links remain parallel. This
motion can be achieved by a piston or telescoping mechanism.
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM A�D ROBOTICS · 9.1 9
9.18
3. R-Joint (Rotational Joint). This joint provides relative

"'----11 : .. , - .
Input link -- output link
:..-=..-=..-:..-:..""J..___ _, (o) rotational motion, whereas the axis of rotation being perpendicular to
the axes of input and output links.
Joint motion 4. T.Joint (Twisting Joint)� This joint is also having rotory
motion, but the axis ofrotation is parallel to the axes of two links.
5. V.Joint (Revolving Joint). The output link is perpendicular
(b)
Input link to the axis of rotation and revolves around the axis of input link so that
link the axis of rotation and axis of input link remain parallel. The output
link revolves about input link, as ifit were in orbit.
Joint motion
._
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(c) The range of movement of all the joints is limited, e.g.,
Input link 9 Output link - For translation joint, range is normally less than a meter.

d
- For rotory joints, range can �e few degrees and up to many
Joint motion
complete turns.
(d)
Input link Output link �GREE OF FRE�DOM O F ROBOT
A degree offreedom or axes or movements can be defined as the
Outpu t link
direction in which a robot moves when a joint is actuated or the
Joint motion

L
ce)
. Input link J-
industrial robot construction :
F·1g• n. Five types ofjoints commonly used in (0 j�i�t),
(a) Linear joint (L joint) (b) Orthogonal j�i�t
(T Jomt),
(c) Rotational joint (R joint), (d) 'rwisting Jomt
(e) Revolving joint (V joint).
2. 0-Joint (Orthogonal Joint). This is also
translat�onal slidi�g
t and output lmk remam
motion joint but with the axes of inpu
nt.
p�rpendicular to each other while moveme
Hyd cylin der
Bearing
various movements made by the manipulator of robot in different
directions. Robots are built with several degrees of freedom that
may vary from two to ten:
But here, six degrees of freedom or movements are available in
the majority of the robots. All these movements or axes can be
broadly divided into two groups :
- Major Axes
- Minor Axes
(i) In case of major axes, there are three axes, given as under
and they determine its maximum reach, as expressed by the robot's
work envelope :
- The vertical movement up and down in the Z-direction.
- The extension or "reach" and retraction of the arm in
horizontal (X) direction.
- The transverse rotation in direction about the base of the
robot or �n the ¥-direction when appearing in the cartesian
mode.
These axes are shown in Fig. 13.
(ii) In case of minor axes, there are three axes such as
- "Wrist pitch"; the P axis, which is the up and down

movement of the wrist. The maximum d!_�placement is 180°.

(o) (b) (c)
- "Wrist roll", the a axis, which is the rotation of the wrist
r guides, (b) pair of
Fig. 12. Construction of prismatic joints : (aJ roll� r. clockwise or counter-clockwise and maximum up to 270°.
hydraulic cylinders, (c) Machine slide
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.21
9.20
The views, corresponding to the top and side of the robot, are
Up and down known as Top view or Plan and Elevation view respectively. After
movement
(vertical) combining the plan view and the elevation view would,show the total

-1
Reach (horizontal)
volume.
� Horizoritor
I reoch

Swing

Rotati on -- 0° reference
point

Elevlllion

Head Fig. 15. Work envelope of a cylindrical coordinate robot.

9.18.1 Work Volume
manipulator,
Fi g. 13. Three-axis robot with cylindrical (post-type)
Work volume is the space within which a robot can manipulate its
ional axis, of movement. wrist end. 'Wrist End' movement is the term used to define work volume
illustrating two linear axes, and one rotat because o� to avoid the complication ofvariety of end-effectors (explained
ffector
- "Yaw ", the y axis, which is the movement of end-e later) available. The work volume is determined by the following physical
172°.
to the right or left. The maximum displacement is characteristics of the robot.
These are shown in Fig. 14. (i) Size of body, arm and wrist omponents.
(ii) Robot's physical configuration.
{iii) The limits of robots joint movements.
A cylin.drical co-ordina�e robot has a cylindrical work envelope, a
polar co-ordinate has a partial sphere and a cartesian co-ordinate one
has a cuboid .s�aped work space. The dimensions of arm components
and range ofJomt movements, determine the size of work volume.

Fig. 14. The three possible movements or axes of a robot wrist.

JI 9.18 WORK ENVELOPE

· The points that can be reached by the max imum
movements of each axis or of a combinati on.
is
of axes
calle d
;
as
or
and mini mum
the total area
Work Envelope.
(a) (b)

cylindrical, (c) polar.

(c)
Fig, 16. Work volumes for various robot anatomies : (a) cartesian, (b)
that the end ofthe arm ofrobot can reach ,
The work envelope of a robot is shown by Fig. 15.
 . 9.22 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS
9.23

9.19 ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS (RGPV, M.P. Dec. 2005) 9.19.1.1 Gantry Configuration
al cartesian confi guration resembling gantry with
Although various Robot Configurations form a part of Robot . . It is a spec�
Anatomy, but for this text purpose, it is explained separately. A robot mm1mum deflection along each axis.
manipulator can be divided into two sections
- A body + arm assembly
- Wrist assembly.
In most manipulators, the function of arm is different from the axis beam
wrist i.e. the function ofarm is to 'position' the payload and that of wrist
is to 'orient' it. So an ideal robot must have long links in arm (to allow
large displacements) and the wrist" mostly have zero length links. There
are 3 degree of freedom associated with body and arm; whereas 2 to 3
degrees of freedom associated with the wrist. The wrist configuration
involves three joints-roll , pitch and yaw. These all are explained
previously in section 8 of this chapter (Degree of freedom). There are
four basic configurations and one special derivation of the basic
configurations of robot as follows
(i) Cartesian co-ordinate configuration (3P)
(ii) Polar Configuration (2RP)
(iii) Cylindrical Configuration (R2P)
(iv) Articulate or Jointed-arm or Anthropomorphic (3R)
(u) SCARA (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm).

9.19.1 Cartesian Co-ordinate Configuration (3P)

The Cartesian or x,y, z arrangement is the only one to use all just Fig. 18. Gantry-configuration robot (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron).
prismatic (3P) joints. Due to translation movements, mathematically, 9.19.2 Polar Configuration (2RP)
this is the simplest system consisting of 3-perpendicular axes. Two of . The Polar or Spherical coordinate consists of a sliding arm (L type),
wh!c� can rotate about both a vertical axis (T joint) and a horizontal axis
the joints are orthogonal. It is easy to
(RJomt). The s�me are identified by r, 0 and $ . This configuration was
calculate that what joint movements adopt�d by u�1mate, the ?rst industrial robot. It is most suitable for
are needed to move the payload from mach1� e load1�g, unloading e.g. long straight reach into a press or
one place to other; without affecting moulding machine.
the payload orientation. This is
advantageous in Point-to-Point /
application e.g. loading/unloading
materials into machines or for
i nserting components into Printed
Circuit Boards (PCBs). These type of

'
i robots are restricted to Low-
Technologyrobotic systems. A gantry
� system rather than standing like a
pillar is more preferred one due to its Fig. 17. Cartesian coordinate
Fig. 19. Polar Co-ordinate body Fig. 20. Cylindrical body
rigidness. body-and-arm.
and arm. and arm assembly.
9.24 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.25

9.19.3 Cylindrical Configuration (R2P) 9.19.6 Comparison of Configurations

This configuration consists of one Revolute joint (T) and two SCARA
Cartesian Polar Cylindrical Articulate
prismatic joints. As shown in figure, a vertical column has a sliding arm
moving up and down. This column can rotate or swivel on its base (0 ) Poor Fair
1. Repeatability Easy to Poor Good
around for 300° . The remaining 60° is dead zone for safety of operation.
This' configuration is mostly found in Pick and place arms or for part teach point
feedings in assembly of an electric motor, where assembly is done on a in space
vertical axis, along which components such as bearings and shafts are to with min
be inserted. error .
2. Structure Most Rigid Less Rigid Least Rigid
9.1 9.4 Articulate or Jointed Rigid Rigid
Arm Configuration (3R) 3. Reach Lesser More Average More Average
This robot manipulator is in tree 4. Payload Good for 'Average Good Low Average
sense equivalent to human arm gantry
configuration. This is the reason, it is 5. To reach Good Best due
also known as Anthropomorphic small Lesser due to Fair to Less
configuration. The articulate robot opening geometry geometry
configuration has rotation about its
base. This configuration is most
popular due to its flexibility. It is very Note : Wrist Configurations are already explained in topic 8.8 of this
compact but has a large work volume chapter.
so best suitable for most industrial
robots. Fig. 21. Joint-arm body­ 9.20 ROBOT CONTROL SYSTEMS
and-arm assembly.
9.19.5 SCARA Configuration In order to operate an industrial robot, it must be driven through a
This is a little variation modified sequence of movements, which are controlled by a program (software),
from previous configurations, known but physically these motions are controlled through the controller.
as Selective Compliance Assembly Basically the main function of any robot ( especially industrial) is to place
Robot Arm (SCARA). This is similar the manipulator's 'end effector' at the same location and the same point;
to Jointed Arm configuration except over and over again. This positioning must be accurate and the drive
that the two rotational axes (shoulder mechanism must have some type of control system by which the
and elbow) . are vertically rigid, but positional and velocity data can be transmitted to the controller. The
have horizontal direction movement.
controller can compare these actual axis values with programmed data
Typically these type of configurations
carry very light paylo:Afs ranging from to ensure that the axis of the manipulator is travelling to the correct
2.5 kg to 25 kg. This makes it suitable programmed position and at the correct velocity. The basic hierarchical
for assembly needing insertion in mode control relationship between robot and controller is shown in figure.
vertical direction, where some side to The controller turns on (signals) the 'Joint Actuators', while signals
side alignment is needed to mate two from the joint sensors are returned to the controller and used for
parts properly. But it is more compact Fig. 22. SCARA. feedback. Each joint has its own feedback control system, and a
than cylindrical robot. supervisory controller coordinates the combined actuations of joints
9.26 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
Controller
Program
Interface
Processor
unit
storage
Pump or
power supply
Amplifiers
Fig. 23. Control Architecture of Robot.
according to robot program. According to the control systems, Robot
controllers can be classified into four categories :
l . Pick and Place or Limited Sequence Control or Non-servo
2. Playback robots with point-to-point Control or Servo
3. Playback with Continuous Path Control
4. Intelligent Control
9.21 LIMITED SEQUENCE CONTROL OR NO N-SERVO CONTROL
Limited Sequence Control robots represent the lowest and
elementary level of control. They are controlled by setting limit switches
or mechanical stops to establish the end-points of travel for each of their
joints. So mostly reaching the two end-positions and sequence of these
two stops involve a mechanical setup of manipulator and not due to
robot programming. It is not possible to select any intermediate stopping
point. There is no or almost very little feedback used to indicate whether
a particular joint actuation has been achieved. The number of distinct
points are limited and are defined by pegboard or sequential switch or
device (Like fan regulator).
CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.27
Non-servo Control is the simpler of the two types of controls.
This sends a signal to the power supply that turns it fully on or fully
off. In response, the manipulator moves until it runs into a stop. A
non-servo spherical robot is shown in Fig. 24. The arm rotates
between the . two steps at points, A and B.
St0p A O Stop B
Cylinoer
Fig. 24. Plan view of a non-servo spherical coordinate robot..
The arm "bangs" into the stops at point A and B and hence this
type of robot is also called a "bang-bang robot". The manipulator of a
non-servo robot is powered by either :
- Hydraulics
- Pneumatics
- Electrics
9.2 1 . 1 Non-servo H·y draulic Robots
Mostly manipulators of non-servo robots are powered by either
hydraulic or pneumatic. A non-servo hydraulic robotic system includes
cylinder and piston arrangement. This hydraulic system pumps oil.
When the manipulator moves from point A to point B then oil is
pumped into the cylinder. A non-servo hydraulic robot is shown in
Fig. 25. When the manipulator "bangs" into the end stop at B, it hits
the end stop very hard. The force of hitting the end stop may be
great enough to jar the mechanical stop out of place, which is
undesirable. This problem can be eliminated either by adding a limit
switch or by using a shock absorber in the system.
In the first method, when the arm pushes the limit switch, and
electrical signal is sent to the hydraulic system and the flow of the
hydraulic fluid is reduced. The manipulator then touches to a stop
against the mechanical end stop.
9.28 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
Stop A O Stop B
Cylinoer
Fig. 25. Plan view of a non-servo hydraulic robot.
In the second method, a shock absorber is being used to solve
down the movement of robotic arm. When the arm reaches near the
end stop, the shock absorber as shown in Fig. 26 slows the arm before
it bangs into the end stop.
Stop A
Cylinder
Shock
Absorber
Fig. 26. Plan view of a non-servo hydraulic robot with absorber.
9.2 1 .2 Non-servo Pneumatic Robots
In non-servo pneumatic robot, the air is fed into the cylinder
through air line to move the manipulator from point A to point B.
The arrangement of this system is shown in Fig. 27. In this system,
the air is fed to the cylinder through air line 1 , line 2 at output is
disc�mnected from the system and air is allowed to escape to the
atmosphere. Now, manipulator begins to move from point A to point
B. The robot's' arm continues to move until it "bangs" into the
mechanical stop at point B. To move the arm from point B to point A,
air is fed to the cylinder through air line 2 and air line 1 is disconnected
from the system and air allowed to escape to the atmosphere. As air
is fed to the system, the manipulator begins to move. It continues to
move until it 'bangs' into the D mechanical stop at point A.
�
CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.29
The control of robot in this system is inefficient by hooking up
one air line and disconnecting the other line again and again. It
becomes so difficult to operate the system. To avoid this difficulty,
solenoid values can be used for the operation of the system. Solenoid
values, which are electrically operating devices, control the flow of
air to and from the cylinder automatically. When a voltage is applied
to the value, the value turns on and air is allowed to flow from the
air compressor's storage tank thro"tigh the value and to the cylinder
on the manipulator.
Stop A 0 Stop B
Air \in:!
'----+--------__J Air line 2
Fig. 27. Plan view of the cylinder and manipulator of a non-servo
pneumatic robot.
9.2 1 .3 Non-servo Electric Robots
Non-servo electric robots are not common in industries and
can be built using electric motors. There are number of operational
problems in the use of electric motors in these robots. Out of all
other problems, OJ\e of the major problem is that electric motors do
not survive the shock of the manipulator �anging into the end stop.
This problem could be overcome if special clutches were used, but
addition of the special clutches would complicate the design,
construction and maintenance of the robot. So due to these reasons,
designers of industrial robots have chosen to ignore electric motors
as an option for powering non-servo robots and hydraulic o r
pneumatic systems preferred as these are simple and perform well.
Note : Pick and place robots are mostly pneumatic since there is
no need for servo-control of-position.
9.30 /
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.31

9.21.4 '"�teristics Feedback

r-------------------- .----r---,
i.%.::::ristics are I
I
I
I
(i) They are fast and cheaper. • I
I
(ii) They involve _simple motions. I
I
(iii) They are limited to pick-and-place transfer operations.
(iv) They have mostly only 3 or 4 degree offreedom. Signal
(v) Designs are generally modular (in small parts), allowing O�tputted Input Amplifier Signal to
rom microprocessor
users to select how many doff they need. comparator robot Actuator

9.22 POINT-TO-POINT SERVO CONTROL OR PLAYBACK WITH

POINT TO POINT CONTROL
Robots employing closed-loop control are termed servo-controlled
robots or simply servo-robots. This robot as shown in Fig. 28, which
involves placing a servo-mechanism on each joint which effectively
checks both the position of the joint and the position in which the
controller wants the joint and then moves the arm until the two
positions coincide.
Point to point playback robots have a more sophisticated control in
which a series ofpositions or motions are "taught" to the robot, recorded
into memory (explained in next topic) and then repeated by the robot
under its own control. PTP robots have servo position control of each
axis and go through a sequence of specified points. The path between
these points is not specified. The term 'p layback', means that the
controller has a memory to record the locations, sequence of motions
'Fig. 8.28.
Point-to-point robots are the most commor.. of three
classifications of servo controlled robot. It can be taught
(programmed) to move from any point to any other point within its
work envelope. This versatility greatly expands its potential
applications. It can be used for machine loading and unloading
applications as well as for more complex applications such as spot
welding, assembly, grinding, inspection, palletizing and depalletizing.
The point to point robot can move along more than one of its
axes at a time but it does not necessarily move in a straight line
between two points. The vertical movement is much smaller than
the horizontal movement required to move from one point (P) to
another point (P2) as shown in Fig. 29.

Yi � ··
and parameters (such as speed) in a given work-cycle {Teach} and then PTP

I
playback all these during execution of program.
If a programmer want to have a control over a continuous path,
then he has to teach points at a very small distances of a series of points
along the desired path. The architecture of this closed-loop servo has

1 L-_� _:_._
- An input comparator, for comparing output signal of
microprocessor and feedback pulses from the joints. o ..__
I' · ______
"____
- Amplifier, for amplifying the difference between command
y

pulses and feedback pulses. Fig. 29. Point-to-point motion control.

- Actuator i.e., a hydraulidpneumatidelectric motor.

To program a point to point robot, the programmer pushes
buttons on a "teach pendant"(See Fig. 78), a control device much in
- Feedback converter to give pulses in acceptable form to shape like a calculator. To rotate the robot about its base, a button
comparator. is pushed and the robot turns. To extend the manipulator another
push button is pressed. After reaching the desired point, another
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.33
9.32

button is pressed to record that point in computer ' s memory and so As the robot is taught the desired program,'the control examines
on. Points can be inserted at closely or widely spaced intervals. In the location of the manipulator hundreds of times per second and
playback all axes move in 'race ' i.e. whichever axis has the smallest stores each point in memory for playback at a later time. Actually,
distance to move will reach its position first, then wait for others.
Hence, resultant path between two points cannot be predicted. Point­ this robot is a form of the point-to-point robot. The continuous path
to-point robots are mostly powered by hydraulic and electric motors, robot is programmed differently than the point-to-point robot and
as they show a superior, dynamic performance. the controlled path robot. This type ofrobot is used for spray painting,
arc we_lding, or any other op�ration which requires constant control
9.23 CONTI N UOUS PATH CONTROL WITH PLAYBACK of the robot' s path. The main difference between this robot and point
In continuous path controlled robots, a series of closely space points to point robot is the ability of control to remember thousands of
describe the desired path. The individual points are internally defined programmed points. Th.e continuous path motion of the robot is shown
by the Control Unit rather than the programmer. Programmer specifies in Fig. 31.
the starting and end point and the path and then the intermediate points
are itself calculated by controller. z CONTINUOUS PATH
Continuous path robot can be programmed to ·follow any path
such as an arc, a circle, or a straight line. To program this type of
'< -t ���
robot, the manipulator is programmed by grabbing hold of the robot's
arm and actually leading the arm through the path th'at we wish the
/ I
).v- ·.. � •.• ,o=:==1,--.
Programmed Point
)'
/
/ I
/
/ I
I Reol-time programming points
I ore outomoticolly programmed
I Programming U1lng
I
I

,·
• T•eching Arm

.. /
I
, '/, / Fig. 81. Continuous path.
I
. l l Difference between PTP and Continuous Path robots is that in
PTP dx, dy, dz are controlled but in CP dx/dt (i.e. Vx) or dy/dt (i.e. Vy) or

�.··-. - \ _�_J
dzldt (i.e. Vz) are controlled. Continuous Path Control is required mostly
for spray coating and ArcWelding.
. ·· I --
1 ;
1 <. ·. - �· ., 9.23.1 Characteristics of Playback Control
:. Fig. 30. Linearly interpolate� controlled path motion. (i) Greater storage capacity required in controllers as compared
. to PTP due to rec:ording of more positions.
robot to remember. The robot reme mbers not only the exact path
through which the programmer leaci.s the manip�lator but also the (ii) More positional accuracy due to feedback and that also can
speed at which the programmer moves' the manipulator. If any change be varied by changing gain of amplifiers.
is required in the arm ' s speed then speed can be controlled by (iii) Expensive, as they need a more sophisticated controller/
adjusting at the control console an� this change in speed will not microprocessor and feedback devices.
give any effect on the path of the ro�ot's arm.
 9.34
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.35

(iv) Greater flexibility in programming, because robots can be have branches selected by sensor signals, or to accept certain values,
taught by 'Teach Pendant'. such as a desired gripper rotation angle, from an external source.
(v) Even velocity of the joints can be controlled i.e . .motion This section concentrates on non-sensory robots. Such a robot is
without a 'bang'. always driven by a program, whether this is a sequence of indivisible
actions, a sequence of target positions or a continuous record of position
9.24 INTE LLIG ENT ROBOT CONTROLS or velocity. If this program is acquired by somehow causing the robot to
acking the
Intelligent control of robots includes not only playb go through the required motions while these are recorded, the robot is
with its envir onme nt in a way t�at the
motion cycle path but to interact umt mu�t said to be taught. Whether teaching is a ·form of programming or an
This mean s that the contr oller
robot seems to be intelligent.
be a digital computer or PLC. They can alter the progr � med pat � 1.n alternative to it is merely a question of definition on which there is no
age m p �th. Th1� 1s universal agreement. This section describes four basic methods of
response to environment e.g. a hindrance or block
r data received dunng
done based on logical decisions taken due to senso teaching and programming (See Article 8.33). Many robots allow a choicti
usually programmed
operation itself. Intelligent controlled robots are or combination of these methods so that taught sequences can be
rities of compu�er
using English-like language, mostly having simila interspersed with or embedded in a program which has been written off­
and Arc-weldmg
languages. Typical applications are Assembly tasks line. Also, when the user teaches a robot a pair of path end points, the
operations. detailed trajectory of the arm between them may be generated by the
Characteristics : same software regardless of whether the end points were taught by
sive
(i) The -controllers are complex computers, the most expen leading through or were programmed off-line.
ones.
nt.
(RGPV, M.P. June 2004)
(ii) Robots are capable of interacting with environme
9.2�0RMANCE SPECIFICATIONS OF ROBOT
logica l decisions of somet hing goes
(iii) Robots can make certain
wrong in operation cycle. The performance characteristics of a Robot are determined by the
(iu) This control can communicate with humans, even can accept control system it has. However, some physical specifications are desired
human voice 'commands'. by the users while choosing a robot for a given task. These specifications
ng
(v) Faster computer can do the computations, while worki also assess whether a robot's performance has degraded with time. It
during operation itself. also makes a basis for designing End-effectors. The performance
helpful in
(vi) Advanced sensor inputs like Machine Vision are parameters or specification include one or more of the followings :
the responses. (i) Geometric Configuration
the 'de.cis�on­
(vii) An advanced programming language to input (ii) Degree of freedom
making logic' and other "Intelligence" (say Fuzzy logic) rnto (iii) Load-Carrying Capacity/Payloa,d
ll memory.
(iv) Speed of Motion
9.25 METHODS OF TEACHING ROBOTS (v) Spatial Resolution
How does an industrial robot determine what movement to make (vi) Positional Accuracy
next ? There are two extreme possibilities : the movement is calculated (vii) Repeatability
at the current time, or it is replayed from an existing program or (viii) Programming Methods.
recording. The first method is necessary if the robot is to res� ond (ix) Work volume.
continuously to sensory inputs, e.g. if it is to follow a surface us1� g _a
proximity sensor. Otherwise, t?e secon� method _can be used. This 1s ,26.1 Geometric Configurations
the method in general use. An mtermed1ate case 1s for the program to The geometric configurations such as Cartesian, Polar, SCARA,
lindrical are already explained and their applications suggested. .We·
,choose any one of them depending upon the application requirement.
 I
CIM AND ROBu 1 1v» 9.37
9.36 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

(i) Number or'bits used by controller, to define co-ordinates :

9.26.2 Degree of Freedom
L
A truly general purpose Robot needs at least 6 controlled degrees i.e. CR = -K
--
of freedom, excluding the End-effector, but keeping in view the cost 1 2 -1
factor the two-axis wrists are more popular because of economical and where L = Length of axis in mm.
workable solutions. K = Number ofbits to represent axis length.
9.26.3 Payload or load Carrying Capacity (ii) Electro-mechanical characteristic of the Robot; Electro­
mechanical characteristics include gear backlash, elastic
Thepayload refers to weight of a workpiece carried or tool external deflections of mechanical linkages such as leadscrew,
to robot and does not include the gripper, which is considered as a part differential gear etc.
ofrobot. This lifting capacity of the manipulator is called its payload. If
the robot is dedicated for one purpose and has a built-in tool, then the _ pitch of movement
i.e. CR2
specification 'Payload' is not relevant. However, payload capacity ranges - steps of stepper motor

from a kilogram to several tons. The size, configuration, construction The control Resolution (CR) ofthe Robot System is maximum
and drive system determine. the load carrying capacity of the robot. This of both i.e.,
payload should be : CR = Max (CR 1 , CR2)
Specified under the condition that the robot's arm is in its
weakest condition e.g. the arm at its maximum extension. 9.26.6 Positional Accuracy
Quoted for more than one condition, because the payload Another important specification of any robot is its Positional
affects speed and accuracy. Accuracy. The Accuracy of robot operation is 'how closely a robot can
Ifgripper attached then its weight should be subtracted from payload position its payload to a given programmed point'. Accuracy is the robot's
capacity figure, to get the net weight carrying capacity. ability to position its wrist end at desired point within its work volume.
Since, t�is is done by servo-control and servos are never perfect, so
9.26.4 Speed of Motion there will always be an error.
The industrial robot's normally range for a speed less than 17 cm/ In worst case, the desired point would lie in mid-way of two adjacent
sec. This speed also determines how quickly the robots can complete a control increments.
work-cycle. This specification is desirable in mass-production/Assembly
cycle tasks. But this specification again variably depends upon :
(a) The weight of object being moved. •i
(b) The accuracy with which the end effector need to be
positioned.
(c) The distances to be moved. axis
Becaus� heavier objects have greater inertia and momentum, the
Accuracy
robot must be operated slowly to maintain accuracy. Adjocent addressable
Resolution ----i
point
9.26.5 Spatial Resolution ,_j
_
_ __

The spatial resolution of Control Resolution (CR) of a robot is the

smallest increment of movement, into which the robot divides its work
volume; or; It is defined as distance between two adjacent addressable
points in axis movement. It is basically the robot controller's capability
to divide the total range of axis movement into closely spaced,
distinguishabie points. This depends upon
Fig. 32. Accuracy and Resolution Ignoring Mechanical Characteristics.
Excluding the mechanical inaccuracies, which would reduce the
accuracy, assume that in worst case, robot gripper would stop in midway,
the two adjacent addressable points as shown in figure 32. So accuracy
is one-half of Resolution, in worst case. The accuracy depends upon a
· .
number of factors as follows :
9.38 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.39

(i) Geometry of robot e.g. accuracy varies with work volume or

when arm is extended the positional error is greater.

t;---
(Fig. 33)

1
___ _ --
More error with
t extended arm
___ _ ___ _ -
------ .:J
Low Accuracy High Accuracy Normal
- --- T@..:==.:.==�-:1- High Repeatability High Repeatability Distribution
(c) (d) (e)
Fig. 33. Fig. 34.
(ii) Payloads, the robot will tend to deflect under heavy loads Ifsame error is repeated Fig. 34 (c) we can say repeatability is high
and increased inertia will affect the servos. but accuracy is poor. ISO standard defines several types ofrepeatability
(iii) Configuration ofjoints, because prisma�ic (P) joints are rigid as follows :
than revolute (R) ; So cartesian controllers are most accurate (i) One-way pose repeatability (Orientation on one side of the
than others. position of payload or some reference point).
(ii) Multi-way pose repeatability.
(iv) Speed, i.e. low speed robots are more accurate because slower
controllers allow more time for servo to settle down i.e. more (iii) Stability, stabilization time (e.g. short term repeatability or
accuracy. long term repeatability)
(iv) Path repeatability.
Hence, the accuracy of a linear axis is one-half the control
(v) Overshoot and undershoot on transition between two straight
resolution plus the mechanical error.
paths.
(v) ReP_ea tability. Repeatability is another term which From above it is clear, that repeatability refers to robot's ability to
characterise the robot. Repeatability is the robot's ability to return to programmed point when commanded to do so. The repeatability
position its wrist at a point, in space, taught previously to error of a robot with 5 or 6 axes in approximately 'Normal' ; where
robot. It is a statistical term. It does not describe the error repeatability errors surround the programmed point 'P'. In robot
with respect to absolute co-ordinate, but it describes how a specifications, repeatability is given by radius of the idealised sphere in
point is repeated. mm or hundredths of an inch.
Repeatability is often more important than accuracy since, accuracy Repeatability = ± 3cr (er = Standard DeviationofNormal
error is constant. Distribution)
CR
and Accuracy = - ±3cr
2
Accuracy = c: + Repeatability

9.27 BASIC ROBOT ELEMENTS

High Accurate
There are many basic components/elements of an industrial
Low Accurate
Low Repeatability
�obot and these are as given under :
Low Repeatability
(b) (i) Controller
(a)
(ii) Manipulator
9.40 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.41

(iii) End effector or gripper, holding a part or a tool

Drums
(iv) Sensors
Pegs
9.27.1 Controller
The controller is the heart of a robotics system and involves
many different key areas of research. It functions as the coordinating
system (like a brain) of the robot and is based on a computer or a
system of computers. I n advanced industrial robots, the control
computer is capable of a level of artificial intelligence and not only
runs the robots through its programmed moves but also integrates
it with ancillary machinery or devices. The controller can also
monitor the processes and can make decisions, based on system
demands, while at the same time reporting to a supervisory controller.
It performs the functions of storing and sequenceing data in memory,
initiating and stopping the motions of the manipulator and interacting
with the environment.
There are five basic types ofrobot controls or controllers in use
today, listed as below :
Drum controller (b)
Air logic controller Fig. 35. Drum controllers.
Programmable controller.
All of these controllers have the same purpose i.e. to direct the
Microprocessor based controller.
motion of the robot's manipulator. Each control has its own
Mini Computer based controller.
advantages and disadvantages :
Elbow
(a) Drum Controller. This is the oldest type of controller used
-�
Hydraulic

/4·,r. ).
Electrical Ext•:tnslon \
Power Unit in r_obotics. It is simple and reliable but has its limited versatility. It
����dar .
can only be used for pick-and-place robots only.
This controller is similar to a music box: As drum rotates, the
.

�
/ ·� I .

,i �.
����
pegs fitted on it bending strips of spring steel. As the peg clears the
strips of spring steel, the spting steel strip is released and it vibrates
sounding a note. The drum controller i s also a drum and i t
has hundreds o f holes in it. Small pegs are inserted into the holes.As
. \---
' .,..�
the drum rotates, the small pegs close the switches which are wired
to hydraulic or pneumatic valves. The opening of valve is due to
closing of switch and robot's manipulator moves. It is now obsolete.
I

Compute Control
(b) Air Logic Controller. This is also used for simple pneumatic
pick-and-place robots. This is made up of group of small penumatics
Computer Control

valves and timers. When a main valve opens, the robot's manipulator
moves.
(c) Programmable Controller. This controller is an electronic
version of the drum controller and air logic controller. The memory
is stored electronically in this controller. This is also used for pick-
(a)
 9.42 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.43

and-place robots. These controllers are programmed through a
keyboard that looks similar to a typewriter. Many of these also have
a CRT to display the program that has been entered into its memory.
These controllers are used for many other functions in the automated
factory such as to control the conveyor systems, machinery and
storage systems.
(d) Microprocessor based controller. This controller is the
most popular type of all robot controls. It can be used with any type
of robot such as pick-and-place, point-to-point, controlled path and
continuous path types robots. It is computer based device designed
I . for robots only and controls every thing of robots.
(e) Mini computer based controller. In this case, the output
of small computer is fed into a specialized electronic control cir.cuit
to control the robot's manipulator. For example, computers can be
Depending upon the different tasks to be performed by robot,
different designs of End-effector are available. The 'End-effector can be
mechanical to grip a part or vacuum to lift a part or electro-magnet to
lift and move a part. The design of End-effector should be flexible enough,
so that it must be able to perform another task such as lifting another
type of part without redesign. The End-effector is generally mounted at
the end of manipulators arm. This mounting is called End-Effector
Mounting Flange. The end-effector is screwed on the bolt hole pattern
of flange in such a way that end-effector can be mounted in different
planes'. An end-effector can either be a :
(i) A gripper, or grasping device.
(ii) A tool e.g. a screw driver known as End-of-Arm-tooling.
j c::'- �
Rock & Pinion
/ drive for
e och---.
jow

hooked to a printer to print out information and its output can be

processed by additional electronics, amplified and used to open and
close valves on the robot's manipulator.
Robots having higher pay-loads are manipulated through a t' c_
minicomputer based controller. ·-._
9.27.2 Mani pulator

4 _______
·-- __._....
It consists of the base, arm and wrist, the most obvious parts of
the robot. It is the mechanism that provides movements for any
number of degrees offreedom. The movement of this can be described
in relation to its coordinate system which may be cylindrical,
', ) \.
E--� ,,.
spherical, anthropomorphic or cart_�sian (See Fig. 16). The robot ( (. ( 1 Ru::.k
........
· , ·; ,_' ·')'·n;or·
/

movements are executed by the mechanical parts like : links, power -

_-
_-.----------1 :I
, .

joints and transmission system alongwith internal sensors housed

�-S,.,,-·-- --
_

- -----··-· ------- - ----·- -· . -l

•
within the manipulator. Depending on the controller, movement can
be ser�o or non-servo controlled and can be a point to point motion
or a continuous path motion.

9.27.3 End-Effectors
For an assembly task, a robot must be equipped with an application­
dependent device, called an End-effector. End-effector is the hand or
gripper which can be a mechanical, magnetic or vacuum device for
handling the parts. The most general way of doing is to provide a hand
Fig. 36, End-Effecters.
like end-effector attached to the end of robot's arm.
9.44 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.45
9.27.3.1 Grippers (hands)
The gripper is used to hold, lift and transfer parts from one location 9.27.3.1.1 Mechanical Grippers
to another. Industrial robots generally have a two-jaw gripper because The 'mechanical gripper is an end-effector that uses mechanical
the objects are generally workparts that are to be moved by the robot. fingers actuated by a mechanism to grasp an object. The fingers
Most of the grippers grip by friction or mechanical fitment. Grippers can sometimes calledjaws actually make contact with the object. Sometimes
be classified as they could be detached and replaced. The function of gripper mechanism
- Single grippers, which has only one grasping device mounted is to translate some form of power (pneumatic or hydraulic) into the
on Robot's Wrist.
grasping action of fingers against a component i.e. by applying surface
- Double grippers, which has two gripping devices attached to
pressure. The friction method of holding part is lesser complicated and
the wrist for handling two separate objects for simultaneously
loading and unloading applications e.g. unloading a part from lesser expensive.
machine to conveyer-1 and at same time loading new part
from conveyer-2 to the machine (i.e., exchange operation).
- Multiple grippers, are superset of double grippers where more
than one parts are exchanged say in bottling plant.
- Interchangeable finger gripper, can change fingers accordin�
to the shape of object handled.

Fig. 38. Cripper Used to Transfer Parts.

Since the gripper must make contact with the surface area, two
cases arise.
(i) Sufficient frictional force must be applied on surface to pull
Loading Unloading the weight of part.
· at (,ne at other
machine machine (ii) Gripper ;must have sufficient contact force to avoid slippage.
locarion location Although the above described classifications of grippers (single,
Fig. 37. Double gripper. double, multiple) are also for mechanical grippers but based on which of
surface is held, are classified as
Another way of classifying the gripI?ers is according to the method (i) Inside Diameter Gripper
used for holding/grasping the object, as follows - Two Point Contact
(i) Mechanical Grippers - Captivation Contact (for circular only)
(ii) Vacuum Grippers (ii) Outside Diameter Gripper
(iii) Magnetic Grippers - Three Pad Gripper
(iu) Adhesive Grippers - Four Point Contact Vee block.
(u) Piercing Grippers
(i) Inside Diameter Gripper. In this gripper the finger pads are
(vi) Hooks, Scoops and Other Miscellaneous Devices.
mounted on the outside of finger and they extend below the fingers of
gripper. These pads fit inside diameter or surfaces to lift it by pressing
9.46 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.47

the pads. Two point contact has two pads (circular or rectangular) that
fit into the inside. Captivation or flexible grip has the pad made of
polyurethane which exactly fits into inside diameter of the component.

I
I
Pod

•
I [( Part

I
I

(c)
Fig. 40. Four-point Contact with Vee Blocks.
(a) Two point contact (b) Captivation grip 9.27.3. 1 .2 Vacuum Grippers
Vacuum grippers has
auction caps which use vacuum
instead �f fingers to lift a part.
The parts handled are flat,
amooth · and clean object.
egative pressure is applied to
omponcnts so that they adhere
the grippers (cups). The cups
e made are made of soft elastic
(c) Finger type. aterial such as rubber or soft
lastic. The lift capa<:ity of
Fig. 39. Contact for an Inside Diameter Gripper.
uction cup depend upon the
(ii) Outside Gripper. An outside diameter gripper is designed to ffective area of cup and
pick up a (similar) family of parts with same shapes. The fingers of gripper, egative air pressure between Fig. 41.
which are made of hard surfaces with knurlin'g which bite into the part. p and object.
Another Vee block has four point contacts which has pads made of F = PA
polyurethane. where P = Negative pressure
A = Projected Area of Cup
No. of cups can be increased depending upon the surface area and
eight of the object. These are also used for light weight material such
newspaper.
27.3.1.3 Magnetic G rippers
Magnetic gripper use the effect of magnetic fi elJ with ferrous metals.
lsm current flowing through electromagnet develops a magnetic field. The
vantages of Magnetic grippers are :
(i) Pickup time is very fast.
(a) (b)
 CIM AND ROBOTICS
9.48 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING 9,49

(ii) Part size variations can be tolerated.

(iii) Parts with holes can be handled (not possible with vacuum)
(iv) Require only one surface for gripping.
(v) Heaviest part can be lifted by strong magnets.
(ui) Flat and round washers are ideal for magnets.
These are generally electro magnetic and not permanent magnets
because of washers higher capacity needs and also because it can be
turned off. But the object must be held by a surface parallel to avoid
falling.
Fig. 43. Special gripper for insertion ofresistance.
9.27.3.2 End-of-arm Tooling (EOAT)
Sometime a robot is required to manipulate a tool rather than a
workpart. The work performed may be a welding application, a gluing
application and so on. The EOAT is mounted on end-effector flange with
� safety joint between tool and robot manipulator. Sometimes a gripper
1s also used especially designed to grasp and handle the tool. The reason
for using a gripper may be to have more than one tool to be exchanged
during cycle. This mechanism is known as fast change tool holder. The
figure below shows the EOAT for Arc as well as Spot Welding. In a
typic appiication of EAOT, the robot must not only
� - Control the relative position of tool w . r. t. work, but also
Control the operation of tool.

Fig. 42. Dual magnetic gripper

9.27.3.1.4 Adhesive Grippers

In these grippers, an adhesive substance such as sticky tape is
used to pickup and hold a flexible material such as fabric or ribbon etc.
The component (fabric) is grapped on one side only. But continuous use
of gripper, looses the tackiness of tape. To overcome this the adhesive
material is loaded in the fQrID. ofcontinuous ribbon into feeding mechanism
fitted on robot wrist like typewriter ribbon.
(a) Arc welding (b) Spot welding
Fig. 44. End-of-Arm Tooling for Welding.
A few examples of tools used as end-effector are :
(i) Spot welding guns
9.27.3. 1 .5 Piercing Grippers
These gripper puncture the component to lift it. This technique is
used only where slight damage to the component is acceptable. (ii) Arc welding torches
(iii) Spray painting guns
(iu) Rotating spindle for drilling, grinding
9.27.3.1.6 Hooks, Scoops
Hooks can be used as end-effectors in robots to hold the containers (v) Glue laying device
of parts especially loading/unloading from overhead conveyors scoops
(ui) Heating torch
and ladles can be used to handle certain materials in liquid, powder or
flake form.
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS "9.51
9.50
(vii) A pneumatic screw driver tool cylinder
(viii) Water jet cutting tool.
9.27.3.3 Gripper Mechanism
of
Translation gripper mechanisms are generally used in grip?ers
simplicity and cheap er/mo dular design s. A
industrial robots because of
few of them are Gripper
(a) Rack and pinion
(b) Screw type gripper
(c) Intermeshing teeth type gripper.
___
. .
Fig. 48. Pneumatic Cylinder for a Gripper.
9.27.4 Sensors
In certain robot applications, the type of wor kstation cohtrol
using interlocks is not adequate. The robot must take on mol'e human
like senses and capabilities in order to perfo i:m the task in a

'-----·
, --·-·---·-------- .J satisfactory way. There are following types of sensors used in robotfos
as shown in Fig. 49
Fig.45. (a) Machine Vision Sensors. A robot vision system r �fe rs to
a �vice wh�ch forms an image of the work s �ene, . p:rocesses it
auto�ically and generates appropriate control comm?,nd.s for a robot .
arm.
A robot vision system may be depicted in block diagram form as
shown in Fig. 50.
In man ufacturing, robot vision systems may serve to recognise
and sort parts on a belt conveyer, to acquire unorien ted p arts piled
in a feed bin, to measure the coordinates and size of mov.ing objects
Fig. 46. Standard parallel jaw grip. to be gripped, to determine the coordinates of key poi nts and to orient
parts in an assembly work ce�l, to evaluate the quality of surface
finish etc.

o--[r-�
Motor
. Reducing
(b) Ranging/Detection Sensors. Ranging- detection sensor
systems are those which permit a robot to detect moving and
gear box stationary objects to locate their positions within the service region,
to guide the arm as appropriate and to cause the end effector to
grasp moving objects by using active and passive ranging- dete'ction
Fig. 47. Screw Type Gripper. techniques. Most ranging-detection sensor systems operate on the
9.52
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.53

· Sensors touch
slip
stress
In block-diagram form, this sensor system is shown in Fig. 51.

'lt.ngi.Dg/Detoction Tactile and. Voice

Machine
Proximity
Vision Mechanical OutpUl
Strain Componcot
Structure Amplifier, rc:rol...cr
gauge Sign.I
Vce1or wilh elastic
mcmbcn

Toacb Slip
Fig. 51. Block diagram of a Tactile/force sensor system.
Touch sensors are used simply to indicate whether contact has
been made with an object. A simple microswitch can serve the purpose
of a touch sensor.
Stress sensors are used to measure the magnitude of the contact
force. Strain gauge devices are typically employed in force-measuring
..
"d n
·Q
.!2 sensors.
.� :a "E ""fl
·-
;;
J:> ] In inspection, touch sensing would be useful in gauging
CJ
·E
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�5 Be -8� -8o
·.:,
"
Cl
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o,Q
11 .an :;6
"3
.- B .z;. �
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� u "'
.a
8 ·..5 :a
s i e
13 u
� ·s "°
� 8 a
CJ
·.§a8 operations and dimensional measuring activities.

·- E •1:l � J �- ·;;;0
.,
g ] J:� �
J! -� ·s
::t -
g U C
o,Q
F(oximity sensors are used to sense when one object is close to

1�� 1 g ... rl a0.

C
., � � �
��f
g ; ] .5? g
j 8 ·o. 1.l _g
t:J < O CX: o.. I
:::1 :¥ 8
JL�
J,.:.:l 0.. Ul 0.. (/) 08
anothei'otject. On a robot, the proximity sensor would be located on
or near the end effector. This capability can be engineered by means
of optical-proximity devices, eddy-current proximity detectors,
Fig. 49. Class ification of industrial robot senso rs. magnetic-field sensors, or other devices. These are used to indicate
Output the presence or absence of a workpiece or other object. They could
Image preprocessor Image
Object Optical Light to Signal
and storage Post processor Signal be helpful in preventing injury to the robots human workers in the
Image unit Convertor
'------' factory.
m.
Fig. 50. Block diagram of a machine vision syste (d) Voice Sensors. This area of robotics research is Voice
ze the emis sion and
echo -sou nder or radar prin ciple-they utili sensing or voice programming. Voice programming can be defined as
es.
reception of acoustic or electro-magnetic wav the oral communication of commands to the robot or other machine.
sens ors a eddy -current _detect?rs The robot controller is equipped with a speech recognition system
. Examples are magnetic-field ��
weld ed Jomt s. In cases mvol:mg
used to determine the position of ld be gwen
which analyses the voice input and compares it with a set of stored
est, prefe renc e shou
long distances to the objects of inter word patterns. When a match is found between the input and the
to ultrasonic range sensor systems. . stored vocabulary word, the robot performs some action which
sensors provide
(c) Tactile and Proximity Sensors. Tactile corresponds to that word.
contact forces between
the robot with the capabilities to respond to The robot o f this type could be placed in the hazardous
These sensors can be
itself and other objects with its work volu me. environment and remotely commanded to perform the repair chores
divided into three types as by means of step-by-step verbal instructions.
 9.54 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS
9.55

The detailed classification is shown in Fig. 52.

9.27.5 Energy Source
Energy source is required to cause movement of the manipulator
r
Closs i Hand ling robotic systems
(rc,bo ts, manio ulolcr s, robotic work u., its) ]
arm. They may take the form of electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic L !
devices.
9.28 CLASSIFICATION OF R06C'if�
The robots are available in different sizes, forms and with
°

different capabilities. Various types of robots can be classified as : ·

(A) On the basis of Physical Characteristics :
i

l
r....:......

�
1

- Manipulation robotic systems

- Mobile robotic systems
- Data-acquisition and control robotic systems.
(B) On the basis of Work Envelope :
Form
1�:,
o-,, j5E
o o
Lt �
I-
� � : L.'
,1

-o : l.
�

"'
·;

�
E
0
to
Q)

CT'I �
le. ::
I - I j' 8,._E I· I
�
E·
Rectangular coordinate robot
O -�
I CJ ' L
- Cylindrical coordinate robot
I.fl/ a./ � El 1 i �
c:

L�,l. (,�,
C 0 CJ

�
M I -� � aj

- Spherical coordinate robot

,�--
. - ---
, ...I ---·--ITIT ! ITIT 1 .
- Jointed arm coordinate robot
- SCARA-type Robot
----v ·- -- --
- Parallel Robot. Typ�-
(C) On the basis of Motion Control : Fig. 52. Classification of handling robotic systems.
- Pick-and-place robot
- Point to point robot
9.29.1 Autonomous Robotic System
- Controlled path robot Autonomous handling robots are mainly used in industries (as
- Continuous path robot. ind ustrial robots): These may be further classified as following types :
(D) On the basis of Power-supply Control : 1 . O n the basis of generations of robots :
- Non-servo controlled robots - Non-programmable robots � Zero generation robots
• Hydraulic type - Programmable robots � First generation robots
• Pneumatic type - Adaptive robots � Second generation robots
• Electric type - Intelligent robots � Third generation robots
Servo controlled robot. 2. On the basis of drive :
Electrically driven robot
(A) ON THE BASIS OF PHYSICAL CHARACTE RISTICS - Pneumatically driven rdbot
9.29 MAN IPULATION ROBOT OR HANDLING ROBOT - Hydraulically driven robot
These are the most developed and commonly used, par_ticularly
in industries and come in wide range of varieties. These further can . In contrast to computers, however, where every next generation
ousts the previous one, robots of all generations co-exist, and one of
be classified into three types as a later generation may have been developed within the previous
- Autonomous robotic systems generation. This is the reason why there is no fourth generation of

I
I - Remotely controlled (Tele) robotic systems robots.
- Manual robotic systems.
9.56 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
Artificial intelligence has a practically unlimited scope for
development in the wake of ever new discoveries in science and
technology and owing to the ever wider capabilities of new generations
of microcomputers. A functional block diagram of an autonomous
robotic system is shown in Fig. 53. The system may have several
manipulators or robot arms and several machine-tools and also
transfer devices. The manipulators may be located at various points
within the unit and be operated by their own controllers or by a
common control system.
-_
,;:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:.:::-:.:::-:.:::-::..::-::..::-::...-_:_-_
-_
-_ - --,\-------------,
-_
-_
I
I FB
I
I
I
I
I r------,
I
I
I I
: Environment :
Fig. 53. Block diagram of an autonomous robotic system :
SE, sensing element; Comp, computer; Act, actuator; M. manipulators;
Op, operator; CP, control panel; LOC : locomotion facility;
PE, production equipment; FB, feedback.
9.29.1.1 Zero-generation/Non-Programmable Robots
It is that robot which has no reprogrammable control devices.
Infact, such robots or manipulators are mechanical arms. They are
built into a particular production quipment and obey the program of
the manufacturing process as a whole. In the assembly of watch
Movement machine, the non-programmable manipulators are _a
common occurrence in mass-scale production as a replacement for
manual labour.
9.29. 1 .2 First Generation/Programmable Robots
A programmable or a first generation robot has a controlled
actuator for each of its joints and its controller can readily be
reprogrammed to carry out a variety of tasks. After reprogramming,
however, such robots will repeat one and the same fixed pattern .
..
CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.57
Most of the industrial robots are capable of performing auxiliary
operations and bending presses, casting machines etc. Such a robot
will go through the programmed motions even if there is no part in
its gripper. The fixtures are used on this robot which would hold the
work pieces irr a particular position relative to one another.
Sometimes, it becomes more difficult to change special fixtures by
the robot because robot would change over to a new sequence of
operations.
9.29.1.3 Second Generation/Adaptive Robots
This robot is also known as second generation robot which uses
a more sophisticated control system. It can evaluate a varying
situation on its own and adapt its actions appropriately. These robots
are equipped with :
- Optical, ultrasonic, separate force and tactile type, sensors
responding to ch�nges in the environment.
- Input information processing system for adaptive control.
These robots are using compact microprocessor systems and
are widely used in mass production based industries. These robots
ar�sed where a structured (fixed) environment is difficult to establish
and �aintain, when a robot has to steer around obstacles, when
handling parts on a moving conveyer and in applications involving
assembly, arc welding, spray painting etc.
9.29.1 .4 Third Generation/Intelligent Robots
Intelligent/third generation robots have a wider range of
integrated sensory capabilities, use micro processors for data
processing and environment assessment. These robots have elenients
ofartificial intelligence by which they can determine their own actions
through their sensing and recognitive ab�lities as dictated by the
situation which may be varying or uncertain.
(B) ON THE BASIS OF DRIVE
The difference between servo and non-servo is already explained
in section 8.13 and 8.14
(a) Electrically driven robot. In this robot electrical energy
is used to operate the robot. Fig. 8.48 shows a electrically driven
robot.
9.58 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.59

- Supervi sory controlled robots

Fig. 54. Electric-driven robot.

(b) Pneumatically driven robot. This robot is based on
pneumatically operated control systems. Compressed air is used to
operate all the controls. Fig. 55 shows a pneumatically driven robot.
(c) Hydraulically driven robot. This robot is based on
hydraulic.ally operated controls." Fig. 56 $hows a hydraulically driven
robot.
Fig. 56. Hydraulic robot.
Interactive robots
- Hybrid type robots.
9.29.2.1 ,ommand Co· ntrolled Manipu lators
In cas�f these command controlled manipulators , the drive of
each joint is remotely activated by a human being operator who
presses a push button or flips a toggle switch. For example, an
operator handles the manipulators outside the submersible vessels
while watching them through a viewing port from the outside. A
similar principle is utilized in teleoperators used in areas where
health and life hazards are present.

,----- -- - - -- ___ ____

.. __
- ·---· ..- .,_,..·j...'�......I
I r - - - - - - - -··-···--- ------·--
,-----f-_-_-_:.._.,.·_________
-�-�-=�: [,
·-; �
.
f ;
l__
..
•
l- •

.
Fig. 55. Pneumatic robot.
. ...
9.29.2 Remotely Controlled (Tele) Robotic Systems
These robots are further classified into following types
Command-controlled manipulators Fig. 57. Command controlled manipulator.
Master-slave manipulators
Semi-automatic manipulators

9.60 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
9.29.2.2 Master-slave Manipulators
These are worked by human operators from a safe distance,
using a master device functionally similar to the slave part of the
manipulator. The movements of each joint in the master are
transmitted to the respective joint in the slave by a servo system.
Applications of such manipulators are in dangerous areas where man
would be exposed to radiation, gases and other extremes. Fig. 58
shows a master slave manipulator.
Fig. 58. Master-slave manipulator.
9.29.3.3 Semi-automatic Manipu lators
These are operated with the aid of a joystick from a control
panel. The joystick has many degrees of freedom and is adapted to
duplicate any motions of the operator's hand, however it may be
small. Each motion of the joystick generates an electrical signal which
is converted by a resolver into a control signal which is then applied
to the respective actuator of the manipulator. Several control
algorithms can be used in this case. The semi-automatic manipulator
is shown in Fig. 59.
Fig. 59. Semi-automatic manipulator.
9.29.2.4 Supervisory-controlled Robots
These robots have all their tasks written in a program that is
played back automatically. Each action of robot is watched by an
CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.61
operator from a safe distance. The operator will only intervene to
assign targets in response to which an applicable program is activated
in the robot for autonomous decision-making and control. Once a
target has been assigned, the robot will proceed to execute the
program on its own. In the case of an adaptive robot, the human
operator will have to intervene on rarer occasions and to give more
"global" commands.
9.29.2.5 Interactive Robots
These robots are usually intelligent robots and differ from
supervisory-controlled robots in that a robot not only executes
commands generated by man, but can also determine its own actions
to be performed through its sensing and recognitive abilities.
The manner in which supervisory-controlled and interactive
robotic systems operation will be clear from Fig. 60. The control
panel has joysticks so that the human operator could take over, when
and if necessary and guide the robot in the joystick or master slave
mode. This combination of various �eleoperation schemes greatly
enhances the reliability of the system because the human operator
can�t enter the dangerous area where the robot is yvorking.
''3
6
Fig. 60. Interactive robot control (supervisory, interactive, hybrid)
1 . video display unit; 2. operator's control console;
3. control computer; 4. sensors; 5. robot arm; 6. work;
7. on-board computer.
9.62 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS
9.63
9.29 .2.6 Hybrid Robots the �r-?1 of a human operator, will move in correspondence to his.
These robots are the combination of autonomous and manual The Jomts of exoskeleton have drives which bear the brunt of the
operations. These are used for various types of teleoperations such job. The motions of operator ��mself only, generate the controlsignals.
as on board unmanned underwater or under sea vessels, in manless
coal mining, at nuclear power plants, in production areas with an
explosion hazard or high working temperatures and other similar
operations.
9.29.3 Manual Manipulators
These can b e further classified as under
- Balanced articulated manipulators
- Exoskeletons (Human extremity boosters).
9.29.3.1 Balanced Articulated Manipulators
Balanced articulated manipulator as shown in Fig. 61 is a multi­
link mechanism with a separate actuator for each joint. It will remain
in balance with any load (within its load handling capacity) it is holding
and with any position taken up in space by its members. The human
operator works on the control handle and control signals are fed to
Fig. 62. Arm exoskeleton.

the actuators oq;he joints and they do the rest of the job. This type
is mainly adapted to materials handling operations.
9.30 MOBILE ROBOTIC SYSTEMS
The industrial robots so far designed, are mostly stationary and
s �me of them are mobile in the sense that they have been placed
either on AGV or on the rails. Mobile robots are sometimes called as
robot vehicles or automated guided vehicles (AGVs). AGVs install the
robots within themselves as shown in Fig. 63.

AOTARY CONTROL
MECHANISM

Fig. 61. Balanced articulated arm.

9.29.3.2 Exoskeletons (Human Extremity Boosters)

It is an articulated mechanism whose joints correspond to those
of a human arm or leg, and when attached as shown in Fig. 8.56 to
Fig. 63. Automated guided mobile robot (AGV).
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.65
9.64

However, omnidirectional robot vehicles have been developed In industries, wheeled cars or vehicles that carry the robo ts on
to extend movability within the limited space of FMS area. it, are useful for transportation inside the plants. Walking rob ots
will prove useful in handling dangerous radioactive materials in the
The present-day industrial robots and AGVs in FMS (Flexible
area of nu�lear engineering. Mobility can be imparted in many w ays .
machining systems) serve the purpose well, but they cannot perform
_ Legs or wheels may provide locomotion. The arrangement of le gs is
certain functions satisfactorily so these robots need machme
very important. Some of the geometrical patterns of legs are show n
intelligence and other sensory devices including computer vision that
in Fig. 64 .
require special attention by the robotocists.
None of industrial robots or mobile robots have really any legs
or similar structures. On the other hand, legged robots or m achines
9.31 DATA ACQUISITION AND CONTROL ROBOTIC SYSTEMS
A mine, needs a wealth of data about the environments at the
have many advantages as they can move on rough ground an� cli� b face such as temperature, pressure, relative humidity and the like ,
_
the stairs in buildings. Legged robots will find many apphcat1ons m for its proper development, management and operation. All the data
industry, military, public utility service, prosthetics and orthetics. must be gathered under the ground without a human being actually
present there. So, this can be achieved by autonomous mobile data
acquisition robotic systems carrying all the necessary devices

A
such as :
- sensors
instruments for measurements
- data-transmission gear
- manipulators
(a) Frontal , (b) Sagittal - locomotion facilities
Fig. 64. (i) Frontal and sagittal legs disposition . These robots can make
- measurements at its own level
- transmit information about material being processed
- the job being done and
- the quality of performance.
A data-acquisition drilling system is shown in Fig. 65 in the
form of block diagram.
The drill program is loaded by an operator (Op) into a program
(c) Human legs (d) Reptilian legs

interpreter (PI), from where it goes to a <;cintroller (Cont.) whic h

generates the control law for the drilling m�chine (DM) and drilling
tool (DT). A measuring sys.tern (MS) is used h.ere which runs a
feedback loop and a command interpreter (CI) to appJy whatever
corrections may be needed to the drilling algorithm. Ap�rt from the
main feedback loop there is a data processing system (DPS) whi ch
(e) Insect Legs ({) Crab Legs serves to generate corrective actions according as the drilli ng tool
Fig. 64. (ii) Different leg positions. (DT) interacts with the material being drilled in term's of drilli ng
force ({). and to assist in decision-ma�ing which has as its object,ives

COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
9.66
to improve the drilling program and generate qata.bearing on the
properties of the rock.
Fig. 8.65. Block diagram of a drilling data-acquisition system : Op,
operator; PI, program interpreter; Cont, controller; DR drilling rig; MS,
· measuring system; CI command interpreter; DPS, data processing
system.
To sum up, a mining dat�-acquisition robot as shown in Fig. 66
is an autonomous, mobile, handling system which is able to gather,
process and transmit data about the environment essential for a
given mining task to be performed in an optimal w,ay.
Data acquisition drilling rigs are also used to drill large diameter
bore holes in order to determine the gas content of a seam, to locate
the presence of floating earth and voids, etc.
Fig. 66. Mining data acquisition robot.
CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.67
Advantages of Data-Acquisition Robots (DAR)
There are following advantages of Data-Acquisition Robots given
as :
1. These robots cannot only make measurements right at the
coal face, at the shaft bottom, or any other hard-to-reach
place and do that with a better safety and effectiveness but
also relieve personnel engaged in these duties.
2. These robots are intended to serve a double purpose such
as (i)· to collect information important for a given job or
task to be performed within given constraints and (ii) to
enhance the safety of and comfort for, personnel.
3. These robots are capable (i) to detect the explosive gas
contents of the mine atmosphere with the aid of a gas
analyser and (ii) to avoid fires.
4'. These robots are helpful to know the state of the face, roof
and floor, state of the broken rock mass, location of the
machines and size of the worked space etc. before starting
any job in the mines.
5. These robots are also helpful to report the mechanical and
chemical properties of rocks and minerals.
{C) O N THE BASIS OF WORK ENVELOPES
The following six types come into this category :
9.32 RECTANGULAR COORDINATE ROBOT
This robot has a vertical axis (z) and a
horizontal axis (y). The vertical axis (z)
moves the arm of the robot up and down on
the vertical column whereas the horizontal
(y) axis moves the robot's arm in and out as
shown in Fig. 67.
.f . "
Basically this robot does not pivot on
its base but it slides back and forth in
combination with the horizontal axis on its
base. The sliding movement (in x-axis) can
also be seen from the top view which forms
a rectangular. The combination of both
views (Top Plan and elevation) gives us the
work envelope which forms a box for a
� .,�.!"•\..., ;I I', r.

1. robot communication and position control channel (laser beam), 2.

rectangular coordinate robot. This robot Fig. 67. Rectilinear ,·; ..·
'S-orientation system antenna, 3. visual sensor, 4. sample, 5. analyzer, 6. �lows three degrees of freedom (x, y, z) ii). coordinate robot. '/',
data-acquisition drilling ring, 7. headlight, 8. instrumentation, 9. detection
and ranging unit. \:-,
r.
.,· : '
9.68 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
translation only .. It is the common choice where high precision work
is required such as in certain assembly works.
9.33 CYLI NDRICAL COORDINATE ROBOT
When the arm of robot forms a
cylinder or a part of a cylinder, during
its move ment through the work
envelope, the robot is call�d a cylindrical
coordinate robot as shown in Fig. 68.
This robot has three degrees of
freedom-two linear and one rotation
corresponding to a radial in or out
· translation r, an angular motion e about
the vertical axis and z, a translation in
the z-direction that corresponds to the
up or down motion. The manipulator can
Fig. 68. Cylindrical
ideally reach any point in a cylindrical co-ordinate robot.
volume of space.
9.34 SPH ERICAL COORDI NATE ROBOT
This robot has one linear and two
angular motions. The linear motion 'r'
corresponding to a radial i n or out
translation, the first angular motion
corresponding to a base rotation ' e ' about
a vertical axis and the second angular
motion � is the one that rotates about an
axis perpendicular to the vertical through
the base and is sometimes termed as
elbow rotation. The spherical coordinate
robot as shown in Fig. 69 pivots on its
base, form ing an arc. The spherical
c0ordinate robot does not rise and fall on
a ve'r tica.l axis as the cylipdrical
coordinate robot does but it pivots and
forms an arc. These two rotations along
with the in or out motion enable the robot
to reach at any specified point in the space Fig. 69. Spherical.
CIM AND ROBOTICS
9.69
bounded by an outer and inner hemisphere. Sometimes, the spherical
coordinate robot is referred to as a "polar coordinate robot".
. I
9.35 JOINTED ARM COORDI NATE ROBOT
This jointed arm coordinate robot is
also known as revolute coordinate robot or
anthropomorphic robot as shown in Fig.
70 and use three rotations . The
anthropomorphic design corresponds to the
design of a human arm having waist,
shoulder and elbow joint.
The link of the arm mounted on the
base joint can rotate around the base about Fig. 70. Articulated or
z-axis and the two links, namely the joint arm coordinate
shoulder and the elbow. The link shoulder robot.
can rotate about a horizontal axis and the elbow motion may either
be a rotation about horizontal axis or may be at any location in
space depending on the rotational motions of the base and
the shoulder. The anthropomorphic robot can move in a space bounded
between a sphericaLouter surface and the inner surface having
scallops due to the constraints of the joints.
Generally, the jointed arm robot is the most expensive of all
the coordinate systems. The manufacturing of the manipulator and
controller ofjointed arm robot is very difficult and therefore increases
the costs.
There is a simple way to represent the manipulator arm in terms
of lower pair connectors such as
(i)' Rectangular coordinate robot P-P-P robot. "
(ii) Cylindrical coordinate �obot P-R-P robot.
(iii) Spherical coordinate robot R-R-P robot.
(iv) Revolute coordinate ·robot R-R-R robot.
9.36 SCARA-TYPE ROBOT
lt is similar to a revolute robot but has the rotary joints in the
horizontal rather than vertical plane and uses a vertical lift axis
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS
9.70 9.71

attached to the end-effector. As such the design exhi�its properties

of both revolute and cylindrical coordinate robots. These robots can
bear far higher payloads due to their stiff structure in the vertical
direction than other assembly robots. This SCARA (Selective
· Compliance Assembly Robot Arm) type robot is shown in Fig. 71.

r
- ...._,.,

Fig. 71. SCARA-type robot.

. . . . ..
......

;. 7:1'l�?:�-
• 1:;:t ' ,

9.37 PARALLEL ROBOT

It is the research robot Gadfly, as shown in Fig. 72, which has

completely new concept of its design than the conventional robot designs.
As can be seen from this figure, it consists of a tool-mounting plate
suspended from three pairs ofrods. Jly altering the lengths of the six rods
it is possible to move the end-effector through all six degrees of freedom.
'
, Fig. 72. Cadfly parallel robot.
The important point about this design, however, is that because the
articulations are not arranged sequantially as in other robots, the system (D) ON THE BASIS OF MOTION CONTROL
can be very light, fast and accurate. This advantage is at the expense, These are of following four types
however, of a small working envelope. Such parallel robots may become 9.38 PICK AND PLACE ROBOT
increasingly common for light assembly work. These robots have generally cylindrical coordinate and cartesian
coordinate units with at most 4 or 5 degree of freedom. Th ese are
non-servo robots and normally limited to two end points. l>ick and
pla ce were named by thl:l work they normally perform in industries .
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.73
9.72

They pick up parts or materials from one location and place them at
another location. These robots are the simplest of all other robots
and are an excellent choice for simple j obs e.g. for simple press loading
and unloading applications and for unloading a conveyor or transfer
line. A typical pick and place robot is as shown in Fig. 73 (a) and (b ).
powe_r type r �bots are more popular than other types because they
are simplest m construction and operation also.
These robots have proved handy in the following fields
- Plastic manufacturing
- Die forging, sheet and plate forming
- Shearing in guillotine shears and on cut-off lathes
- Machining
- Foundary practice

-l t
- Heat treatment
Assembly in mechanical engineering, radio and instrument
making etc.
Electroplating
- Material handling, hoisting and conveying
Pt.ACING - Stacking, piling and packing.
WORKPIECES
9.39 POI NT-TO-POINT (PTP) ROBOT
Point-to-point robots are the most common of the three
classifications. It is a servo controlled robot. It can be taught
(programmed ) to move from any point to any other point within its
work envelope. This versatility greatly expands its potential

--
appl�cat�ons. It can._ be used for machine loading and unloading
(a) Pick and place operation. appl� cation� as well as for more complex applications such as spot
weldmg, assembly, grinding, inspection, palletizing and depalletizing.
CONVEYOR 2

The point to point robot can move along more than one of its
q
-
D
axes at a time but it does not necessarily move in a straight line
betwetn two points. The vertical movement is much smaller than
CONVEYOA the horizontal movement required to move from one point (P 1 ) to
nother point (P2) as shown in Fig. 74.

0 t
l,
yt
PTP

PARTS
I - - -·-·-
1(
y

(b) Pick and place operation on conveyors.

Fig. 8.73. o --
These robots may use· pneumatic, hydraulic or eiectric power Fig. 74. Point-to- point motion control.
for the actuators that move the manipulator j oints. The pneumatic
9.74 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
CIM AND ROBOTICS
9.75
To program a point to point robot, the programmer pushes
buttons on a "teach pendant"(See Fig. 8. 77), a control device much in
shape like a calculator. To rotate the robot about its base, a button
is pushed and the robot turns. To extend the manipulator another
push button is pressed. After reaching the desired point, another
.
button is pressed to record that point in computer's memory and so
on. Points can be inserted at closely or widely spaced intervals. In
playback all axes move in 'race' i.e. whichever axis has the smallest ..
'

distance to move will reach its position first, then wait for others.
/
I
Hence, resultant path between two points cannot be predicted. Point­ , '/
I
to- point robots are mostly powered by hydraulic and electric motors,
/ :,
as they show a superior, dynamic performance.
I
I
:I
·,

---
9.40 CONTROLLED PATH ROBOT
Controlled Path Robot is a specialised point-to-point robot which I -
has always a redictable path between two points i.e. a straight line
..J- -

between the taught points. The points may be stored .in either joint
angle mode or as word coordinate modes. Programming of a controlled
path robot is much easier and more the points are "taught", more it
follows the straighter path. Arc welding, drilling, polishing and
assembly are the applications suited for these types of robots. The
movement of these types of robots is as illustrated in Fig. 75. The
method for programming for controlled path robot is identical to that
for programming the point-to-point robot.
9.41 CONTI NUOUS PATH (CP) ROBOTS
Continuous path robot can be programmed to follow any path
such as an arc, a circle, or a straight line. To program this type of
robot, the manipulator is programmed by grabbing hold of the robot 's
Fig. 75. Linearly interpolated controlleipath motion.
st �res eac� point in memory for playback at a later time. Actually,
tlus robot is a form of the point-to-point robot. The continuous path
robot is programmed differently than the point�to-point robot and
the controlled path robot. This type ofrobot is �sed for spray painting,
_
arc weldmg, or any other operation which requires constant control
of the robot's path. The main difference between this robot and point
_
to pomt robot is the ability of control to remember thousands of
programmed points. The continuous path motion ofth� robot is shown
in Fig. 76.
CONTINUOUS PATH

arm and actually leading the arm through the path that we wish '< -t I-At
therobot to remember. The robot remembers not only the exact path
through which the programmer leads the manipulator but also tho
��
?\
speed at which the programmer moves the manipulator. If any chango Programmed Point

is required in the arm's speed then speed can be controlled by

:,

adjusting at the control console and this change in speed will not
-------- - >-

give any effect on the path of the robot's arm. Real-time progr.9mm_ing points
As the robot is taught the desired program, the control examino
ore oulomolicolly programmed

the location of the manipulator hundreds of times per second and Progremmlng Uelng
• Teaching Arm
Fig. 76. Continuous path.
 i
CIM AND ROBOTICS
9.77

9.76 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING 9.42.2 Walk-Through Teachin g or Pendant Teaching

Also known as "teach by showing'', method, uses a hand-held control
(E) ON THE BASIS OF POWER SU PPLY box known as Teach Pendant, as shown in Fig. 77..
The robots are classified into two typ e s on the basis of methods
of controlling the powe r suppli es robots as
- Non-Se rvo controlled.
- Servo controlle d.
All the Servo and Non-servo robots ar e alre ady explaine d in
Positional
data-display
se ction 8.12, 8.13 and 8.14 of this book. Jogging keys
(or axis of -i-...t-i-i-l-·-l--1-1
9.42 ROBOT PROGRAMMING manipulator
A robot is programmed by entering programming commands into
its controlle r memory by one of the following methods : Progra mming
keys
Emergency
9.42.1 Manual Method
In this robot are programmed by limit switches, ON/OFF switches
stop
controller
or stepping switches.
9.42.1.1 Programming Pick and Place Robots Fig. 77. Components ofthe teach pendant.
The crudest form of programming is the setting up of a pick and It ha� buttons for joint movement or X, Y, z direction movements
place machine. This has two parts : the mechanical end stops are set in and recordmg button, when the robot arm has reached a desired pos1·t·10n.
. .
place for e ach axis; and the sequence in which the joints operate is Th 1s 1s the most usual method with point to point servo b t A
programmed. hand-held �ox or 'pend�t' has butt9ns, toggle switches or j�y;t�ks
The se quencer on early machines was a mechanical device, such correspondmg to each �� of the arm, which cause the axis to be driven
under po�er (but possibly faster or slower than it will move when the
as a multiposition .rotary switch with several CB;ms on its spindle , each
pr?gram 1s played back). T�e user drives the robot to a required position
cam operating contacts to switch power to the solenoid valves for the· usu_i.� these controls and then presses a button which causes all the joint
pneumatic cylinders. Each end stop had a limit switch to detect when po�1tion se nsors to b� �e ad and the ir values stored; the robots then
the joint reached the end of its travel. The activation of a limit switch dnven to the next position on its required path and so on.
caused the sequencer to rotate a few degrees to its next position, at
This method of teaching has certain consequence s not obVlOUS
which th e connections were made to turn on the n ext joint. The. order in · at
which the joints operated was det ermined by the pattern of connections
fi1rs t s1g ·
' ht. An importa nt one is that since the path be twee n t wo
.
p�ogram�ed pom · ts 1s
· unspecifi ed, and since there will usually be several
between the sequencer and the solenoid valves. This pattern was made Jomts active at once , the arm may not approach a target point firom the
on a plugboard, and putting the plugs in the right places was how the . .
same dneet·ion as 1·t d'd 1 dunng teaching. Therefore an extra pom · t 1s
·
manipulator was programmed. ·
often· mserte d mto a program so that the approach to a cn·t·1ca1 pom
· · t
In more modern pick and place machines the mechanical sequencer reqmres movement ofJust ' .
one axis. Intermedi.ate points are also inserted
and plugboard ar e r eplace d by an electronic, microprocessor-based to take the path round obstacles.
controller, allowing the arm to be programmed 'by typing a series of axis A related �onsequ ence is that, if the movem ent betwe en two
identification ctjdes on a small keyboard. The controller has interfaces p�ogra�m ed pomts uses1_two or more joints, then it is likely that on e
for reading the limit switches and driving the valves. It can be a general Jomt Will have a shorter distance to travel and will therefore finish befi�re
purpos e industrial controller as used for machine tools. Such controllers the others. The resulting traj ectory of the payload will therefiore cons1s t
allow the storage of several programs, and these may hav e subroutines · .
of a, senes ?f arcs wit · h ·abrupt direction changes. Both of these effe cts
and allow a wide choice of time delays between actions. One controller can be avoided, at the cost of reduced o�erall speed, by building the
may be able to h andle several robots in a coordinated way, and to interlock
their operation with that of'oth er machinery.
 -
l
C.OMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.79
9.78
SRL - Structured Robot Language
pro�am exc;,lusively from segments in which only one joint is moved at VML - Virtual Machine Language (CNR Italy)
a time.
. AUTOPASS - AUTOmatic Parts Assembly Systems .
VAL, is a first generation language, which is used for off-line
9.42.3 Lead-Through'Teaching or Physical Arm Leading
In this form of teaching the user carries out the required motions programming and sensory data is only in the form of binary (ON/
with his own hand, while holding some device for recording the path OFF signals).
taken. This device may be the manipulator itself or a replica arm, the AML, VAL-II, RAIL are second generation languages, which can
'master arm' or 'teaching arm\ which is geometrically similar to the have complex motion commands as well as force, torque, slip sensing
robot but is light enough to move easily, is unpowered and has angular capabilities. It can handle analog and digital data in addition to binary
or displacement sensors on its joints similar to those on the robot. The signals.
signals from these are recorded and become the program which the Task Oriented Languages, are very intelligent and have such
robot plays back. The program can be replayed at a fraction or multiple commands which represent Real World language e.g. "TIGHTEN THE
of the speed at which it was recorded. SCREW''.
Since the joint positions are recorded continuously, this method
can be used for continuous path robots, and is commonly used for tasks
9.44 VAL (VERSATILE ALGORITH.MI.C LANGUAGE)
su�h as some kind of paint spraying in which the movements are complex It was developed by Unimation Inc. for PUMA series of robots
and continuous. A point to point robot can also be taught by lead- through, in 1979. But in 1984 it was upgraded to VAL-II with interlocking
the joint positions being recorded just at those moments when the user facilities. It is very user friendly and is self capable operating system
presses a button. to regulate robot. It combines with lead-through programming on
Teach Pendant to 'record' p�ints. The following table shows
9.42.4 Off-li�e Programming or Computerised Programming description of few of its co�mand.
Language ""Table 1.
These are the textual languages which use computers and the
software for control functions of robot. It may be on-line or off-line. S. No. Command Task Ifunction
The alternative to teaching a robot by driving it through its cycle 1. HERE POINT A SET To teach a point using
of operations is to type in a program at a computer terminal. In the Teach-Pendant
•
simplest case the program consists of a series of commands of the fo� 2. - MOVE - Move to a point
'move axis A through distance D'. These commands are expressed m - APPRO -Approach with reference to a
some language designed for robot programming. Since the program which point (offset)
actually controls the robot is not in this form but is instead concerned - DEPART - Move away from a point
with primitive operations such as turning vaives on and off, ;he pr�gram
that the user eriters must be compiled to yield a control program m the 3. SPEED or SP Set the speed of movement
computer's machine code. A later section discusses some of the languages 4. OPEN Open the jaw and drop object
which have been designed for programming industrial robots. CLOSE Close the jaw
5. - DISPLAY - Display on optional monitor
- READ - Read variable from Keyboard
9.43 ROBOT LANGUAGES
.
Ther� are a variety of programming languages, which also need
for teaching positional points. Following - SIGNAL - Turns signal on'/off at speci fied
a lead-through programming
6.
0/P channel
table lists a few of them
- WAIT - Tests external specified signal
7.
AL - Algorithmic Language (Standford AI Lab)
VAL - Versatile AlgQrithmic Language - IF - THEN - Transfers control after testing
AML - A Manufacturing Language (by IBM) a condition
- GOTO - Unconditional branches to
MCL - Manufacturing Control Language program step
ROBEX- ROBOTER EXAP� - GOSUB - Call a, ,s:?broutine in program
9.80 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
CIM AND ROBOTICS
9.81
Example I. Write a robot program in VAL to pick a part from location
X = 250
Y = 500
Z = 150 \
place to Robot's Origin
X = 140
(0, 0, 0)

Y = 30 Deposit f:>olnt
Z = 250 (4 block stack shown)

Solution. First move the gripper to location X = 250, Y = 500,

Z = 150 by teach pendant buttons and give command

HERE Pl /7

POINT RECV = Pl
Sm
m
::r:
6)�. ',
Now move gripper to location
Origin of
-448 xy-pione

X = 140 ' Y =. 30, Z = 250 and give command

j Fig. 78. Workspace for VAL Programming example. The pickup and
HERE P2 deposit points are on the xy-plane offset (in z) from the ro bot's origin by

POINT DROP = P2
- 448 mm.
Let us consider this application and its implementation in the
VAL programming language. Table 2 is listing of a S ession on the
Now the program is terminal, which includes loading and listing the pro gram,viewing
the value of the stored locations, and finally, executin � the program.
APPRO RECV, 50 The dot (.) in the leftmost column is the prompt , Which tells the
MOVE RECV user that VAL is ready to accept a command. The first command
ClOSE given to the robot controller, LOAD STACK, te1Is
DEPART 150
APPRO DROP, 50
.LOAD STACK

MOVE DROP
. PROGRAM STACK

OPEN
.LOCATIONS

DEPART 100
OK

�. �
.LISTP STACK
.PROGRAM STACK
Note. We have approached 50 mm above the locations ofRECV (receive)
and DROP, then moved to exact points. 1. REMARK

Example 2. VAL Example

2. REMARK THIS PROGRAM PICKS UP PARTS FROM A FIXED

Assume that it is desired to pick up identical objects from a

3. REMARK LOCATION CALLED PICKUP, T HE N DEPOSITS THEM

known location and then stack the objects on top of each other to a
AT
4. REMARK LOCATION CALLED B . IT IS ASS U M ED THAT 4 PARTS
maximum stacking height of four. Figure 78 shows the _application. 5. REMARK ARE TO BE STACKED ON TOP OF ONE ANOTHER
6. REMARK
9.82 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS
9.83
7. OPENI {2) EXEC STACK, which tells the controller to execute the
8. SET B - DEPOSIT program called STACK, which is stored in its memory.
9. SETI COUNT - 0 Following the EXEC command is the output generated by the
1 0 . 1 0 APPROS PICKUP, 200.00 program STACK. This output is the value of the variable COUNT as
11. MOVES PICKUP the program is executed. Note that the value of COUNT is used to
12. CLOSEI terminate execution of the program when the desired number of
13. DEPARTS 200.00 items have been stacked.
14. APPRO B, 200.00 Examination of the program listing shows that each line has a
15. MOVES B number associated with it (i.e. , 1 through 27). These numbers are
1 6. OPENI used to identify a line so that the program may be edited. VAL has
1 7. DEPARTS 200.00 an editor that allows the user to create programs and store them in
18. SETI COUNT - COUNT + 1 th � co1:1troller. Once stored, a program may be modified by referring
19. TYPEI COUNT to its hne numbers. The modifications include inserting' deleting' or
20. REMARK COUNT INDICATES THE TOTAL NUMBER OF ITEMS STACKED modifying lines.
21. If COUNT EQ 4 THEN 20
The operation of the robot based on the program steps will now
22. REMARK MOVE THE LOCATION OF B UP BY 75.00 MM
be described.
• Lines 1 through 6 are comments.
23. SHIFT B BY 0.00, 0.00, 75.00
24. GOTO 1 0
25. 20 SPEED 50.00 ALWAYS • Line 7 tells the gripper to open immediately and then wait a
26. READY small amount of time to ensure that the action took place.
27. 1, TYPE • • • END OF STACK PROGRAM • • • • Line 8 equates the location of the variable B to a defined
.END location called DEPOSIT. This step is necessary since the
. LISTL value of B will be modified each time a new item is stacked .
X/JTl Y/JT2 Z/JT3 O/JT4 A/JT5 T • Line 9 sets a.n integer variable called COUNT to zero. The
Deposit -445.03 130.59 -448.44 -87.654 88.890 -180.000 variable COUNT is used to terminate the program when the
PICKUP 163.94 433.84 -448.38 178.006 88.896 -180.000 proper number of items have been stacked (i.e. , 4 items).
EXEC STACK • Line 10 has a label (10) associated with it. It commands the
COUNT =1 robot to move from wherever it is along a straight line to a
COUNT =2 location 200 mm above the point called PICKUP. At the end
COUNT =3 of the motion, the approach vector of the gripper w·ill be
COUNT =4 pointing downward. Recall that the approach vector is defined
• • • E N D OF STACK PROGRAM • • • so that moving along it causes obj ects.to go toward the inside
PROG RAM COMPLETED : STOPPED AT STEP 28 of the gripper.
• Line 1 1 tells the robot to move its gripper in a straight line
the system to recall the program and any location data from the tow �rd t�e position defined by .PICKUP. In this example, the
disk. The system response is on the next three lines, indi�ating m � t10 n will be along the approach vector since the gripper is
_
successful completion of this request. The following command to the pomtmg downward. The position defined by PICKUP is such
controller is LISTP STACK, which tells VAL to list the program which �hat when motion ends, the object will be inside the gripper's
is called STACK. This particular version also delimits the program Jaws.
listing by printing, PROGRAM STACK at the beginning and .END at • Line 12 commands the system to close the gripper and wait a
the end. Two more commands that are used in the table are sufficient amount of time for the action to occur. In some
( 1 ) LISTL, which commands the controller to print all the case � it may be necessary to add an additional delay if that
locations that the controller knows about (in this case there are two provided by the command is insufficient.
such locations, DEPOSIT and PICKUP), and
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
9.84
CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.85
• Line 13 tells the m anipulator to move along its approach
vector in the direction opposite from which it originally came positio� and orientation can be defined alongwith the integers, re als
to a point 200 mm above the 1:,ickup point. and strmgs. The following table show the common AML commands
• Line 14 tells the manipulator to move to within 200 mm of
Table 2
point B. Aligning its approach vector downward.
• Line 15 commands the m anipulator to move in a straight S. No. Command Task Ifunction
line until as tool point is coincident with loc ation B.
• Line 16 tells the gripper to open so th at the p art c an be 1. GUIDE To teach a point using 'Teach-Pendant'
deposited. This also includes some time delay for the action 2. - MOVE - To reach a defined point
to occur. As st a ted . previously, additional delay - DMOVE - To reach a position with reference to a
m ay be necessary to compensate for the actual valves and
mechanics used to implement the gripper and to permit the
position (offset)
manipul ator to settle to the desired locatio�.
- AMOVE - To move away from a specified point

• Line 17 tells the manipul ator to move b a ck along the 3. SPEED For setting speed parameter
approach vector so that it is 200 mm above location B. 4. - DEFIO - Define input output means set.ting a
• Lines 18 and 19 increment the variable COUNT and display signal on I-0 channel
its value.
- SENSIO - Read the signal coming from I-0 channel
• Line 20 is a comment.
• li.ine 21 is a test to see if COUNT is equal to 4. If so, go to the 5. WRITE
-
For operations of peripherals
statement with label 20; otherwise, go to the next line. PRINT
• Line 22 is a comment. 6. IF THEN Conditional jumps
• Line 23 modifies the loc ation defined by B so th at its z IF THEN ELSE or
coordinate is increased by 75.0 mm. REPEAT UNTIL Repetition loops
• Line 24 forces the program to go to l abel 10. WHILE DO
e the
• Line 25, which is labelled, tells the controller to reduc
speed of motions to 50%. There ar� three forms of statements in AML : executable
its
• Line 26 tells the controller to move the m anipulator to statements, van able declaration statements, and subroutine declaration
_
ready position, which is define d as all of the links in a straig ht statements. W1:h the exception of cert ain special cases, all AML
line pointing upward. statements end m a semicolon (;).
al.
• Line 27 tells the controller to print a message to the termin Executable statements constitute the logic for the interpreter to
the . .
From the description of the program, one can easily see execute. The executable statement s per£orm cal cul ations,
. . . .
comparisons,
exist to cause
power implemented by the instructions. Commands and other similar operat10ns, which differs from the other two types of
position
the m anipulator to move in a straight line and to manipul ate statements because executable st atements do not reserve storage or
t indic tes th t straig ht-line .
data. (Note that the "S" in the statemen a a
provide names for variable or subroutines.
the vari ble B , which repres ents a
motion is desired. For example, a
A va:iable declaration statement is composed of the name (or "id")
point v riable s) is modif ied by a single
location (i.e., a set of six a
statement in line 23. of the v.ariable and a keyword, either NEW or STATIC, which identifies
the statement as a declaration statement
9.4� .AML A subroutine declaration statemen� is used to reserve �pace in
AML w as developed by IBM. AML is used for Automated storage for a collection of AML statements. SUBR is the keyword used
main
Assem bly System (AAS) and manufacturing systems. The to declare the beginning and END to declare the end of a subroutine.
in te v lues of robot wrist
feature of AML is aggregate, means co-ord a a
 CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.87
9.86 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

AMI.JE is an entry-level language for programming the IBM 7535

manufacturing system (robot).
E:,cample 3. Write a program in A.ML to pick objects from a pallet of
4 x 4 and place on conveyor at a fixed position (0, 0, OJ. Pallet
corner is at (0, 100, 100).
Solution.

SETI RPOS - 1
SETI CPOS - 1
SETI ROW - 4
SETI COLUMN - 4
GUIDE CORNER - X/0.0, Y/100.0, Z/100.0
5 MOVE CORNER
10 DMOVE RPOS, CPOS
PICK PART
MOVE X/0.0, Y/0.0, Z/0.0
PLACE PART
MOVE CORNER
IF CPOS - COLUMN THEN 20
SETI CPOS - CPOS +
00
C
GOTO 10 0

20 SETI CPOS -
0
�
IF RPOS - ROW THEN 30 -0

SETI RPOS - RPOS + 1

30 SETI RPOS - 1 "' . 0
-0
�z
GO TO S I UJ
vi J:
UJ ....
o ii2 o
Note : First two lines set the row, col position; Next two give O .,_ u,
N I (J Z
JUaximum values = 4; 12th line puts condition on column i.e. if it is
1

o� � o
vi vi
0::

4th col then reinitialise to 1st col i.e. goto 20 else increment col o l= l= z
position similar for row in 16th line other lines are self explanatory. :,.: :.£ :,.:
°' 0 °' "'
�
o.. °' o "'
Vl :,.:
:,.: cL> :,.:

-� < Vl
<�o�
< .... < z
UJ
0..
3
� i=
o.. � � �
� 0 � 0- �
< 6 "' < >
� < o.. � o
� "'
.... UJ
l.J °' l.J "'
"' UJ UJ
0 O � \!: ;'.: l;; � � � � � �� �
I
0 0
N � •
(
9.88 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
9.46 GEN ERATIONS OF ROBOT PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
The textual robot languages possess a variety of structures and
capabilities. These languages are still evolving. In this section we identify
two generations of textual languages and speculate about what a future
generation ·might be like.
9.46.1 First Generation Languages
The "first generation" languages use a combination of command
statements and teach pendant procedures for developing robot programs.
They were developed largely to implement motion control with a textural
programming language, and are therefore sometimes referred to as
"µi otion level" languages. Typical features include the ability to define
manipulator motions (using the statements to define the sequence of
the motions and the teach pendant to define the point locations), straight
line interpolation, branching, and elementary sensor commands involving
binary (on-off) si gnals. In other words, the first generation languages
possess capabilities similar to the advanced teach pendant methods used
to accomplish the robot programming instructions described previously.
They can be used to define the motion sequence of the manipulator
(MOVE), they have input/output capabilities (WAIT, SIGNAL), and they
c� be used to write subroutines (BRANCH). For writing a program of
low-to-medium complexity, a shop person would likely find the teach
pendant methods of programming easier to use, whereas people with
computer programming experience would probably find the first
generation languages easier to use. The VAL language is an example of
a first generation robot programming language.
Common limitations of first generation languages include inability
to specify complex arithmetic computations for use during program
execution, the inability to make use of complex sensors and sensor data
and a limited capacity to communicate with other computers. Also, these
languages cannot be readily extended for future enhancements.
9.46.2 Second Generation Languages
The second generation languages overcome many of the limitations
. of the first generation languages and add to their capabilities by
incorporating features that make the robot seem more intelligent. This
enables the robot to accomplish more complex tasks. These languages
have been called "structured" programming languages because they
possess structured control constructs used in computer programming
languages. Commercially available second generation languages include
AML, RAIL, MCL, and VAL II. Programming in these languages is very
much like computer programming. This might be considered a
disadvantage since a computer programmer's skills are required to
CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.89
accomplish the programming. The second generation languages
commonly make use of a teach pendant to define locations in the work
space.
The features and capabilities ofthese second generation languages
can be listed as follows
1. Motion Control. This feature is basically the same as for the
first generation languages.
2. Advanced Sensor Capabilities. The enhancements in the
second generation languages typically include the capacity to
deal with more than simple binary (on-off) sign als, and the
capability to control devices by means of the sensory data.
3. Limited Intelligence, This is the ability to utilize information
received about the work environment to modify system behaviour
in a programmed manner.
4. Communications and Data Processing. Second generation
languages generally have provisions for interacting with
computers and computer databases for the purpose of keeping
records, generating reports, and controlling activities in the
workcell.
The motion control capability in some of the second generation
languages goes beyond the previous generation by includingmore complex
geometry problems than -straight line interpolation. The MCL language,
for instance, is based on APT. Accordingly, MCL includes many of the
geometry definition features contained in APT. For example, lines, circles,
planes, cylinders, and other geometric elements can be defined in APT
andMCL.
The advanced sensor capabilities include the use of analog signals
in addition to binary signals, and the ability to communicate with devices
that are controlled by these signals. Control of the gripper is an example
of the enhanced sensor capabilities of the second generation languages.
Typical control of tl?,e gripper using a first generation language involves
commands to open or close the gripper. Second generation languages
permit the control of sensored grippers which can measure forces (these
grippers were described in Chap. Six). The sensor monitors the forces or
pressures during closure against an object, and the robot controller is
able to regulate the amount of gripping force that is applied to the object.
The third feature provided by the second generation languages is
limited intelligence. Instead ofmerely repeating the same motion pattern
over and over, with slight differences for different product configurations,
the robot has the capacity to deal with irregular events that occur during
the work cycle in a way that seems intelligent. The intelligence is limited
 9.90 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
CIM AND ROBOTICS
9.91
in the sense that it must be programmed into the robot controller. The Table 4. Robot Applications with Examples
robot cannot figure out what to do on its owµ beyond what it has been
· programmed to do. The error recovery problem illustrates this Function Non-servo Servo Robot
intelligence feature that might be programmed into the robot controller. Robot PTP CP
Suppose the holding fixture in a ro�otic machining cell malfunctions by
failing to close properly against the workpart. The robot's intelligent Parts Transfer *
response might be to open the fixture, grasp the part and lift it out, re­ Materials Part Sorting *
insert the part back into the fixture, and signal for closure. If this recovery Handling Heat Treatment * *
procedure works, the activities in the cell resume under regular Palletizing * *
programmed control. If not, the procedure might be repeated once or Die casting * *
twice or some other ·action might be taken. The robot gives the Injection Moulding
' * *
appearance of behaving in an intelligent way, but it is operating under Machine Forming, Stamping and * *
algorithms that have been programmed into its controller. By contrast Loading and Trimming Process
with this error recovery procedure, an "unintelligent" response of the Unloading Metal Cutting Machine Tools *
robot would be to merely stop all work in the cell in the event of a Like Lathe, Machining Centre
malfunction. etc.
First generation languages are quite limited in their ability to Deburring *
communicate with other computers. Typically, any communication with Machining Drilling *
other controllers and similar external devices must be accomplished by Grinding *
means of the WAIT and SIGNAL commands through the input/output Other Machining * *
ports ofthe robot. Second generation languages possess a greater capacity
to interact with other computer-based systems. The communications Maintenance -- * *
capability would be used for maintaining production records on each Assembly Mating Parts or Par.ts
product, generating performance reports and similar data processing Inserting Problems * *
functions. Inspection * *
A related feature of some of the second generation languages is *
Welding Spot Welding
extensibility. This means that the language can be extended or enhanced *
Arc Welding, Seam Tracking
by the user to handle the requirements of future applications, future
sensing devices, and future robots, all of which may be more Spray
sophisticated than at the time the language is initially released. It also Painting
means that the language can be expanded by developing commands, /Finishing *
subroutines, and macro statements (with a mechanism for passing
parameter values from the main program) that are not included in the But we see a lot of non-industrial applications of robot also.
initial instruction set. Hence, robot applications are divided into two major categories :
(i) Industrial applications.
9.47 ROBOT APPLICATIONS (ii) Non-industrial applications.
It was in 1961, when first industrial robot was used, to unload The situations where robots are best to use as a substitute of
cast part from die casting machine. Since then, the robots have found human are as under :
their strong recommendees in industry. (1) Hazardous work environment. Forging, spray painting, spot
_
Robotics technology has found wide acceptability in a large variety weldmg are unhealthy, unsafe and hazardous environments, where

\J
of manufacturing applications. Table'4 indicates the major functional robots can replace humans.
robot applications with examples in the areas of fabrication and (2) Repetitive work cycle. Robots can perform repetitive jobs with
processing. more consistency and repeatability.
 CIM AND ROBOTICS
9.93
9.92 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

A robot cell can be made as shown in Fig. 79, which consists of

(3) Difficult handling. Heavy parts which are otherwise difficult robot, welding equipment such as power unit and welding tool and a
to handle, can be conveniently handled with a large robot.
fixture to hold the part at proper position.
(4) Multi-shift operation. In those industries, where production
stretches to two or three shifts such as plastic moulding, robots Robot should be continuous path controlled one with jointed
replac�s two or three workers. arm or cartesian coordinates. It should have 5 to 6 degrees of freedom,
(i) Processing applications. otherwise it has to be put in fixture.
(ii) Material handling. (b) Spray Coating. It is another more common application. It
(iii) Assembly and inspection. uses spray gun which has a nozzle through which the paint flows and
9.4 7.1 Processing/Manufacturing Applications sprayed on the surface of part to be coated. It has hazardous fumes
In this category robot is equipped with some type of tool as its causing tuberculosis (T.B.) to humans.
end-effector, for doing some processing operation on a part. Some
examples are
(a) Continuous Arc Welding. Continuous arc welding is done
to make air-tight vessels, but the work condition is not good· for
humans, because of ultra-violet radiations. Only careful hand-eye
co-ordination of worker, can save his eyes by wearing a face helmet
at appropriate time.
Moreover, heat generated is s ufficient to melt steel or
aluminium and also a second worker is needed to setup the piece,
while one is welding.

Fig. 80. SPRAY coating equipment.

A cell designed for it can be in-line type, in which parts hanging

on conveyor move past the robot holding the gun. Robot should have
a large reach to have a greater access of part-areas. It ensures
uniformity in coating and less ¥,'.astage of paint.
Some more applications are riveting, gluing, flame cutting,
water jet cutting.
9.47. 1 . 1 Material Handling
These are generally pick and place applications, in which robot
has gripper type end-effector, designed according to the part geometry.

Fig. 79. Spot Welding Robot.

 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.95
9.94
·Robot arm can also be used as go-not-go gauge for inspection
purposes .

9.47.2 Non-Industrial Applications

A few of non-industrial applications are listed below
(i) Ocean Exploration. For a variety of handling operations and
' to construct structures below the surface of water, mining and
exploration can successfully be employed. They have been found
useful in rescuing operations of sunk ships. A robot was used to take
out black box of Kanishka from 5 km deep sea surface for ascertaining
cause of its disaster.
(ii) Mining and Coal Mining. Fatal accidents can be avoided in
Pollet . .

mining by use ofrobots. These robots will work with speed 'lnd higher
efficiency because of additional energy available to them. They are
Fig. 81. Palletising. useful in deep and hazardous work atmosphere.
ThesP can be also of two types (iii) Defence. Robots can very well guard. the frontiers when fitted
(a) Material Transfer with suitable range sensors. Our jawans need not be put to hardships
(b) Material loading/unloading. of hostile atmospheric conditions at high altitude and desert areas.
ology (zero Besides this, robots can be put to testing of ammunition. They will
(a) Material Transfer. It requires a low techn
ts are used . also be found useful in loading_and unloading of explosives which,
gene ratio n) robo t. Gene rally pneu m·ati c robo
indeed, is a hazardous job.
Examples are :
must (iv) Nuclear Applications. Inspection and maintenance of nuclear
(i) Palletizing. These are applications in whic h robot
and puts them power plants is hazardous for human beings. These jobs can safely
retrieve parts from one fixed location on conveyor
ed arran geme nt. Pick up point is fixed, be entrusted to robots. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay
(pack s) into pallets in order
taught to robot has developed a mobile robot for m aintenance of Atomic
but deposit location is different, which should be
Reactor .
through "Teach Pendant".
arrangement (v) Medical Applications. To help the physically handicapped,
(i) Depalletizing. It is removing parts from ordered
er fixed place. robotic assemblies can be used as artificial limb support system. This
(compartments) of a pallet and places them at anoth
come under this would help them to lead a normal life. Besides this microsurgery of
For exam ple, stacking and insertion operation
brain, lungs.
category.
into or out (vi) Household Jobs. In near future say by the beginning of 21st
(b) Loading/Unloading. The robots transfer parts
astin g, plast ic century robots will be used to perform household jobs like cleaning
of a production mach ine. The examples are Die-c
offloors, dusting of furniture, doors, windows and washing of crockery
moulding, forging, heat-treatment furnaces.
etc. They would understand normal language.
9.47. 1 .2 Assembly and Inspection (vii) Entertainment. In cinemas and zoological parks mobile
In high productio-q of simple products such as pens, cigarette robots will be popular, because robots would entertain children '
lighters, ·clutch pencils etc. or even electric motors. Maruti Ltd. has thereby generating interest in robotics.
been using robot arm for assembling doors on carbody.
I COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.97
9.96
· 9.48. 1 . 1 Investment Cost Operating Expenses and Evaluation of
9.48 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL SIG NI FICANCE OF ROBOTS Economy
From the initial concept of robotisation, many factors such as To analyse the economy of robotisation the Direct costs involved
efficiency, economic and social viability of it, must be taken into are to be calculated. However, indirect costs such as inventories
consideration. There are usually two basic propositions : carrying costs, material utilization and saving and reduced scrap etc.
(i) Economic are difficult to quantity. The investments cost include :
(ii) Social. (a) Planning cost
which are significant for robotic installations. In order to carry out (b) Cost of robot (Manipulator and controller)
the evaluation, a responsible team, which is neutral and balanced, (c) installation cost
should be formed, to look at the advantages and disadvantages of (d) Programming cost
robotisation with on open mind. (e) Tooling cost.
9.48.1 Economic Significance Whereas, the operating expenses include
No doubt, robots can substantially cut the cost of work under (a) Direct labour cost i.e. operator.
controlled conditions. But the robotisation, should be evaluated (b) Supervisory and Maintenance cost.
economically throughout the project, right from the pre-installation (c) Training cost.
(planning) the following questions can act as a bench mark to assess Once the investment has been done, it is desirable to evaluate
the economic significance of robots the same economically. · There· are basically four methods for
(a) Will the use of robots add value to the product ? evaluating the economy of robot
(b) Will this decrease production cost ? (a) Method of pay-back period.
(c) Can the inventory, material cost, reworking of defective (b) Return on investment method.
components be reduced ? (c) Discounted cash flow method.
(d) Can the utilization of machines be increased (to say 80%} ? (d) Equivalent uniform annual cost method.
(e) What return on investment over the life of a robot should Out of which, the payback period is the simplest method of
be fixed ? evaluation based on time. It is based on the assumption that the net
(f) What are future market requirements and what is the annual cash flows are equal and are added to equalise with the total
expected rate of change ? investment on robot. Then, the payback period is calculated by
dividing the cost of robot by the labour cost minus the maintenance
All the above factors add to the economy of an organisation.
cost i.e.
But the last two questions decide, the type and kind of robotic system,
to be used taking into consideration the plant layout, tooling and the I
P = -­
prevailing conditions. A proper selection of robot should be L-M
- With minimum investment of capital. where, P = Payback period in year
- Having accessories, that links it to rest of the plant. I = Investment (Capital) in rupees
- Modular robot i.e. made up of some common basic building L = Labour cost saved in rupees
blocks which are almost used in all types of applications. M = Maintenance and running cost in rupees
The value 'L' also includes the value of increased prod·
// ' 18
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CIM AND ROBOTICS 9.99

xample : Suppose the cost of a Robot is 2; 70, 000 . There

is single increases the job opportunities with higher standards of performance
and healthier working conditions. The position of a worker
�
replaced.
shift operation of 135 0 hours and one work er is
Assuming that the wages of worke r is Rs. 4 0 per hour. T �e value could carry more responsibility-such as from a technician to a
of increased production comes to be 81, 000. If the runni ng and supervisory i.e. to monitory, adjust and service the robot. This not
only relieves worker from unattractive, non-creative manual work
be Rs. 75, 000 . Calcu late
maintenance cost of robot is calculated to
but also a careful planning can minimize the job loss or lower paying
er it is feasib le or
the payback period and also determine wheth
not. of workers.
Solution. Investment cost of Robot, I = Rs. 2, 70 , 000 Management, on the other hand, should be aware of individual
Labour replacement cost + Value of increased production, skills of a worker with proper work scheduling and on-site-training
= 1350 X 40 + 81, 000 of workers. Management should also consider the promotion of
= 54, 000 + 81, 000 = 1,35, 000 production worker to robot operation and later on even to the
Maintenance and Running cost = 7 5, 000 manag«;lment. Economic benefits should always be taken by
Then Payback period considering the social consequences of the robotisation by the
management.
I
P= L-M EXERCISES
2,7 0 ,00 0
1. Fill in the blanks :
= __000 :...,_:...,___ = 4.5 years.
- 7 5,000
(a) ............... was the first person to use word 'Robot'.
1,35, (b) Robota means ............... .
a double
The payback �eriod appears to be long enough and hence (c) The basic robot elements are ............... ,
the payback
shift or even a triple shift will be feasible for reducing
(d) Zero generation robots are .............. .
period. (e) The two significant aspects for considering v iability of robots
are ............... and .............. .
9.48.2 Social Significance
on the
The social impact of robots in an organisation is not only
2. What are the laws of robots ?

work ers but also on the mana
replacement for humans in :
- Hostile environments
robot s are b e st
3. What are the basic robot elements ?
geme nt. The 4. Explain the term degree of freedom in detail.
5. Classify the robots according'to their gene;:ations.
6. What do you understand by work envelope ? Explain it.

- Repetitive operations
7. Explain the economic and social significance of robots.
8. Cl_assify the robots on the basis of power supply used.
- Negligent workers 9. What were the laws of robotics in the play 'RUR' ?
- Heavy operations 10. · What are the various types ofrobots on the basis of work envelope ?
- Multishift operations 1 1 . Explain and classify the manual manipulators.
. ·12. What are the applications of the robots in industries ?
- Emotional worker 13. Write short notes on :
- Fatigued and boring jobs. (a) Exoskelectons
Hence, if one or more of the above situations exist in an (b) Data acquisition robotic systems.
organisation, then the robotis::,.tion should be considered for the same. (c) Payback method

However the robotisation causes worry in workers due to the

(d) Adaptive robots
(e) Master slave manipulators.
thought of dis�lacement or losing their jobs. But at the same time it
 CAPP, Mechatronics
10 and MEMS

1 0.1 MANUAL OR CONVENTIONAL OR TRADITIONAL PROCESS

PLANNING (MANUAL OR CONVENTIONAL APPROACH TO
PROCESS PLANNING)

In various industries, most of Lhe process plans are still prepared

manually. Depending upon the shop environment, the process plan can
be very elaborate or just an aggregated sheeL of operation descriptions.
For a model shop, where all the machinists are highly skilled i n running
several machines and most parts produced are one of a kind, the
process plan is usually nothing but a lisL of workstation routes. The
remaining details is left to machinists. In order to prepare a manual
process plan, a process planner should have "the knowledge of following
points :
(i) Abi lity to interpret an engineering drawing.
(ii) Familiarity with manufacturing process and practice.
(iii) Familarity with tooling and fixtures.
(iv) Know what resources are available in the shop.
(v) Know how to use reference books, such as machinability
data handbooks.
(vi) Ability to do computations on machining time and cost.
(vii) Familiarity with the raw materials.
(vi.ii) Know the relative costs of processes, toolings and raw
materials.
Now, "to prepare a manual process plan, the following are some
steps that have to be taken :
(i) Study the overall shape of the part. Use this information to
classify the part and determine the type of workstation
needed.
•
10.2 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING · CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS
10.3

(ii) Thoroughly study t h e drawing. Try to i d entify a l l

manufacturing features and notes.
(iii) Determine the best raw material shape to use if raw stock CAPP
is not given. system

(iv) Identify datum surfaces. Use information on datum surfaces

to determine the setups and select the machines for each
step.
(v) Determine the rough sequence of operations necessary to
create all the features for each setup.
(vi) Sequence the operations determined in various steps. If there
is any conspiracy, use this information to modify the
insturctions
sequence or operations.
(vii) Select the tools for each operation.
(viii) Select or design fixtures for each setup.
(ix) Evaluate the p l a n a nd make some modifications if
necessary.
(x) Select cutting parameters for each operation.
(xi) Prepare the final process-plan document.
One has to keep in mind that during each of these steps, decisions
are made based on an evaluation of many factors, e.g., tool selection is
based on the feature to be created and other related features as well as
COMPUTER AIDED PROCESS PLANNING (CAPP)
' The use of computers resources to aicl the process planner in a
systematic determination ofproper methods to be used in the production
process is called computer aided process planning (CAPP). These
systems manage the storage, retrieval, clistribution, and maintenance
of the process plan library. A key to the development of CAPP is to
structure the data concerning parts fabrication, facilities, tooling,
and materials into categories and logical relationships. The computers
can then m a ke the m a ny c o mparisons necessary to create the
optimum plan. Fig. 10. l shows the operational or functional diagram of
CAPP.
Technological
Retrieval Analysis omputational
Work Parts
Search Cost data Standards
lists
Operations Sequences Machines Tools Shops
Fig. 10.1. Operational or functional diagram of CAPP system.
o
The ulti mate goa-l f an automated process planning system is to
i ntegrate design and production data into a system that generates
useable process plans. CAPP accomplishes the three functions of
planning the process, determining the cutting con<l itions, and setting
the time standards with the aid of computers. A CAPP system offers the
potential for reducing the routine clerical work of manufacturing
engineers. It also provides the opportunity to generate production
routings which are rational, consistent, and perhaps even optimal.
CAPP is usually considered to be part of computer-aided
man ufacturing (CAM). The CAM is combined with computer-aided
design (CAD) to create a CAD/CAM system. In such a system, CAPP
becomes the direct connection between the design and manufacturing.
Recent developments in computer-aided process planning have focused
on eliminating the process-planner from the entire planning function.
Computer aided process planning can reduce some or'the decision making
required during a planning process. The various programming languages
which are used for CAPP system are BASIC, FORTRAN, PASCAL, C,
LISP and PROLOG .

.....
 10.4 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
�es of CAPP Systems {Various Approaches to CAPP System)
The various types of CAPP systems are as follows
(i) Retrieval or variant CAPP system (Retrieval or variant
approach).
(ii) Generative CAPP system (Generative approach).
(iii) Bottom up approach.
(iv) Top down approach .
A)ft1ese types of CAPP system are described below.
&:
1 �etrieval or Variant CAPP System (Variant approach)
A retrieval CAPP system, also called a variant CAPP system. It i s
based o n group technology approach. I n this system, a standard process
plan (route sheet) is stored in computer files for each part �ode � umber.
_
The standard route sheets are based on current part routmgs m use m
the factory or on an ideal process plan that has been prepared for each
family. This process plan must document the operations. as well as the
_ standard process plan can be shared by the entire family.
sequence of machines through which the part must be routed. F1g. 10.2
shows the retrieval CAPP system.
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS
10.5
is an on-line computer system that permits the user to create new plans,
or retrieve and edit existing process plans. When a new part comes for
process planning, the first step is to give a group technology code to the
item. Then the standard process plan for this fa I11 ily can be retrieved
from the computer. This plan is general plan so some changes may be
required for specific part. With this technique a considerable time could
be saved in preparing ·the plans and hence greater consistency i s
obtained. I n this system t h e output could be obtained almost
automaticall •fiere is generally less interaction with user �f the system.
ps Involved in Variant or Retrieval Process Planning System
The following steps are involved or the sequences in the design of
(i) Family Formation. In this step, the components requiring
a variant process planning system
similar processes are grouped into the same family. A general rule for
part family formation is that all pa'rts must be related. After that, a
(ii) Database Structure Design. The database contains all the
necessary information for an application, and can be accessed by several
programs for specific application. There are three approaches to construct

(iii) Search Pxocedure. The principle of a variant system is to

Users enters
Part family Part family a database i.e. hierarchical, network and relational.
Part Code
search matrix file

l l
No.
retrieve process plans for similar components. The search for a process
plan is based on the se�rch of a part family to which the component
Standard Machine belongs, when, the part family is found, the associated standard plan

(iv) Plan Editing. Before implementing a process plan to the

machine
routing
routing can then be retrieved.
file

! l
retrieve
shop, some modification of the standard plan may be necessary, and the
process parameters must be added to the plan. Generally two types of
Standard Operation plan editing is used i.e., first one is the editing of the standard plan
operation sequence itself in the database, and the second one is editing plan for the
file

·! i
retrieve component. For editing a standard plan, the structure of the database
must be flexible enough for expansion, additions, and deleting the data

(v) Process Parameter Selection. Finally, a complete process

records.
Process Other
Process pion application
plan formatter programs plan includes the process parameter also'with the operations. The data
in the process parameter files are linked so that we can go through the
Fig. 10.2. Retrieval or Variant CAPP system. system to find the speed and feed for an operation. The process parameter
file can be i ntegi;ated into variant planning to select process parameters
One of the commercially available retrieval CAPP systems is
automatically.
MULTI CAPP, from OIR (The Organisation of Industrial Research). It
 CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS
10.7
10.6 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
Input Technical
A<jYafuages of Variant Process Planning :
description and Capabilities
1 ofpart -- of machine
�e various advantages of variant process planning are as follows :
logical
in coded form decisions tools available
(i) Standardised process plans will be more consistent.
(ii) These plans are generally cost effective.
(iii) The data management, retrieval and text editing efficiencies
of the computer can greatly reduce the time consumption,
boredom of paper handling and hand copying.
(iv) It also helps to improve the productivity.
It also increases the overall efficiency of the unit.
dvantages Limitations of Variant or Retrieval Process Fig. 10.3. Generative process planning system.
g System : A num ber of generative systems are available
in the market e.g.,
The various limitations or disadvantages of variant CAPP system APPAS (Aut om �ted Process Plan ning and
Sele ction ) and ACAPS
are : (Automated Codmg and Process Planning Selec
tion)· APPAS l1as been
(i) '.Che system really doesn't generate process plans. r ml{ed wit· 11 mt
· .
�ractive computer graphics terminal to dem onstrate the
concept of an mtegrated CAD and process plan
(ii) An experienced and knowledgeable process planner is ning system. ACAPS
uses group technology concept to handle the geom
needed to edit the standard process plans (route sheet). etric features of holes '
slots or grooves etc.
(iii) The system cost and time required to classify, code and store
the database requires sufficient investment. Ad)'.il ntages of Generative Process Plan ning
/ , System :
l.,:Pne various advantages of generative proc
�1 2. Generative Process Planning (Generative approach) - ess planning systems
are as follows :
Generative process planning is a system that synthesises process
.:_

(i) �rocess �lans produced are more accurate,

in(ormation in order to create a process plan for a new component consistent and
automatically. In this process plans are created from information mexpens1ve.
available i n manufacturing database without human assistance. The (ii) New comp onen ts can be plan �cd as
easil y as exist ing
computer would employ a set of algorithms to progress through the components.
various technical and logical decisions towards a final plan for (iii) No predefined plan is required.
manufacturing. Inputs to the system would include a comprehensive (iv) It �a � be interfaced with an auto mate d man
ufacturing
description of the work part in proper coded form to output the process �ac1h ty _to pro,v ide deta iled and up-t o-da te cont rol
plan. It builds up optimal process sequence based on part description mformabon.
provided and on the machining capabilities. Fig. 10.3 shows a gener;ative (v) H�1an intervention (assistance) is not
process planning system. _ required to construct,
mam tam, or create consistent process plans.
This system has two basic components, i.e., first part is geometric . vi) (t is �ully automatic and every time data
attributes like size, features, and tolerance, and the second part is the _ available are
knowledge base, which is capable of making number of decisions in order �opt1m1sed.
to compare the part geometry attributes with the manufacturing isadvantages/Limitations of Generative CAP
P systems
capabilities. It automatically determines sequence of operation, optimum The various limitations/advantages of generativ
speeds and depth of cut, tooling, calculation of time consumed for each e CAPP system are
as follows :
operation. The current trend in developing regenerative process planning (i) It is limited to a small range of manu
systems is to use expert system technology. This may provide a frame facturing proce sses.
work to incorporate the decision making process of the planner and
make it suitable for automation.
 10.9
10.8
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

(ii) Human assistance is often utilised during decision m aking

or for checking purposes due to new equipment or processing
capabilities.
(iii) It requires a very thoroughly understanding of the operating
modes and manufacturing capabilities for each of the
available process and equipment.
tiu) More complex then variant process planning system.
1 0.2.1 .4 The 'Top-Down' Approach
The 'top-down' approach develops the CAPP system by means of
.
tracing the task of p�ocess planning from top-to-bottom. It is an
automated �omputer-a1ded process planning method oriented torward
the generativ� approach. In the 'top-down' approach the computerized
system works m the sequence determination of overall strategy
. , analys1s
. . .
of deta1 Ied tactics, analysis of the production process· for each individual
component etc. Fig. 10.5 shows the 'top-down' approach.

· The bottom-up approach develops the CAPP system by means of

10.2.1.3 The "Bottom Up" Approach

tracing the task of process planning from the finished part to the new
-
material. It is also called a conventional computer assisted process
0 II)
Port L.. C
Machine

planning method. The basic starting point in the "bottom-up" approach

::, ,_
integration - .c
O o specificoions

to CAPP is to simply use the computer as an arithmetic calcul ator. Fig.

J
::, 0
�E

10.4. shows a schematic diagram of 'bottom-up' CAPP system.

Process
selection Knowledge

J
1
l'lunnccl Activities acquisition

-
Process Planning
Application
Machine
selection

.,
Stanclarcl Operational
!•'low Development
J
Operations and
,/
_ II)
0 0

c 't
L.. 0

o ;s
0 II)
.__
- Knowledge
base
time calculation

J
Stanclarcl Operation

,___ _________________
Development

----------· Process
r - .. - .. - • • • .. .. .. - - - .. .. .. - • •
Development Level -
pion
Standards Development

!h� general :ules or t�chniques ofthe manufacturing strategy must

Fig.10.5. A schematic diagram of"top-down" approach.

be bmlt mto �gonthms which c� op�rate on briefinput data describing

_
1
Time Standard Activities

�he . g�ometnc features and engmeermg requirements as they relate to

md1v1dual component parts.
Engineered Time
Standard Data

1 0.2.2 Planning for CAPP Systems

Easy installability and usability of a CAPP system is always
.

I t develops a series of software tools based on clearly depends upon the proper planning for CAPP system. There should b
Fig. 10.4. A schematic diagram ofthe "bottom-up" CAPP system.

understandable formulae. It produces the necessary numerical data transparency to facilitate the understanding of its structure, behavio::
normally found on the process route or operator sheets issued to the
shop floor.
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
10.10
and output. A planned system have the capacity to keep a human planner
in the process loop and to participate in some decision making.
Many CAD/CAM systems are available for the proper planning for
CAPP system to design a simple components e.g. screw fastenings � tc.
Many parametric designs can also be utilized for more complex design
problems where, thrp ugh the input of so� e k� y par�meters, a new and
_
unique design can be generated. Gear design 1s a typic� l exampl� ofth1s
application. Progressing this technique into the plannmg function, k�y
values fro;n the CAD/CAM facility are used to trigger the automatic
generation of a conesponding process plan. Fig. 10.6 shows a planned
CAPP system for engineering data.
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS 10.11
(i) There should be transparency to facilitate the understanding
of its structure, behaviour and output.
(ii) It should be flexible to incorporate some of the new trends/
requiren;i.ents.
(iii) It should be installability and usability.
(iv) There should be expandability to new applications.
(v) There should be a capacity to keep a human planner in the
process loop and to _participate in some decision making.
1 0.2.3 Machinability Data Collection System (MDCS) in CAPP
The purpose of a machinability data collection system (MDCS) in
a shop floor control (SFC) environment is to provide the basic data for
monitoring the progress ofan order. The system consists of input devices
that are located at various points where data are created and that bring
data from these points to a central point. Fig. 10. 7 shows a machinability

- -1 .
data collection system (MDCS).

I Database j

To shop
Process 1----� Computer 1-----1 Local printer floor
Planner Type of operation,
Machinability Display Collection of
work material, ]
package Printout Mach inability
tooling cti;/
data.
Fig. 10.6. A planned CAPP system for engineering data.
'
Planning is not merely an· extension of the retrieval facility. It is a Fig, 10.7. Machinability data collection system (MDCS). ""
'
the
plan which incly.de a degree of internal decision makin g to r� act to In the data-collection stage, it is essential to validate the',,.
that may anse from a
significant v,ariations in manufacturing process information that is collected. It is important to involve individuals within
fractional thange in various design parameters. A good proces s plan
te the study who are intimately familiar with the operations and the actual
always consist of elements, procedures, logical equations, or a templa system to ensure that the system parameters are accurate. The system
provid ing an efficien t techni que
plan. The model is easily constructed, collects such data as the name of the operator in-charge of the process,
for automating part of a company's planning is demand. o
process machine information, parts infrmation, parts count and labour
Plann ing for assem bly type CAPP system is also of . gr.eater time spent on a particular job etc.
the
importance. The various elements and procedures are stored w1thm
of inform ation fields or Data collection terminals at workstations are usually low-cost
CAPP database. This CAPP database is a series
These modify the action terminals that.can be configured to handle input from a range of standard
controls relating to each component reference.
of
of the constructiv·e elements to account for the specific requirements devices. The various system control units are used to provide. the ·
to produc e assemb ly plans with hardware interface between the data collection terminals and �he host
each component. The effort required
the
repetitive actions has therefore been drastically reduced �hilst computer. . .
g on compon ent type has mcreas ed.
capacity for automatic decision makin _ In the data collection systems for m'achinability, the data for
CAPP system should have the followm g
An effective or proper planner machining conditions is collected extensively from actual shop practice
characteristics and from research and development being carried out i n the
establishment. This is stored in files and can be accessed by remote
10.:!.2 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS 10.13
terminal when desired. The information flow in machinability data
collection system is shown in Fig. 10.8. Several machinability data collection systems are currently
marketed recommend sets of parameters that either optimize machining
cost, time or production ra�e or simply retrieve data table or calculated
values. One of the famous data collection system is machinability
User enters Search for NC Tool data file I
data for work, operation sequence
depth of cut, etc. Ooerotion seauecen file I is "FAST" system (table value retrieval system). Recently machinability
systems have become computer based to take the advantage of
computational power to include optimized models.
Output Shoo aenerated data
Search for
cutting conditions cutting operations Exnerimentol data
Hand book data
1 0.2.4 Benefits/Advantages of CAPP (Process Planning)
. The various benefits/advantages of computer aided process
planning (CAPP) are as follows
Search for
(i) Computer-pr epared route sheets are neater and easier to
Costing cost dote Cost data I
read than manually prepared route sheets.
(ii) The CAPP program can be interfaced with other application
programs , such as cost estimating and work standards.
Fig. 10.8. Information flow in machinability data collection system. (iii) Reduced planner skill and experience level.
The users enters the workpiece data, required surface finish etc.
(iv) It can reduce the process planning time.
at the terminal. With the files available in the system, namely (i)
operation sequence file and (ii) machine tool data file ; the operation (v) It can create more consistent and accurate plans.
sequence in constructed . For the cutting conditions, the search is made (_v i) Immediate access to up-to-date information from a central
in the following priority, first from the shop generated data file ; and if database ...--,-
not available, then from there, from the file for cutting conditions for
tool type/material then search is made for costing information, thereby (uii) Provision of a basis to introduce group technology into
leading to selection of the cutting parameters either for minimum cost manu facturing.
or for maximum production rate. A typical listing of machinability data (viii) Faster response to engineering changes or changes requested
is shown in Fig. 10.9. by the shop . .
Machinability data (ix) Reduced clerical effort to prepare instructions.
Part No. Operation No. Data (x) It can increase productivity and accuracy.
Material Operation (xi) Ability to make mass changes and print copies remotely.
Work data Diameter .......... Length .......... Depth ........... (xii) It produces optimized manufacturing and processing
Finish .. . .......... File used ........ sequences.
Speed Feed rate Tool life Tool specifications S.F.. (xiii) Easy to select the best machine tool to produce high quality
- - - - - parts.
- - - - - (xiv) It reduces the inaccuracies in manufacturing.
- - - - -
(xv) C?st savi�gs in all process planning activities.
Tool cost Ma� ne cost Total cost
/1 /
' Production rate
Minimum cost condition
I
(xvi) It develops a greater managerial control.
Maximum production rate (xvii) Updates �nd revisions directly on the shop floor p:ossihle .
Fig. 10.9. A typical listing ofMachinability data. through c·RT's and printers.
10.14
. 10.15
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS

10.3 ECONOMIC REGIONS FOR PROCESS PLANNING

10.4 ROLE OF PROCESS PLANNING IN CIM
The variant process-planning system is usually the most economical
system for a moderate number of sizaJle part families. On the other A CAPP system may be viewed as the use of computer resources to
hand, the generative process planning is most suitable for significant improve· productivity of the process planner. It is an extensive system
product variations. Economic regions for the different planning designed to improve the productivity in the interface between design
alternatives has been shown in Fig. 10.10. and production and inanufacturing engineering. It was developed to
communicate the production process to be used to produce a part to the
factory floor. A,s manufacturing technology moves towards more
automation or computer integrated manufacturing (C IM), it is
� 1----.......-----------, mandatory to optimize operations and processes at the plant level. To
do this, CAPP should be integrated into factory management to meet
'c(E0
..... .....
the enterprise's goals at the higher level. Fro�1 a production planning
Q)
.0

point of view, CAPP systems helps with analysis to facilitate cutter life
L.
E :g__ Variant
::,
forecasting, materials requirement planning (MRP), scheduling and
C planning
(II
Generative
inventory control. The interaction of the CAPP with certain functions
Q) C
c,, Q)
planning
� a.
g
Q)
in the CIM operation cycle is shown in Fig. 10.11.
�§

1 Manual process
planning
�
CAD-CAM

Number of port families

Fig. 10.10. Economic regions for using process planning systems.

A simple procedures for a preliminary cost analysis is as follows
(i) Select a representative family of parts for analysis. This part
family should rep;esent a typical product of type that the
company is manufacturing. Otherwise, several families
should be modelled and analysed.
(ii) After that, develop a standard routing for that family.
(iii) Now compare and contrast the standard routing with the
existing routings.
(iv) Carefully document all the differences.
(:.,) Analyse those differences to see what, if any, would be the
lost impact.
(vi) In the last, apply actual cost data for a projected cost saving.
Fig. 10.11. CAPP working environment in the CIM/production cycle.
The use of CAPP in a CIM system simplifies time-consuming,
By adopting the above procedural steps, the economic regions for
knowledge-intensive task and results in greater consistency. A CAPP
different process planning systems can be easily analyse� .
system positively influences machine use, capacity planning, production
10.16
10.17
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTU!{ING
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS

scheduling and lead times, cost estimating, and Productability. The

(iii) AUTO PLAN and RPO : AUTO PLAN is generative only in
environment as shown in above figure permits CAPP to serve as a bridge the detailing of the part. Th� process selection and process sequencing
between product design and production, making CAPP an indispensable level does not differ significantly from CAPJ>. The major modules of
element in an'integrated CAD/CAM environment.

1 0.5 PROCESS PLANNING SYSTEMS

-- system are :
(i) Process optimization.
(ii) GT retrieval process plan retrieval.
The majority of existing process planning systems are variant and
(i) Generative process planning.
generative in nature. The various systems are CAPP, MULTI CAPP,
MIPLAN, AUTOPLAN and RPO, AUTAP, GARI, TIPPS, CPPP etc. The (iu) Graphical planning aides-booling layout, verification and
description of these systems are as follows : work instruction and preparation.
(iv) AUTAP system : It is one of the most complete planning
(i) CAPP : It is called as computer automated process planning
systems in use today. It uses primitives to construct a part similar to a
system. It is generally variant in nature. It is a database management
constructive solid geometry (CSG). It is a system designed especially to
system written in ANST stan.dard FORTRAN. It provides a structure interface with CAD system. It can be installed as part of an integrated
for a database, retrieval logic, and interactive editing for a database, CAD/CAM system.
capability. A typical CAPP system is shown in Figure 10.12. (v) GARI system : It is an experimental problem solver which
uses artificial intelligence techniques. The main feature of GARI system
is the representation of planningknowledge. GARI employs a production
Part family Standard Operation plan Application rule knowledge base to store process capabilities.
(vi) CPPP : Computerized production process planning (CPPP)
matrix file sequence file file program

was designed for planning cylindrical parts. CPPP is capable of

generating a Sl9llmary for operations and the detailed operation sheets
required for production. The principle behind CPPP is a composite­
Header Standard Operation Work

component concept. A composite-component can be thought of as an

Part family data sequence plan Element
search
imaginary component which contains all the features of components in
input retrieval life edit Processor

one part family.

(vii) TIPPS : It is called as Totally Integrated Process Planning
Part Process Process

System. It is a generative process planning system that has evolved

classification pion plan

from the APPAS and CAD/CAM systems. In this the logical decisions of
and coding formatter store

Fig. 10.12. CAPP. system.
(ii ) MIPLAN and MULTI CAPP : Both MIPLAN and MULTI
CAPP were developed in conjunction with OIR (Organization for
Industrial research). They are both variant in nature which uses MICL
LASS coding system for part description. They arc data retrieval systems
which retrieve process plans based on part code, part number, family
matrix, and code range. By inputting a part code, parts with a similar
code are retrieved. The process plan for each part is then displayed and
edited by the· us·er.
process planning are broken into functional modulus. The TIPPS has
the following features
(a) It has a modular structure.
(b) It can interact with a CAD system.
(c) It allows for interactive surface identification.
(d) It contains a process/knowledge description language.
1 0.6 IMPLEMENTATION OF CAPP
Various points which are common to all CAPP installations and
form the backbone are as follows :
(i ) Define the objectives of implementation .
10.18 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
(ii)Ensure that they are the right choice for business plan.
(iii)Sele.ct the right project leader.
(iv)Keep the process planners informed and involved.
(v)Select a system based on the predefined objectives.
(vi)Plan the implementation in detail and be willing to change
the plan.
(vii) Plan the user environment, controls and procedures.
(viii) Plan to minimize the non-productive tasks in process
planning.
(ix) Plan for the long term but implement only where there are
clear benefits.
In addition to above guidelines, hard work and a clear vision is
necessary to realise the full potential of CAPP. Some of the goals that
an implementation may have are as follows
(i) For improving planning productivity.
(ii) Improve planning lead time.
(iii) Consistency in methods.
(iv) Less scrap/rework.
(v) Security of information.
(vi) Ease of introduction of new production techniques.
(vii) Reduce data entry effort and errors.
(viii) Improve tooling/method/costing information.
(ix) Reduce errors in process plan.
(x) Release engineer's time for shop floor studies.
1 O.�ECHATRONICS
�1.1;S'efinitions of "Mechatronics"
J.
· Chico State University-"field of study that combines the
, Electrical, and Computer
fundamenta ls of Mechanical
Engineering."
• Clemson Univers ity-"the blending of software [an d] ·
hardware for the design [and] analysis of advanced control
techniques."
• Design with Microprocessors for Mechanical Engineers
(book)-"science that integrates mechanical devices with
electronic controls."
• Industrial Research and Developm ent Advisory
Committee of the European Community-"synergistic
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS 10.19
combination of precision engineering, electronic control and
systems thinking in the desi gn of products and manufacturing
processes."
• Introduction to Mechatronics and Measurement Systems
(book)-"the interdisciplinary field of engineering dealing with
the design of products whose function relies on the integration
of mechanical-and electronic components coordinated by a control
architecture."
• Journal of Mechatronics-"the synergistic combination of
precision mechanical engineering, electronic control and systems
thinking in the design of products and manufacturing processes."
• Loughborough University (United Kingdom)-"Mechatronics
is a design philosophy that utilizE:s a synergistic integration of
Mechanics, Electronics and Computer Techn9logy (or IT) to
produce enhanced products, processes or systems."
• ME Magazine-"the synergistic use of precision engineering,
control theory, computer science, and sensor and actuator
technology to des.ign improved products and processes."
Simply the application of the latest techniques in precision
mechanical engineering, controls theory, computer science, and
electronics to the design process to create more functional and
adaptable products.
• Mec�hatrobical Secondary Vocational School (Budapest,
Hungary; source: EGK)-"integration of mechanics, electronics
and intelligent computer controlling in the field of planning and
starting production and processes, where all the three subjects
continuously help and increase each other's effects."
• Mechatronics - Electromechanics and Control mechanics
(book)-"crossdisciplinary [field] . . . that simultaneously involves
mechanics, electronics, and control of computer-integrated
•
electromechanical systems."
Mechatronics - Electronic Control Systems in Mechanical
Engineeri.ng (book)-"integration of electronics, control
engineering and mechanical engineering."
• Mechatronics - Electronics in produts and processes
(book)-"an integrating theme within the design process
[combining] electronic engineering, computing and mechanical
engineering."
• Mechatronics - Mechanical System Interfacing (book)­
"the application of complex decision making to the operation of
physical systems."

10.20 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
. • Mechatronics Engineering (book)-''preplanned activity to
consider electrical, mechanicaT,and software constraints over
the product life cycle in a simultaneous manner early in the
development process."
• Mechatronics System Design (book)-"methodology used for
the optimal design of electromechanical products."
• North Carolina State University Course-"the synergistic
intergration of precision mechanical engin�ering, electronic
c,ontrol and system� thinking in the design ofintellegent products
and process."
· • <Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute-"the synergistic
combination of mechanical engineering, electronics, control
systems and computers, all integrated through the design
process." . The difference between a Mc chatronics Systenl and
• University of California at Berkeley-"a flexible, multi­
technological approach in the integration of Mechanical
Engineering, Computer Engineering, E lectronics, and
Information Sciences."
• University ofLin�-"technical systems operating mechanically
with respect to at least some kernel fu11;ctions but wi�� mor� or
less electronics supporting the mechamcal parts decisively.
• University of Twente (The Netherlands)-"technology which
combines mechanics with electronics and information technology
to form both functional interaction and spatial integration in
components, module's, products and systems."
• University of Washington-"the integrated study of the
design of systems and products i n which comput �tion,
mechanization actuation, sensing, and control are designed
together to achieve improved product quality and performance."
• Virginia Polytechnic lnstitute-"Mechatronics is concerned
with the blending of mechanical, electronic, software, and control
theory engineering topics into a unified framework that enhances
the design process."
Mechatronics is the synergistic combination of mechanical
engineering ("mecha" for mechanisms), electronic
engineeri,ng ("tronics" for electronics), and so ftw �re
_ automatically carried out in the correct sequence and in the correct way.
engineering. The purpose of this interdisciplinary engmeermg
field is the study of automata from an engineering perspective
and serves the purposes of controlling advanced hybrid
systems.
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS 10.21
�AT IS MECHATRONICS
Mechatronics is a Methodology used for the optimal design of
electromechanical products.
A Methodology is a collection of practices, procedures and rules
used by those who work in a particular branch of knowledge or discipline.
The familiar technological disciplines include Thermodynamics,
Electrical, Computer Science and Mechanical Engineering, to name
several.
The Mechatronic System is multidisciplinary, embodying four
fundamental disciplines : Electrical Engineering, Mechanical
Engineering, Computer Science and Information Technology.
The design metric emphasizes Reliability, Maintainability,
Performance and Cost.
Multidisciplinary system is not the constituents, but rather the order in
which they are designed. Hostorically, multidisciplinary system design
has a sequence design by discipline approach.
For example, the design of an Electromechanical system is often
accomplished in tl;ree steps beginning with the Mechanical design. When
Mechanical design is completed, the power and Micro electronics are
designed followed by Control algorithm design and its implementation.
The maj or drawb� of �he design by discipline approach is that fixing
_ _
the design at vaflous pomts m the· sequence causes new constramts.
System Engineers are familiar with the following quip :
Design and build Mechanical System, then bring in the painters to
paint it and the Control system to install the Controls.
����ider the modern auto-focus, auto-exposure camera. To use the
1 0.9 l�ODUCTION TO MECHATRONICS
camera all you need to do is point it at the subject and press the button
to take the picture. The camera automatically adjusts the focus so that
the subject is in focus and automatically adjusts the aperture and shutter
speed so that t. he correct exposure is given. Consider a truck smart
suspension. Such a suspension adjusts to uneven loading to maintain a
level platform, adjusts to cornering, moving across rough ground, etc.
to maintain a smooth ride. Consider an automated production line. Such
a line may involve a number of production processes which are all
The automatic camera, the truck suspension, and the automatic
p�oduction line are examples of a marriage between electronic control
systems and mechanical engineering.
10.22 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS 10.23

Such control systems generally �emicroprocessors as controllers A control system can be thought of as a black box, which is used to
control its output to some particular value or particular sequence of
and have electrical sensors extracting information from the mechanical
values. For example, a domestic central heating control system has as
inputs and outputs via electrical actuators to mechanical systems. The
its input the temperature required in the ht>use and as its output the
term mechatronics is used for this integration of microprocessor control house at that temperature, i.e. you set the require d temperature on the
systems, electrical systems and mechanical systems. thermostat or controller and the heating furnace adjusts itself to pump
In the design now of cars, robots, machine tools, washing machines, water through radiators and so produce the required temperature in
cameras, and very many other machines, such an integrated and the house Figu� l0.13 (c) shows a representation of such a system.
interdisciplinary approach to engineering design is increasingly being Armature
1 0.1 a. 1 EJe&ical Actuation Systems
adopted. The integration across the traditional boundaries of mechanical · l/ Sets of
engineering, electrical .engineering, electronics and control engineering In any discussion of electrical systems contacts
has to occur at the earliest stages of the design process if cheaper, more used as actuators for control, the discussion
has to include :
reliable, more flexible systems are to be developed. Mechatronics has to
involve a concurrent approach to these disciplines rather than a l. Switching devices such as mechanical
switches, e.g., relays, or solid-state switches, Coil
sequential approach of developing, say, a mechanical system then
e.g. diodes and transistors, where the control
designing the electrical part and the microprocessor part.
signal switches on or off some electrical
Mechatronics_brings together areas of technology involving sensors device, perhaps a heater or a motor .
and measurement systems, drive and actuation systems, analysis of 2. Solenoid type devices where a current
the be7 our of systems, control systems, and microprocessor systems. through a solenoid is used to actuate a soft
iron core, a s , for example, the solenoid Fig. 10.14 (a)
lj9..t6SYSTEMS
operated hydraulidpneumatic valve where a
Mechatronics involves, what are Input, Output, control current through a solenoid is used to Cathode
termed, systems. A system can be Motor actuate a hydraulidpneumatic flow. Forward
Electric Rotat·ion biased
thought of as a box which has an input '----� 3. Drive systems, such as d.c. and Anode
and an output and where we are not Fig. 10.13. (a) An example ofa a.c. motors, where a current through a
concerned with what goes on inside the system motor is used to produce rotation. V
box but only the relationship between t Reverse
Out put,
the output and the input. Thus, for In pu ' 1 0. 1 0.2flec hanical Switches biased
Thermometer
example, a motor may be thought of as Temp .._ Number f/Mechanical switches are elements which
a system, which has as its input electric _____, on a scale are often used as sensors to give inputs to Breakdown
power and as output the rotation of a Fig. 10.13 (b) An example of a systems e.g., keyboards. In this chapter we Fig. 10.14 (b) Diode
shaft. Fig. 10.13 (a) shows a repre- measurement system are concerned with their use as actuators to characteristic
sentation of such a system. perhaps switch on electric motors or heating
Input, Central Output, elements, or switch on the current to actuate
A measurement system can be heating system
thought of as a black box, which is used R equ·ired '-----� temperatJre h solenoid valves controlling hydraulic or
temperature a t t e set pneumatic cylinders. The electrical relay is
for making measurements. It h as as its value an example of a mechanical switch used in
input the quantity being measured and Fig. 10.13 (c) An example of a
control systems as an actuator.
its output the value of that quantity. For control system. .
example, a temperature measurement system, i.e., a thermometer, has Relays : The electrical relay offers a
f
simple on/of switching action in response to t
an input of temperature and an output of a number on a scale. Fig. Halfo. v ave_
a control signal. Fig. 10.14 (a) illustrates the Fig. 10.14 (c)
10.13 (b) shows a representation of such a system. rectifier.
 \
10.24 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
principle. When a current flows through the coil of wire a magnetic field
is produced. This pulls a movable arm, the ai:mature, that forces the
contacts to open or close; usually there are two sets of contacts with one
being opened and the other closed by the action. This action might then
be used to supply a current to a motor or perhaps an electric heater.in a
temperature control system.
� Solid-State Switches
There are a number of solid-state devices which can be used to
electronically switch circuits. Diodes are the basic solid state device.
Diodes : The diode has the characteristic shown in Fig. 10.14 (b)
and SO allows a significant current in one direction only. A diode can
thus be regarded as a 'directional element', only passing a current when
forward biased, i.e., with the anode being positive with respect to the
cathode. Ifthe diode is sufficiently reverse biased, i.e., a very high voltage,
it will break down. If an alternating voltage is applied across a diode, it
can be regarded as only switching on when the direction ofthe voltage
is such as to forward bias it and being off in the reverse biased direction.
The result is that the current through the diode is half-rectified to become
just the curi·ent due to the positive halves of the input voltage Fig. 10. 14(c).
Solenoids can be used to provide electrically operated actuators
olenoid valves are an example of such devices, being used to control
fluid flow in hydraulic or pneumatic systems. When a current passes
• sides at right angles to the field cause forces to act on those sides to give
� a cylinder of magnetic material called the armature. The armature is
lrt�
FluK linked of llnloed
llulc
Fig. 10.15 (a) Force on a current Fig. 10.15 (b) Induced e.m.f.
earring conductor
Fi g. 10.15 (c) D.C. motor basics Fig. 10.15 (d) D.C. motor.
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS 10.25
through a coil a soft iron core is pulled into the coil and, in doing so, can
open or close ports to allow the flow of a fluid.
�tors · .
Electric motors are frequently used as the final control element in
positional or speed control systems. Motors can be classified into used
in modern control systems being d.c. motors. The basic principles
involved in the action of a motor are:
1. A force is exerted on a conductor in a magnetic field when a
current passes through it [Fig. 10.15 (a)]. For a conductor of length L
carrying a current ! in a magnetic field of flux density B at right angles
to the conductor, the force F equals BIL.
2. When a conductor moves in a magnetic field then an e.m.f. is
induced across it [Fig. 10.15 (b)]. The induced e.m.f. e is equal to the
rate at which the magnetic flux ({) (flux equals the product of the flux
density and the area) swept through by the conductor changes (Faraday's
=-
law), i.e., e dct>/dt. The minus sign is because the e.m .f. is in such a
direction as to oppose the change producing it (Lenz's law), i.e., the
direction of the induced e.m.f. is in such a direction as to produce a
current which sets up magnetic fields which tend to neutralise the change
in magnetic flux linked by the coil and wl1ich was responsible for the
e.m.f. For this reason it is often referred to as a back e.m.f.
R;:idPri�iples of D.C. Motors :
{p(g;e· 10. 15 (c) shows the basic principle of the de. motor, a loop of
wire which is free to rotate in the field of a permanent magnet. When a
current is passed through the coil, the resulting forces acting on its
rotation. However, for the rotation to ,continue, when the coil passes
through the vertical position the cur-rent direction through the coil has
to be reversed.
In the conventional de motor, coils of wire are mounted in slots on
mounted on bearings and is free to rotate. It is mounted in the magnetic
field produced by field poles. These may be, for small motors, permanent
magnets or electromagnets with their magnetism produced by a current
through the field coils. Fig. 10.15 (cl) shows the basic principle of a four­
pole de motor with the magnetic field produced by current carrying coils.
The ends of each armature coil are connected to adjacent segments of a
segmented ring called the commentator with electrical contacts made
to the segments through carbon contacts called brushes. As the armature
rotates, the commentator reverses the current in each coil as it moves
between the field pole.s . This is necessary if the forces acting on the coil
are to remain acting in the sami:i ,direction and so the rotation continue.
The direction of rotation of the d.c. motor can be reversed by reversing
either the armature current or the field current.

10.26 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
. A.C.Jllofurs .\
i/ Alternating current motors can be classified into two groups-single
phase and polyphase with · each group being further subdivided into
induction and synchronous motors. Single-phase motors tend to be used
for low power requirements while polyphase motors are used for higher
powers. Induction motors tend to be cheaper than synchronous motors
and are thus very widely used.
The single-phase squirrel -cage induction motor consists of a
squirrel-cage rotor, this being copper or aluminium bars that fit into
slots in end rings tO form complete electrical circuits (fig. 10.16 (a).
There are no external electrical connections·to the rotor. The basic motor
consists of this rotor with a stator having a set of windings. When an
Fig. 10.16 (a) Three-phase Fig. 10.16 (b) Three-phase
induction motor synchronouts motor
alternating current passes throt.1gh the stator windi� g� an alternating
.
magnetic field is produced. As a result ofelectromagnetic mdu �tion, e.m.fs
are induced in the conductors of the rotor and currents flow m the rotor.
Initially, when the rotor is stationary, the forces on the current carrying
conductors of the rotor in the magnetic field of the stator are such as to
result in no net torque. The motor is not self-starting. A number of
methods are used to make the motor self-starting and give this initial
impetus to start it: one is to use an auxiliary starting wind�ng to give
the rotor an initial push. The rotor rotates at a speed determmed by the
frequency of the alternating current applied to the stator. Far a co nstant
frequency supply to a two-pole single-phase motor the magnetic _ field
_ .
will alternate at this frequency. This speed of rotat10n of the magnetic
field is termed the .synchronous speed. The rotor will never quite match
this frequency of rotation, typicaliy differing from it by about 1 to 3% .
This difference is termed as slip. Thus for a 50 Hz supply the speed o!
.
rotation of the rotor will be almost 5 0 revolutions per second.
The three-phase inducti_on mo.tor Fig. 10.16 (b) is similar to tho
single-phase induction motor but has a stator with three wi,ndi� gs located
120 ° apart, each winding being connected to one of the three Imes of the
supply. Because the three phases reach their maximum currents at
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS 10.27
different times, the magnetic field can be considered to rotate round the
stator poles, completing one rotation in one full cycle of the current. The
rotation of the field is much smoother than with the single-phase motor.
The three-phase motor has a great advantage over the single-phase
motor of being self-starting. The direction of rotation is reversed by
interchanging any two of the line connections, this changing the direction
of rotation of the magnetic field.
Synchronous nwtors have stators similar to those described above
for induction motors but a rotor which is a permanent magnet [(Fig.
10.17 (a)]. The magnetic field produced by the stator rotates and so the
magnet rotates with it. ·with one pair of poles per phase of the supply,
· the magnetic field rotates through 360 ° in one cycle of the supply and so
the frequency of rotation with this arrangement is the same as the
frequency of the supply. Synchronous motors arc used when a precise
speed is required. They are not self-starting and some system has to be
employed to start them.
�e(Motors
The stepper motor is a device that produces rotation through equal
angles, the so-called steps, for each digital pulse supplied to its input.
Thus, for example, if with such a motor I pulse produces a rotation of 6 °
then 60 pulses will produce a rotation through 360 ° . There are a number
of forms of stepper motor:
This pair .or poles
· eMtglaed by current
This pair or poles -,glaed by being switched to them to
current being switched to them give next step
and rotor rotatee to D08llloil �
below
Fig. 10. 1 7 (a) Fig. 10. 17 (b) Variable reluctance
1 . Variable reluctance stepper : Figure 10. 17 (b) shows the basic
stepper motor.
form of the variable reluctance stepper motor. With this form the rotor
is made of soft steel and is cylindrical with four poles, i.e., fewer poles
than on th� stator. When an opposite pair of windings has current ::
. _
10.28 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS 10.29
switched to them, a magnetic field is w oduced· with lines of force which
pass from the stator poles through th� nearest set of poles on the rotor. 1. Phase : This term refers to the number of independent windings
_ _ on the stator, e.g., a four-phase motor. The current required per phase
Since lines of force can be considered to be rather hke elastic thread and
always trying to shorten themselves, the rotor will move until the rotor a.nd its resistance and inductance will be specified so that the controller
and stator poles line up. This is termed the position of switching output is specified. Two-phase motors, e.g., Fig. 10.18 (a) ,
tend to be used in light-duty applications, three-phase motors tend to
minimum reluctance. This form of stepper generally gives step angles be variable reluctance steppers, e.g., Fig. 10.17 (b ), and four-phase motors
of 7.5 ° or 15 ° . tend to be used for higher power applications.
2. Permanent ma<met stepper. Figure 10.18 (a) shows the basic form 2. Step angle : This is the angle through which the rotor rotates for
or the permanent ma;net motor. The motor shown has a stator wi th one switching change for the stator coils.
_
four poles. Each pole is wound with a field winding, the coils on opposite
pairs or poles being in series. Qurrent is supplied from a d.c. source to 3. Holding torque : This is the maximum torque that can be applied
to a powered motor without moving it from its rest position and causing
spindle rotation.
4. Pull-in torque : This is the maximum torque against which a
motor will start, for a given pulse rate, and reach synchronism without
losing a step.
5. Pull-out torque : This is the maximum torque that can be applied
to a motor, running at a given stepping rate, without losing synchronism
Pole 4
6. Pull-in rate : This is the maximum switching rate at which a
loaded motor can start without losing a step.
7. Pull-out rate : This is the switching rate at which a loaded motor
will remain in synchronism as the switching rate is reduced.
8. Slet6range : This is the range of switching rates between pull-in
Fig. 10.18 (a) Hybrid motor rotor Fig. 10.18 (b) Permanent
and pull-out within which the motor runs in synchronism but cannot
stepper motor. magnet
start up · or reverse.
the windings through switches. The rotor is a pe�manent �agnet and
thus when a pair of stator poles has a current switc?�d to it, t�1e ro�or Figure 10. 1 9 shows the general characteristics of a stepper motor.
will move to line up with it. Thus for the currents givmg the situat10 n
_
shown in the figure the rotor moves to the 45 ° position. If the �urrent 1s Torque
then switched so that the polarities are reversed, the rotor will move a
further 45° in order to line up again. Thus by switching the currents
through
' the coils the rotor rotates in .-n Puk!A torque
3. Hybrid stepper. Hybrid stel)per motors combme the featu�es of
both the variable reluctance and permanent magnet motors, having a PIJU.in torq�
permanent magnet encased in iron cap.s which are cut to have te�th
_
(Fig. 10.18 (b). The rotor sets itself in the mini� um reluctance position
.
in response to a pair of stator coils being energised. Typical step angles
are 0.9° and 1.8°. Such stepper motors are extensively used in high­
accuracy positioning applications, e.g., in computer hard disc drives. Pull-oul
speed
Stepper motor Specificatio�s . .�
The following are some of the terms commonly used in specifying
stepper motors: Fig.- 10.19 Stepper motor character1��ics.
,
�.
.1' ":--
10.30 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
Sen��nd Transducers
V The term sensor is used for an element which produces a signal
relating to the quantity being measured. Thus in the case of, say, an
e1ectrical resistance temperature element, the quantity being measured
is temperature and the sensor transforms an input of temperature into
a change in resistance. The term transducer is often used in place of the
term sensor. Transducers are defined as elements that when subject to
some physical change experience a re{ated change. Thus sensors are
transducers. However, a measurement system may use transducers, in
.
addition to the sensor, in other parts of the system to convert signals in
one form to another form.
Displacement, Position and Proximity
Displacement sensors are concerned with the measurement of the
amount by which some object has been moved; position sensors are
concerned with the determination of the position of some. object with
reference to some reference point. Proximity sensors are a form of
position sensor and are used to determine when an object has moved to
within some particular critical distance of the sensor. They are essentially
devices which.give on-off outputs.
f
V•
.3 .
The elrwit when �I! • load
Fig. 10.20 (a) Fig. 10.20 (b)
Potentiometer sensor : A potentiometer consists of a resistance
element with a sliding contact which can be moved over the length of
the element. Such elements can be used for· linear or rotary
displacemen ts, the displacement being converted into a potential
difference. The rotary potentiometer consists of a circular wire-wound
track or a film of conductive plastic over which a rotatable sliding contact
can be rotated. The track may be a single turn or helical. With a constant
input voltage V, between terminals 1 and 3, the output voltage V0 between
terminals 2 and 3 is a fraction of the input voltage, the fraction depending
on the ratio of the resistance R23 between terminals 2 and 3 compared
with the total resistance R 13 between terminals 1 and 3, i.e. V)V, = .
R23 /R13" If the track has a constant resistance per unit length, i.e. per
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS 10.31
unit angle, then the output is proportional to the angle through which
the slider has rotated. Hence an angular displacement can be converted
into a potential difference.
Strain-gauged element : The electrical resistance strain gauge
(Fig. 10.21) is a metal wire, metal foil strip, or a strip of semiconductor
material which is wafer-like and can be stuck onto surfaces like a postage
stamp. When subject to strain, its resistance R changes, the fractional
change in resistance MIR being proportional to the strain E, i.e.,
MIR = Gc
Wire Semicondyctor·
Metal
to�
� Connection
Connection leads
lead,
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 10.21. Strain g�uges : (a) metal wire, (b) metal foil, (c) semiconductor.
where K, the constant of proportionality is termed the gauge factor.
Since strain is the ratio (change in length/original length) then the
resistance change of a strain gauge is a measurement of the change in
length of the element to which the strain gauge is attached. The gauge
factor of metal wire or foil strain gauges with the metals generally used
is about 2.0.
Capacitive elenient : The capacitance C ofa parallel plate capacitor
is given by
C = ErEoAid
where E, is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates,
E 0 a constant called the permittivity of free space, A the area of overlap
,
between the t"':' o plates and d the plate separation. Capacitive sensors
_
for the monitoring of linear displacements might thus take the forms
shown in Fig. 10.22. In Fig. 10.22 (a) one of the plates is moved by the
displacement so that the plate separation changes; in Fig. 10.22 (b) the
displacement causes the area of overlap to change; in Fig. 10.22 (c) the
displacement causes the dielectric between the plates to change.
10.32 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS 10.33

The e.m .f. induced in a secondary coil by a changing current i in

the primary coil is given by:

..
.:,
e = M dildt
Overlap
id . --.lllol·
...� . area

't
� Plate moves I where M is the mutual inductance, its value depending on the number
· and changes d of turns on the coils and the ferromagnetic core.
(c)
Eddy current proximity sensors : If a coil is supplied with an
(a) (b)
alternating current, an alternating magnetic field is produced. If there
Fig. 10.22 Forms of capacitive sensing ele� ent.
. is a metal object in close proximity to this alternating magnetic field,
Differential transformers : The linear variable differential
then eddy currents are induced in it. The eddy currents themselves
transformer, generally referred to by the abbreviation LVD� , consists
of three coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube (Fi�. 10. �3). produce a magnetic field. This distorts the magnetic field responsible
The central coil is the primary coil and the other two are identical for their production. As a result, the

=
secondary coils which are connected in series in such a way that their impedance of the coil changes and so Lhe
outputs oppose each other. A magnetic core is moved through the central amplitude of the alternating current. At
tube as a result of the displacement being monitored. some preset level, this change can be
1------o Output voltage u used to trigger a switch. Fig. 10.25 shows

===-=-t++-
s.c:ondary 1
dlff-.not bel-, the basic form of such a sensor; it is used �Rererence Sanaor
Pnma,y for the detection of non-magnetic but coil coll
Second1ry2 MCOndary conductive materials. They have the
COMlant a.c. YObga advantages of being relati vely
F111Toua rod / �to primary inexpensive, small in size, with high Fig. 10.25. Eddy current sensor.
to� ,-
roc1 from cannl poalliol'I
reliability and can have high sensitivity to small displacements.
Inductive proximity switch : This consists of a coil wound round a
Fig. 10.23. core. "When the end of the coil is close to a metal object its inductance
When there is an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, changes. This change can be monitored by its effect on a resonant circuit
alternating e.m.fs are induced in the secondary coils. With the magnetic and the change used to trigger a switch. It can only be used for the
core central the amount of magnetic material in each of the secondary detection of metal objects and is best with ferrous metals.
coils is the �ame. Thus the e.m.fs induced in each coil are the same. Optical encoders : An encoder is a device that provides a digital
Since they are so connected that their outputs oppose each other, the output as a result of a linear or angular displacement. Position encoders
net result is zero output. can be grouped into two categories: incremental encoders that detect
How ever, when the core is c«e mora I Cora 'more changes in rotation from some datum position and absolute encoders
displaced from the central position there which give the actual angular position.

is a greater amount of magnetic core in
one coil than the other, e.g. more in · '§
secondary coil 2 than coil 1. The result 1'!,
is that a greater e.m.f. is induced in one 0 0
coil than the other. There is then a net
output from the two coils. Sine� a greater +180" t=F-
displacement means even more cores in
one coil than the other, the output, the + o
difference between the two e . m . fs -1 80"
increases the greater the displacement
Fig. 10.24. LVDT output.
being monitored (Fig. 10.24).
�·R;'
Figure 10.26 (a) shows the basic form of an incremental encoder
. central for the measurement of angular displacement. A beam of light passes
:I through slots in a disc and is detected by a suitable light sensor. When
the disc is rotated, a pulsed output is produced by the sensor with the
: o� number of pulses being proportional to the angle through which the
disc rotates. Thus the angular position of the disc, and hence the shaft
rotating it, can be determined by the number of pulses produced since
o� some datum position. In practice three concentric tracks with three
sensors are used [Fig. 26 (b )] . The inner track has just one hole and is
used to locate the 'home' position of the disc. The other two tracks have
10.34 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS 10.35

Light sensor in the binary code. Typical encoders tend to have up to 10 or 12 tracks.
LED
c::J c::J The number of bits in the binary number will be equal to the number of
tracks. Thus with 10 tracks there will be 10 bits and so the number
of positions that can be detected is 2 1 0 , i.e., 1024, a resolution of 360/
Outer 1024 = 0.35 ° .
Pneumatic sensors : Pneumatic sensors involve the use of
track
Middle
compressed air, displacement or the proximity of an object, being
•••
track
transformed into a change in air pressure. Fig. 10.28 shows the basic
Inner form of such a sensor. Low-pressure air is allowed to escape through a
track

• •
port in the front of the sensor. This escaping air, in the absence of any
close-by object, escapes and in doing so also reduces the pressure in the

••
nearby sensor output port. However, if there is a close-by object, the air

•
cannot so readily escape and the result is that the pressure increases in
the sensor output port. The output pressure from the sensor thus depends
on the proximity of objects. Such sensors are used for the measurement
(a) (b)
of displacements of fractions of millimetres in ranges which typically
Fig. 10.6. Incremental encoder : (a) the basic principle (b) conqmtric tracks.

7�·--_ y·-�+
are about 3 to 12 mm.
a series of equally spaced holes that go completely round the disc but Obje0I bk>ddng eecaplng .... lncr.-
with the holes in ihe middle track offset from the holes in the outer

j��;f
track by one-half the width of a hole. This offset enables the direction of
rotation to be determined. I n a clockwise direction the pulses in the

=-yp:
outer track lead those in the inner, in the anti-clockwise direction they
lag. The resolution is determined by the number of slots on the disc.

�<::.--.
With 60 slots occurring with 1 revolution then, since 1 revolution is a
rotation of 360 °, the resolution is 360/60 = 6 ° .
Figure 10.27 shows the basic form of an absolute encoder for the t
· air Inlet air Inlet ; lllr
Low;-pr�r• Low-prft&Ul'e ,._ Eacaplno
measurement of angular displacement. This gives an output in the form
of a binary number of several digits, each such number representing a Fist. 10.28. Pneumatic proximity sensor.
particular angular position. The rotating disc has four concentric circles Button to ope�te
.swllch
LEDs Sensors 000 J· 111 I

(a) Switch C<nKt1 (0)

Fig. 10. 2 7 A 3 bit absolute encoder.

of slots and four sensors to detect the light pulses. The slots are arranged
in such a way that the sequential output from the sensors is a number
8c(c)
n
�

Fig. 10.29. (a) Lever-operated, (b) roller-operated, (c) cam-operated switches.

10.36 10.37

±J��c
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS

Another form of tachogenerator is essentially an a. c. generator. It

COMPUTER AIDED'MANUFACTURING

-- consists ofa coil, termed the rotor, which rotates with the rotating shaft.
This coil rotates in the magnetic field
produced by a stationary permanent magnet
N s
Pick-up coil

or electromagnet and so an alternating

e.m.f. is induced in it. The amp\itude or
frequency of this alternating e.m.f. dnbe used
as a measure of the angular velocity of the
rotor. The output may be rectified to give a Fig. A.C. generator form
Output Rotating coil

Fig. 10.30. Variable reluctance. d.c. voltage with a size which is proportional of tachogenerator.
Toothed wheel

to the angular velocity.

Proxiniity switches : There are a number of forms of switch which
can be activated by the presence of an object in order to give a proximity
· sensor with an output which is either on or off. Strain gauge load cell. A very commonly used form of force­
Force

The microswitch is a small electrical switch which requires physical measuring transducer is based on the use of electrical resistance strain
contact and a small operating force to close the contacts. For example, gauges to monitor the strain produced in some member when stretched,
in the case of determining the presence of an item on a conveyor belt, compressed or bent by the application of the force. The arrangement is
this might be actuated by the weight of the item on the belt depressing generally referred to as a load cell. Fig. 10.31 shows an example of such
the belt and hence a spring-loaded platform under it, with the movement a cell. This is a cylinchical tube t.o which strain gauges have been
attached. When forces arc applied to the cylinder to compress it, then
of this platform then closing the switch. Fig. 10.29 shows examples of
the strain gauges give a resistance change which is a measure of the
ways such switches can be actuated.
strain and hence the applied forces. Since temperature also produces a
resistance change, the signal conpitioning circuit used has to be able to
eliminate the effects due to temperature. Typically such load cells arc
The following are examples of sensors that can be used to monitor
Velocity and Motion
used for forces up to about 10 MN.
linear and angular velocities and detect motion. The application of motion
detectors includes security systems used to detect intrud_ers and
interactive toys.
Incremental encoder : The incremental encoder described above
can be used for a measurement of angular velocity .the number of pulses
Strain

produced per second being determined.

�
/

Tacbogenerator : The tachogenerator is used to measure angular

velocity . One form, the variable reluctance tachogenerator, consists of a
· toothed wheel offerromagnetic material whicn is attached to the rotating
shaft (Fig. 10.30). A pick-up coil is wound on a permanent magnet. As
the wheel rotates, so the teeth move past the coil and the air gap between Fig. 10.31 Strain gauge load cell.
the coil and the ferromagnetic material changes. We have a magnetic
circuit with 8:n air gap which periodically changes. Thus the flux linked Many of the devices used to monitor fluid pressure in industrial
Fluid Pressure

by a pick-up coil changes. The resulting cyclic change in the flux linked processes involve the monitoring of the elastic deformation of
produces an alternating e.m.f. in the coil. diaphragms, capsules, bellows and tubes. The types of pressure
measurements that can be required are: absolute pressure where the
 CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS 10.39
10.38 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

pressure is measured relative to zero-pressure, i.e. a vacuum, differential

A different form of deformation is obtained using a tube with an
elliptical cross-section [Fig. 10.35(a)J. Increasing the pressure in such a
pressure where a pressure difference is measured and gauge pressure tube causes it to tend to a more circular cross-section. When such a tube

known as a Bourdon tube, the C opens up to some extent when the

where the pressure is measured relative to the barometric pressure. is in the form of a C-shaped tube [Fig. 10.35(b)J, this being generally
For a diaphragm (Fig. 10.32 (a) and (b )), when there is a difference
in pressure between the two sides then the centre of the diaphragm pressure in the tube increases. A helical form of such a tube [Fig. 18(c))
becomes displaced. Corrugations in the diaphragm result in a greater gives a greater sensitivity. The tubes are made from such materials as

displacement sensor, e.g. a strain gauge, as illustrated in Fig. 10.33. A

sensitivity. This movement can be monitored by some form of stainless steel and phosphor bronze and are used for pressures in the
range 1 03 to 108 Pa.
specially designed strain gauge is often used, consisting of four strain

?;)'
gauges with two measuring the strain in a circumferential direction

I .�:
while two measure strain in a radial direction. The four strain gauges
are then connected . to form the ·arms of a Wheatstone bridge. (a ) Tube croaa-MC:tlon 'Movamanl

=9 C MGva�nl

�I (c)

Piezoelectric sensors : Piezoelectric materials when stretched or

i '
(a)
l .
! Fig. 10.35. Tube pressure sensors.
.l- 1I
•,-, .
· PMMR compressed generate clectrk charges with one face of the material
_J"\
�
� -i_�
becoming positively charged and the opposite face negatively charged
-; � I ' (Fig _ 10 : 36). As f l res � lt a voltage is produced. Piezoelectric materials
1 '· · ..
(b) are 10mc cry_;;tals which when stretched or compressed results in the
charge disfribution in the crystal changing so that there is a net
Fig. 10.32. Diaphragms Fig. 10.33. Diaphragms gauge displacement of charge with one face of the material becoming positively
(a) flat, (b) corrugated. charged and the other negatively charged. The net charge q on a surface

and since the displacement is proportional to the applied force F:

is proportional to the amount x by which the charges have been displaced,

Capsules [Fig. 34(a)) can be considered to be just two corrugated
diaphragms combined and give even greater sens itivity. A stack of
capsules is just a bellows [Fig. 10.34(b )] and even more sensitive.
Diaphragms, capsules and bellows are made from such materials as
stainless steel, phosphor bronze, and nickel, with rubber and nylon also
being used for some diaphragms. Pressures in the range of about 103 to
108 Pa can be monitored with such sensors.
q = kx = SF
where k is a constant and S a constant termed the charge sensitivity.
The charge sensitivity depends on the material concerned and the
orientation of its crystals. Quartz has a charge sensitivity of 2.2 pC/N
when the crystal is cut in one particular direction and the forces applied
in a specific direction; barium titanate has a much higher charge
sensitivity of the order of 130 pC/N and lead zirconate-titanate about
265 pC/N.
I Forc:e

+ + + + + + ,.

- - - - --·· l

(a) (b) Fig. 10.36.

Fig. 10.34. Capsules
 CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS
10.40 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING 10.41

Metal electrodes are deposited on opposite faces of the piezoelectric Liquid Level
.crystal. The capacitance C of the piezoelectric material between the The level of liquid in a v�ssel can
plates is given by C = £.f,,Alt where £, is the relative permittivity of the be measured directly by monitoring the
material, A is the area and t is the thickness. Piezoelectric .sensors are position of the liquid surface or
used for the measurement of pressure, force and acceleration. The indirectly by measuring some variable
related to the height. Direct methods

applications have, however, to be such that the charge produced by the
pressure does not have much time to leak off and thus tends to be us6d
mainly for transient rather than steady pressures.
Liquid Flow
The traditional methods of
measuring the flow rate ofliquids involves
devices based on the measurement of the
pressure drop occurring when the fluid
flows through a constriction (Fig. 10.37). Fig. 10.37. Fluid flow through
Orifice plate : The orifice plate (Fig.
10.38) is simply a disc, with a central hole,
which is placed in the tube through which
the fluid is flowing. The pressure difference
is measured between a point equal to· the
diameter of the tube upstream and a point
equal to half the diameter downstream.
The orifice plate is simple, cheap, with no
moving parts, and is widely used. It,
however, does not work well with slurries.
The accuracy is typically about :i:1.5% of
full range, it is non-linear, and does Fig. 10.38. Orifice plate.
produce quite an appreciable pressure loss
in the system to which it is connected.
Turbine meter : The turbine
flowmeter (Fig. 39) consists o f a
multibladed rotor that is supported
centrally in 1 the pipe along which the
flow occurs. The fluid flow results in
rotation of the rotor, the angular
velocity being approximately
proportional to the flow rate. The rate
o f revolution of the rotor can be
determined using a magnetic pick-up.
The pulses are counted and ·so the
number . of revolutions of the rotor can
be determined. Fig. 10.39. Turbine flowmetk
-..;----�-----_-------
can involve floats; indirect methods - - - - =-=J-= Output
include the monitoring of the weight of - - - --- ---
the vessel by, perhaps, load cells. The
- --
weight of the liquid isAhpg, where A is
the cross-sectional area of the vessel, h Fig. 10.40. Float system.
the height ofliquid, p its density and g
t�e acc�leration due to gravity., Thus changes in the height of liquid
give weight changes. More commonly, indirect methods involve the
measurement of the pressure at some point in the liquid, the pressure
a constriction.
due to a column of liquid of height h being h pg, where p is the liquid
density.
Floats : A direct method of monitoring the level of Jiquitl' in a
vessel is by monitoring the movement of a float. Fig. 10.40 illustrates
this with a simple float system. The displacement of the float causes a
lever arm to rotate ayd so move a slider across a potentiometer. The
result is an output 6f a voltage related to the height of liquid. Other
forms of this involve the lever causing the core in a LVDT to become
displaced, or stretch or compress a strain-gauged element.
Differential pressure : Fig. 10.41
shows two forms of level measurement -- -- -
based on the measurement of
differential pressure. In Fig. 10.41(a),
----- ---------- --
-- -
-- - - -
T�
the differential pressure cell determines
the pressure difference between the (1)
liquid at the base of the vessel and
- --- --
atmospheric pressure, the vessel being
-- - --
open to atmospheric pressure. With a
closed or open vessel the system
----- ------ --
--
- -·- -
illustrated in 10.41(b) can be used. The ---- -- -
differential pressure cell monitors tlie
difference in pressure between the base· � ) __ Oifferentlll p;.._, eel
(b-'-
M1gnet1cr�¥o11 of the vessel and the air or gas above
the surface of the liquid. Fig. 10.41. Using a differential
pressure sensor.
10.42 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
10.43

Temperature
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS

by depositing the metal on a suitable substrate, wire-wound elements

Bimetallic strips : This device consists of two different metal strips
bonded together. The metals have different coefficients of expansion
and when the temperature changes the composite strip bends into a
curved strip, with the higher coefficient metal on the outside of the
curve. This deformation may be used as a temperature-controlled switch,
as in the simple thermostat which was commonly used with domestic
heating systems (Fig. 10.42). The small magnet is so that the sensor
exhibits hysteresis, this meaning that_ the switch cont�ts close at a
different temperature from that at which they open.
Soft lran /
SmlM magnet
Fig. 10.42. Bimetallic thermostat.
involving a platinum wite held by a high temperature glass adhesive
inside a ceramic tube. Such detectors are highly stable and give
reproducible responses over long periods of time. They tend to have
response times of the order of 0.5 to 5 s or more.
Thermistors : Thermistors are small pieces of material made from
mixtures of metal oxides, such as those of chromium, cobalt, iron,
manganese and nickel. These oxides are semiconductors. The material
is formed into various forms of element, such as beads, discs and rods
( Fig. 44). The resistance of conventional metal-oxide thermistors
decreases in a vety non-linear manner with an increase in temperature,
as ill u strated in Fig. 1 0 . 4 5 . Such thermistors having negative
temperature coefficients (NTC). Positive temperature coefficient (PTC)
thermistors are, however, available. The change in resistance per degree
change in temperature is considerably larger than that which occurs
with metals. The resistance temperature relationship for a thermi stor
can be described by an equation of the form
R, = Ke�1t
where R, is the resistance at temperature t, with K and � being
constants. Thermistors have many advantages when compared with
other temperatuJe sensors. They are rugged and can be very small, so
enabling te�ef atures to be monitored at virtually a point. Because of
their small size they respond very rapidly to change in temperature.
They give very large changes in resistance per degree change in
temperature. Their main disadvantage is their non-linearity.

R,
10
Resistance temperature detectors
(RTDs) : The resistance of most metals Ro
increases, over a limited temperature 7
range, in a reasonably linear way with
temperature (Fig. 10.43). For such a 5
linear relationship:
R1 = R/1 + at) 3 4

where R, is the resistance at a

temperature t °C, R the resistance at 2

0°C and a is a constant for the metal '400 eoo:xH

0
O
termed the temperature coefficient of Fig. 10.43. Variation of resistano 80 1 20 160
resistance . Resistance temperature with temperature for metals. Temperature °C
detectors (RTDs) are simple resistive elements in the form of coils of Fig. 10.44. Thermistors. Fig. 10.45.
wire of such metals as platinum, nickel or nickel-copper alloys; platinum Thermocouples : If two different metals are joined together, a
is the most widely used. Thin film platinum elements are often mad<1 potential difference occurs across the ju nction. The potential difference
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTUR!NG
10.44
depends on the metals used an d the temperature of the j unction. A
thermocouple is a complete circuit involving two such junctions
(Fig. 10.46 ). If both junctions are at the same temperature there is no
net e.m.f. If, however, there is a di fference in temperature between the
two junctions, there is an e.m.f. The value of this e.m.f. E depends on
the two metals concerned and the temperature t of both junctions.
Usually one junction is held at 0 °C and then, to a reasonable extent,
the following relationship holds:
/ for adjusting the size of the diaphragm. While electronics might now
E == at + bt2 I
where a and b are constants for the metals concerned.
Hot junclion II� juoctilrl
Fig. 10.46. A thermocouple.
Mechanical Actuation Systems
Mechanisms are devices which can be considered to be motion
converters in that they transform motion from one form to some other
required form. They might, for example, transform linear motion into
rotational motion, or motion in one direction into a motion in a direction
at right angles, or perhaps a linear reciprocating motion into rotary
motion. As in the internal combustion engine where the reciprocating
motion of the pistons is converte d into rotation of the crank and hence
the drive shaft.
Mechanical elements can include the use of linkages, cams, gears,
rack-and-pinion, chains, belt drives, etc. For example, the rack-and­
pinion can be used to convert rotational motion to linear motion. Parallel
shaft gears might be used to reduce a shaft speed. Bevel gears might be
used for the transmission ofrotary motion through 90° A toothed belt or
chain drive might be used to transform rotary motion about one axis to
motion about another. Cams and linkages can be used to obtain motions
which are prescribed to vary in a particular manner.
Many of the actions which previously were obtained by the use of
.mechanisms are, however, often nowadays being obtained by the use
of microprocessor systems. For example, cams on a rotating shaft were
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS 10.45
previously used for domestic washing machines in order to give a timed
sequence of actions such as opening a valve to let water into the drum,
switching the water off, switching a heater on, etc. Modern washing
machines use a microprocessor-based system with the microprocessor
programmed to switch on outputs in the required sequence.
Mechanisms still, however, have a role in mechatronics systems.
For example, the mechatronics system in use in an automatic camera
for adjusting the aperture for correct exposures involves a mechanism
be used often for many functions that previously were fulfilled by
mechanisms, mechanisms might still be used to provide such functions
as :
1. Force amplification, e.g., that given by levers.
2. Change of speed, e.g., that given by gear�.
3. Transfer of rotation about one axis to rotation about another,
e.g ., a Liming belt.
4. Particular types of motion, e.g., that given by a quick-return
mechanism.
Cams
· A cam� body which rotates or oscillates and in doing so imparts
a reciprocatmg or oscillatory motion to a second body, called the follower,
with which it is in contact (Fig. 10.4 7). As the cam rotates so the follower
is made to rise, dwell and fall, the lengths of times spent at each of
these positions depending on the shape of the cam. The rise section of
the cam is the part that drives the follower upwards, its profil e
determining how quickly the cam follower will be lifted. The fall section
of the cam is the part that lowers the follower, its profile determining
how quickly the cam follower will fall. The dwell section of the cam is .
the part that allows the follower to remain at the same level for a
significant period of time. The dwell section of the cam is where it is
circular with a radius that does not change.
The cam shape required to produce a particular motion of the
follower will depend on the shape of the cam and the type of follower
used. Fig. 10.48 shows the types of follower displacement diagrams
that can be produced with different shaped cams and either point or
knife followers. The radial distance from the axis of rotation of the cam
to the point of contact of the cam with the follower gives the displacement
of the follower with reference to the axis of rotation of the cam. The
figures show how these radial distances, and hence fol lower
displacements, vary with the angle of rotation of the cams.
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS 10.47
10.46

The eccentric cam [Fig. 10.47(a)] is a circular cam with an offset
centre of rotation. It produces an oscillation of the follower which is
simple harmonic motion and is often used with pumps. The heart-shaped
cam [Fig. 10.47(b)] gives a follower displacement which increases at a
,. Gear Trains
constant rate with time before decreasing at a constant rate with time,
hence a uniform speed for the follower. The pear-shaped cam
'Fig. 10.4 7(c)] gives a follower motion which is stationary for about half
a
a revolution of the cam and rises and flls symmetrically in._each of the
remaining quarter revolutions. Such a pear-shaped cam ts used for
engine valve control. The dwell holds the valve open while the petrol/
air mixture passes into the cylinder. The longer the dwell, i.e., the
greater the length of the cam surface with a constant radius, the more
time is allowed for the cylinder to be completely charged with flammable
vapour.
cheaper and can be made smaller than roller followers. Such follo\Y
arc widely used with engine valve cams. While cams can be run c.iry,
they are often used with lubrication and may be immersed in an oil
bath.
Gear trains are mechanisms which are very widely used to transfer
and transform rotational motion. They are used wh�n a change in speed
or torque of a rotating device is needed. For example, the car gearbox
enables the driver to match the speed and torque requirements of the
terrain with the engine power available.
Rotary motion can be transferred from one shaft to another by a
p �ir of rolling cylinders (Fig. 10.49); however, there is a possibility of
slip. The transfer of the motion between the two cylinders depends on
the frictional forces between the two surfaces in contact. Slip can be
prevented by tile addition of meshing teeth to the two cylinders and

I ��
the result is then a pair of meshed gear wheels.

�
(1a
) , ·- iG) i0
0 ·1 �------·
0. I�
(b)
• � <•> (b
)
1(1)

I,.!'.} 0 . 90" 180" 270' �

Fig. 10.49. Rolling cylinders Fig. 10.50. Gear axis.

iI�
.

·
+� tJ
Rotahon
\,..,./
'
Gears can be used for

i i"
0 . o
)
(b
the transmission of rotary 1.

motion between parallel

shafts [Fig. 10. 50(a)] and
). a , � '"" ,� = tJ tJ for shafts which have axe!
inclined to one another
<1l
(I)
[Fig. 1 0 . 50 ( b ) ] . The term
(•)
(bl (c) ·

(a) point, bevel gears is used when the

Fig. 10.47. Cams (a) eccentric, Fig. 10.48. Cam followers : Fig. 10.51. Teeth.
(b) knife, (c) roller, (d) sliding lines of the shafts intersect,
(b) heart, (c) pear.
and oscillating, (e) Oat, as illustrated in [Fig. 10.50(b)]. When two gears are in mesh, tile larger
({) mushroom. gear wheel ii often called the spur or crown wheel and the smaller one
the pinion. Gears for use with parallel shafts may have axial teeth
Fig. 10.48 shows a number of examples of different types of cam with the teeth cut along axial lines parallel to the axis of the shaft [Fig.
followers. Roller followers are essentially ball or roller bearings. They 10.51(a)J. Such gears are then termed spur gears Alternatively they
have the advantage of lower friction than a sliding contact but can be may have helical teeth with the teeth being cut on a helix (F1g. 10.51(b)]
more expensive. Flat-faced followers are often used because they are and arc termed helical gears Helical gears have the advantage that
 10.49
10.48
CAPP, MAECIIATRONICS & MEMS
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

there is a gradual engagement of any individual tooth and consequently

Belt Drives
there is a smoother drive and generally prolonged life of the gears. Belt drives are essentially just a pair of rolling cylinders, w ith the
However, the inclination of the teeth to the axis of the sh aft result in motion of one cylinder· being transferred to the other by a belt
an axial force component on the shaft bearing. This can be overcome by (Fig. 10.53). Belt drives use the friction that develops between the
using double helical teeth [Fig. 10.51(c) ]. pulleys attached to tli.e shafts and the belt around the arc of contact in
order to transmit a torque. Since the transfer relics on frictional forces
Another form of gear is the then slip can occur. The transmitted torque is due to the differences i n
rack-and-pinion (Fig. 10.52), ter.1sion that occur in the belt during r, T� r,
this b e i n g esse ntially two operation. This diffcrence results in a
intermeshed gears with one

C )�
if
tight side and a slack side for the belt. (u
having abase circle of infinite If the tension on the tight side is T1 ,
o B A
o .
radius. Such gears can be used and that on the slack side T2 ' then with
to transform either l i n e a r / T Slack 1•
pulley A in Fig. 10.54 as the driver : Belt 2
motion to rotational motion or
rotational motion to l i n e a r Torque on A = (T1 - T) rA
2
Fig. 10.52. Rack-and-pinion.

motion where r11 is the radius of pulley A. For the driven pulley B we have :
Fig. 10.54.

Ratchet and Pawl Torque on B = (T, - T) r,i

Ratchets can be used to lock a mechanism when it is holding a
load. Fig. 10.53 shows a ratchet an d pawl. The mechanism consists of a
wheel, called a ratchet, with saw-shaped teeth which engage with an
arm called a pawl. The arm is piv oted and can move back and forth to
engage the wheel. The shape of the teeth is such that rotation can
occur in only one direction. Rotatio n of the ratchet. wheel in a clockwise
direction is prevented by the paw l and can only take place when the
pawl is lifted. The pawl is nonnally spring loaded to ensure that it
automatically engages with the ratchet teeth .
Thus a winch used to win d up a cable on a drum may have a
Fig. 1 0.53 . Ratchet and pawl.
where r8 is the radius of pulley B. Since the power transmitted is the
product of the torque and the angular velocity , and since the angular
velocity is u l r (\ for pulley A and u l r0 for pulley B, where v is the belt
specd,,thcn for either pulley we have:
Power = (1\ - T) u
As a method of transmitting power between two shafts, belt drives
have the advantage that the length of the belt can easily be adjusted to
suit a wide range of shaft-to-shaft distances and the system is
automatically protected against overload because slipping occurs ifihe
loading exceeds the maximum tension that can be sustained by frictional
forces. Ifthe distance between shafts is large, a belt drive is more suitable
than gears, but over small distances gears arc to be preferred. Different
size pulleys can be used to give a gearing effect. However, the gear ratio
is limited io about 3 because of the need to maintain an adequate ar� of
contact between the belt and the pulleys.
Types of belts-The four main types of belts arc :
1 . Flat : The belt has a rectangular cross-section Such a drive has
an efficiency of about 98% and produces little noise They can transmit
power over long distances between pulley centres
Crowned pulleys are used to keep the belts from running off the

. pullets.
ratchet and pawl to prevent. the cable unwinding from the drum when 2. Round : The belt has a circular cross-section and is used with
the handle is released. grooved pulleys.
10.50 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
3. V : V-belts are used with grooved pulleys and are less efficient
than flat belts but a number of them can be used on a single wheel and
so give a multiple drive.
4 . Timing : Timing belts require toothed wheels having teeth
which tit into the grooves on the wheels. The timing belt, unlike the
other belts, does not stretch or slip and consequ� tly transmits power
at a constant angular velocity ratio. The teeth make it possible for the
belt to be run at slow or fast speeds.
Chains
Slip can be prevented by the use of chains, which .lock into teeth
on the rotating cylinders to give the equivalent of a pair of intcrmcshing
gear wheels. A chain drive has the same relationship for gear ratio as
a simple gear train. The drive mechanism used with a bicycle is an
example of a chain drive. Chains enable a number of shafts to be driven
by a single wheel and so give a multiple drive. They are not as quiet as
timing bells but can be used for larger torques.
Bearings
Whenever there is relative motion of one surface in contact with
another, either by rotating or sliding, the resulting frictional forces
generate heat, which wastes energy, and results in wear. The function
of a bearing is to guide with minimum friction and maximum accuracy
the movement of one part relative to another.
Of particular importance is the need to give suitable support to
rotating shafts, i.e., support radial Loads. The term thrust bearing is
used for bearings that are designed to withstand forces along the axis
of a shaft when the relative motion is primarily rotation.
Plain journal bearings : Journal
bearings arc used to support rotating
shafts, which arc loaded in a radial
direction; the term jonrnal is used for a
shan. The bearing basically consists of
an insert of some suitable material
which is fitted between the shaft and
the support. Rotation of the shaft results
in its surface sliding over that of the
bearing surface. The insert may be a Fig. 10.55. Plain journal
white metal, aluminium alloy, copper bearing.
alloy, bronze or a polymer such as nylon
or PTFE. The insert provides lower friction and less wear than if the
shaft just rotated in a hole in the support. The bearing may be a dry
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS 10.51
rubbing bearing or lubricated. Plastics such as nylon and PTFE are
generally used without lubrication, the coefficient of friction with such
materials being exceptionally low. A widely used bearing material is
sintered bronze, this is bronze with a porous structure which allows it
to be impregnated with oil and so the bearing has a 'built in' lubricant.
The lubricant may be
· 1. Hydrodynamic : The hydro­
dynani icjoumal bearing consists of the
shaft rotating continuously in oil in such
a way that it rides on oil and is not
supported by metal (Fig. 10.56). The
load is carried by the pressure generated Bllr1ng
in the oil as a result, oflhe shaft rotating. hauelr1g
2. Hydrostatic : A problem with
Fig. 10.56. Hydrodynamic
jounal bearing.
hydrodynamic lubrication is that there
is metal-to-metal contact when the shaft is at rest. To avoid excessive
wear al i:;tart-up and when there is only a low load, oil is pumped into
the load-bearing area at a high-enough pressure Lo lift the shaft of the
f
metal when at resl.
3. Solid-film : This is a coating of a solid material such as graphite
oz..:nolybdenum disulphide.
4. Boundary Layer : This is a thin
layer of lubricant which adheres Lo the
surface of the bearing.
Ball and roller bearings : With this
type of bearing, the main load is Inner ball
transferred from the rotating shaft to
its support by rolling contact rather
than sliding contact. A rolling element
bearing consists of four main elem ents: Fig. 10.57. Basic clements of a
an inner race, an outer race, the rolling ball bearing.
element of either balls or rollers, and a
cage to keep the rolling elements apart (Fig. 10.57). The inner and
·outer races contain hardened tracks in which the rolling elements r0!l.
10.1 1 MEMS OVERVIEW
When Kurt Peterson of IBM published a paper in 1982 entitled
Silicon as a Mechanical Material, creative researchers around the globe
were enthralled by t�e possibilities. In this paper, Peterson noted that
silicon, the well-researched staple of integrated circuits, has remarkable
mechanical properties including a hardness and tensile yield strength
similar to stainless steel. Armed with this knowledge, these crea�ive
10.52 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
researchers developed an entirely new and exciting technology which
makes it possible for mankind to manipulate the microscopic world
MEMS.
MEMS, or Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, are integrated
systems which combine mechanical and electrical components in
packages ranging in size from submicrons to centime,ers. MEMS, also
called micromachines, can be fabricated using machining techniques
as well as IC (integrated circuit) fabrication methods from a multitude
of materials including silicon, nickel, quartz, GaAs, ZnO, and TiNL
MEMS devices are currently being designed for a wide range of
applications such as sensors, controllers and actuators. In !.he future,
it is conceivable that MEMS will play prominent roles i n fields such as
biotechnology and machine intelligence.
1 0. 1 2 INTRODUCTION TO MEMS
MEMS is an abbreviation for Micro Electro Mechanical Systems.
This is a rapidly emerging technology combining electrical, electronic,
mechanical, oplical, material, chemical and £1uids engineering
Fig. 10.58
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS 10.53
disciplines. As the smallest commercially produced "machines", MEMS
devices are similar to traditional sensors and actuators although much,
much smaller. e.g., Complete systems are typically a few millimeters
across, with individual features/ devices of the order of 1-100
micrometers across.
MEMS devices are manufactured either using processes based on
Integrated Circuit fabrication techniques and materials, or using new
emerging fabrication technologies such as micro injection moulding.
These former processes involve building the device up layer by layer,
involving several material deposition and etch steps. A typical MEMS
fabrication technology may have a 5 step process. Due to the limitations
of this "traditional IC" manufacturing process MEMS devices are
substantially planar, having very low aspect ratios (typically 5 - 10
micro meters thick). It is important to not.e thal there arc several
evolving fabrication techniques that. allow higher aspect ratios such as
deep x-ray lithography, electrodepositi on, and micro injeclion moulding.
First developed in the 1970s and then commercialized in lhe 1990s,
MEMS make it possible for systems of all kinds to be smaller, fa:;tcr,
more energy-effi cient and less expensive. I n a typical MEMS
con:Gguration, integrated circuits (ICs) provide the "thinking" part of
the system, while MEMS complement this intelligence wit.h active
perception and control functions. MEMS (Micro Electro-Mechanical
System) is a frontier high technology with a combinaLion of m ulti­
discipline technology, and will turn into one of'Lhc leading industries in
the futurQ. Wit.h !.he advantage of its micromation, MEMS shows a widely
prospect in the application of automobile industry, electronicindustry,
domestic electric appliance, mechatronics ind ustry and military fields.
MEMS arc miniature devices that enable the operation of complex
systems. Smaller than a grain of sand, MEMS devices combine tiny
mechanical, optical and fluidic elements with electronics and are
integrated on a silicon chip. Typically MEMS devices act as sensors,
actuators, pumps and valves. Because of their small size, MEMS are
frequently more precise in 'th eir operation lhan their larger machined
counterparts.
While the electronics are fabricated using integrated �ircuit (IC)
process sequences (e.g. , CMOS, Bipolar, or BICMOS processes), the
micromechanical components are fabricated using compatible
"micromachining" processes that selectively etch away parts of the
silicon wafer or add new structural layers to form the mechanical and
electro1nechanical devices.
10.54 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
MEMS promise to revolutionize nearly every product category by
Fig. 10.59.
bringing together silicon-based microelectronics with microm.achining
technology, making possible the realization of complete systems-on­
a-chip.
Microelectronic integrated circuit can be thought of as the "brains"
of a system and MEMS augments this decision-making capability with
"eyes" and "arms", to allow microsystems to sense and control the
environment. Sensors gather information from the environment through
measuring mechanical, thermal, biological, chemical, optical and
magnetic phenomena. The electronics then process the information
derived from the sensors and through some decision maki11;g capability
direct the actuators to respond by moving, positioning, regulating,
pumping, and filtering, tp.ereby controlling the environment for some
desired outcome or purpose. Because MEMS devices are manufactured
using batch fabrication techniques similar to those used for integrated
circuits, unprecedented levels of functionality, reliability, and
sophisti_r.ation can be placed on a small silicon chip at a relatively low
cost.
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS 10.55
1 0.13 VARIOUS CATEGORIES OF MEMS TECHNOLOGY
There are several different broad categories of MEMS technologies,
outlined below
.
10.13.1 Bulk Micromachining
Bulk micromachining is a fabrication technique which builds
mechanical elements by starting with a silicon wafer, and then etching
away unwanted parts, and being left with useful mechanical devices.
Typically, the wafer is photo patterned, leaving a protective layer on
the parts of the wafer that you want to keep. The wafer is then submersed
into a liquid etchant, like potassium hydroxide, which eats away any
exposed silicon. This is a relatively simple and inexpensive fabrication
technology, and is well suited for applications which do not require much
complexity, and which are price sensitive,
Today, almost all pressure sensors are built w ith B u l k
Micromachining. Bulk Micromachined pressure sensors offer several
advantages over traditional pressure sensors. They cost less, are highly
reliable, manufacturable, and there is very good repeatability between
devices.
All new cars on the market today have several micromachined
pr �ure sensors, typically used to measure manifold pressure in the
engme;--..
The small size and high reliability of micromachined pressure
sensors make them ideal for a variety of medical applications as well.
10.1 3.2 Surface Micromachining
While Bulk m.icromachining creates devices by etching into a
wafer, Surface Micromachining builds devices up from the wafter layer­
by layer.
A typical Surface Micromachining process is a repetitive sequence
of depositing thin films on a wafer, photopatterning the films, and then
etching the patterns into the films. In order to create moving, functioning
machines, these layers are alternating thin films of a structural material
(typically silicon) and a sacrificial material (typically silicon dioxide).
The structural material will form the mechanical elements, and the
sacrificial material creates the gaps and spaces between the mechanical
elements. At the end of the process, the sacrificial material is removed,
and the structural elements are left free to move and function.
For the case of the structural level being silico�, and the sacrificial
material being silicon dioxide, the final "release" process is perfor�ed
by placing the wafer in Hydrofluoric Acid. The Hydrofluoric Acid quickly
etches away the silicon dioxide, while leaving the silicon undisturbed.
10.56 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
The wafers are typically then sawn into individual chips, apd the
chips packaged in an appropriate manner for the given application.
Sm;face Micromachining requires more fabrication steps than Bulk
Micromachining, and hence is more expensive. It is able to create much
more complicated devices, capable of sophisticated functionality. Surface
Micromachining is suitable for applications requiring more sophisticated
mechanical elements. \ and as the technology continues to grow the gap with IC technology
1 0.1 3.3 LIGA
LIGA is a technology which creates small, but relatively high
aspect ratio devices using x-ray lithography. The process typically starts
with a sheet or PMMA. The PMMA is covered with a photomask, and
then exposed to high energy x-rays. The mask allows parts of the PMMA
to be exposed to the x-rays, while protecting other parts. The PMMA is
then placed in a suitable etchant to remove the exposed areas, resulting
in extremely precise, microscopic mechanical elements.
LIGA is a relatively inexpensive fabrication technology, and
suitable for applications requiring higher aspect ratio devices than what
is achievable in Surface Micromachining.
1 0.1 3.4 Deep Reactive Ion Etching
Deep reactive ion etching is a type of Bulk Micromachining which
etches mechanical elements into a silicon wafter. Unlike traditional
Bulk Micromachining, which uses a wet chemical etch, Deep Reactive
Ion Etching micromachining uses a plasma etch to create features.
This allows greater flexibility in the etch profiles, enabling a wider
array of mechanical elements. The fabrication tools needed to perform
Deep Reactive Ion etching are somewhat expensive, to this technology
is typically more expensive than traditional Bulk Micromachining based
on wet etching.
1 0.13.5 Integrated MEMS Technologies
Since MEMS devices are created with the same tools used to create
integrated circuits, in some cases it is actually possi�le to fa�r�cate
Micromachines and Microelectronics on the same piece of s1hcon.
Fabricatin_g machines and transistors side by side enables machines
that can have intelligence. A number of exciting products are already
taking advantage of this capability.
1 0 .14 PROCESSES _OF MEMS
MEMS technology is based on a number of tools and methodologies,
which · are used to form small structures with dimensions in the
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS
10.57
micrometer scale (one millionth of a meter). Significant parts of the
technology has been adopted from integrated circuit (IC) technology.
For instance, almost all devices are build on wafers of silicon, like !Cs.
The structures are realized in thin films of materials, like !Cs. They
are patterned using photolithographic methods, like !Cs. Thel'e are
however several processes that arc not derived from IC technology,
also grows.
There arc three basic building blocks i n MEMS technology, which
are the ability to deposit thin films of material on a substrate, to apply
a patterned mask on top of the films by photolithographic in1aging, and
to etch the films selectively to the mask. A MEMS process is usually a
structured sequence of these operations to form actual devices.
Thin Film Deposition Processes
One ofthe basic building blocks in MEMS processing is the ability
to deposit thin films of material. In this text we assume a thin film to
have a thickness anywhere between a few nanometer to about 100
m.icrometer. The film can subsequently be locally etched using processes
described in the Lithography and Etching sections.
--..... MEMS deposition technology can be classified in two groups :
1. Depositions that happen because of a chemical reaction :
• Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
• Electrodeposition
• Epitaxy
• Thermal oxidation
These processes exploit the creation of solid materials directly
from chemical reactions in gas and/or liquid compositions or
with the substrate material. The solid material is usually not
tlie only product formed by the reaction. Byproducts can include
gases, liquids anci even other solids.
1 . Depositions that happen because of a physical reaction :
• Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD )
• Casting
Common for all these processes are that the material deposited
is physically moved on to the substrate. I n other words, there
is no chemical reaction which forms the material on the
substrate. This is not completely correct for casting proc�sses,
though it is more convP.nient to think of them that way.
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS
10.58 10.59

This is by no means an exhaustive list since technologies evolve
continuously.
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
In this process, the substrate is placed inside a reactor to which a
number of gases are supplied. The fundamental principle of the process
is that a chemical reaction takes place between th � source gases. The
product of that reaction is a solid material with condehses on all surfaces
inside the reactor.
The two most important CVD technologies in MEMS are the Low
Pressure CVD (LPCVD) and Plasma Enhanced CVD (PECVD). The
LPCVD process produces layers with excellent uniformity of thickness
and material characterisLics. The main problems with the process are
the high deposition temperature (higher than 600°C) and the relatively
slow de-position rate. The PECVD process can operate at lower
temperatures (down to 300°C) thanks to the extra energy supplied to
the gas molecules ·by the plasma in the reactor. However, the quality of
the films tend to be inferior to processes running at higher temperatures.
Secondly, most PECVD deposition systems can only deposit the material
on one side of the wafers on 1 to 4 wafers at a time. LPCVD systems
deposit films on both sides of at least 25 wafers at a time. A schematic
diagram of a typical LPCVD reactor is shown in the figure below.
� ateria� varies from process to process, however a good rule of thumb
1s that higher process temperature yields a material with highe
·· r quality
and less defects.
Electrode-f!)osiiion
This process is also known as "electroplating" and is typica
_ lly
restricted to elcctn_ c �lly conductive materials. There are
_ basically two
technolog1e� for platmg : Electroplating and Electroless platin
g. In the
electroplating process the substrate is placed in a liquid
solution
( electr o ! yte). When an electr ical poten tial is appli ed
betwe en a
con � uctm � area ?n �he substrate and a counter electr
ode (usua lly
?latmum) m t� e hqmd , a chemical redox process takes place resulting
m the formation ?f a layer of material on the substrate and
usually
some gas generat10n at the counter electrode.
In t� e electroless plating process a more complex chemical soluti
. on
is � sed, m which d?� osition ? appens spontaneously on any
surface
wh1c� form � a sufftcicntly high electrochemical potential
with the
soluti?n. This pr�cess is desirable since it does not require any
external
ele�tncal poten_ti �1 and contac� to the substrate durin g proces
sing.
Ui::ifortunately, it _is als o more difficult to control with regard
_ s to film
thickness and uniformity. A schematic diagram of a typica
l setup for
electroplating is shown in the figure below.

Pressure sensor Wheh do I want to use Electrodeposition ?

/ · 3-zone furnace The electrodeposition process is well suited to make films of metals
such as copper, gold and nickel. The films can be made in any thickn�ss

�I
DC voltage source

Electrical connector Container

-� Pump
\ /

,,, Gas inlet

Electrolyte solution
�/
Wafer

Load door Coooter electrode

Fig. 10.60. Typical hot-wall LPCVD reactor.

When do I want to use CVD ?

CVD processes are ideal to use when you want a thin film with . Wafer hOlder
good step coverage. A variety of materials can be deposited. with this
technology, however, some of them are less popular with fabs because
����:§S�
�
' __ d
of hazardous byproducts formed during processing. The quality of the Fig. 10.61. Typical setup for electrodeposition.
10.60 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
from -1 µm to > 100 µm. The deposition is best controlled when used
with an external electrical potential, however, it requires electrical
contact to the substrate when immersed in the liquid bath. In any
process, the surface ofthe substrate must have an electncally conducting
coating before the deposition can be done.
Epitaxy
\
This technology is quite similar to what happens in CVD processes,
however, if the substrate is an ordererl semiconrluctor crystal (i.e.,
silicon, gallium arsenide), it is possible with th.is process to continue
bt•ilding on the substrate with the same crystallographic orientation
with the substrate acting as a seed for the deposition. If an amorphous/
polycrystallin e substrate surface is used, the film will also be amorphous
or polycrystalline.
There are several technologies for creating the conditions inside a
reactor needed to support epitaxial growth , of which the most important
is Vapor Phase Epitaxy (VPE). In this process, a number of gases are
introduced in an induction heated reactor where only th� Slslbstrate is
heated. The temperature of the substrate typically must be at least
50% of the melting point of the material to be deposited.
An advantage of epitaxy is the high growth rate of material, which
allows the formation of films with considerable thickness (> l:00 µm).
Epitaxy is a widely used technology for producing silicon on in�ula\or
(SOI) substrates. The technology is primarily used for deposition of
silicon. A schematic diagram of a typical vapor phase epitaxial re:!lctor
is shown in the figure below.
..........
RF Inductive heating coil
.,/
;.:
Gas mlet
. r:=i� �� Vent
• • • • • •\ . • • •
�
, r=
\
Graphite susceptor
Fig. 10.62. Typical cold-wall vapor phase epitaxial reactor.
When do I want to use Epitaxy ?
This has been and continues to be an emerging process technology
in MEMS. The process can be used to form films o f silicon with
' thicknesses of - 1 µm to > 100 µm. Some proce.,ses require high
...
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS 10.61
temperature exposure of the substrate, whereas others do not require
significant heating of th�. substrate. Some processes can even be used
to perform selective deposition, depending on the surface of the
substrate.
Thermal Oxidation
his is one of the most basic deposition technologies. It is simply
. �
ox1dat10n of the s�bstrate surface in an oxygen rich atmosphere. The
_
temperature 1s raIS �� to 800° C-1100° C to speed up the process. This is
also the only depos1t10n technology which actually consumes some of
t�e s �bstrate as it _ proceeds. The growth of the film is spurne9- by
.
d1ffus1on of oxygen mto the substrate, which means the film growth is
actually downwards into the substrate. As the thickness of the oxidized
layer increases, the diffusion of oxygen to the substrate becorues more
difficult leading to a parabolic relationship between film thickness and
�xi � ation time fo: films thicker than - lOOnm. This process is naturally
hnnted to �aten�ls that can be oxidized, and it can only fo rm films
that a �� ox1des o_f. that material. This is the classical process used to
_
for �1 silicon dim:c 1de on a silicon substrate. A schematic diagram of a
.
typical wafer ox1dat10n furnace is shown in the figure below.
When do I want to use thermal Oxidation ?
Whenever y�u can ! This is a simple process, which unfortunately
pro? uces films with somewhat limited use in MEMS components. It is
typically used to form films that are used for electrical insulation or
that are used for other process purposes l �ter in a process sequence.
3-zone furnace
Efi'��>:$; " �- � ,. Wafers
/7 4L�_ Water vapor
or oxygen inlet
Quartz tube
Fig. 10.63. Typical wafer oxidation fu rnace.
Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)
PVD covers a number of deposition technologies in which material
.
1s released from a source and transferred to the substrate The two
most important technologies are evaporation and sputtering.
10.62 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
PVD comprises the standard technologies for deposition of metals.
W�1en do I want to use PVD ?
It is far more common than CVD for metals' since it can be performed
at lower process risk and cheaper in regards to mat�rials cost. The
quality of the films are inferior to CVD, which for metals means higher
resistivity and for insulators more defects and traps. Th'e step coverage
is also not as good as CVD.
The choice of deposition method (i.e., evaporation vs. sputtering)
may in many cases be arbitrary, and may depend more on what
technology is available for the specific material at the time.
In evaporation the substrate is placed inside a vacuum chamber,
Evaporation
in which a block (source) of the material to be deposited is also located.
The source material is then heated to the point where it starts fo boil
and evaporate. The vacuum is required to allow the molecules to
evaporate freely in the chamber, and they subsequently condense on
e-beam
. I
M,;terial 1o bB- "Naporated 1;:::::.�
Vacuum pump
l
r'il
\
,..___'� �
Thermoionic fiarnent
Water-cool ed crucible
Fig. 10.64 . Typical system for e-beam evaporation of materials.
all surfaces. This principle is the same for all evaporation technologies,
only the method used to the heat (evaporate) the source material differs.
There are two popular evaporation technologies, which· are e-beam
evaporation 'and resistive evaporation and resistive evaporation each
referring to the heating m�thod. In e-beam evaporation, an electron
I polymer materials, which may be easily dissolved in organic solvents,
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS 10.63
beam fo aimed at the source material causing local heating and
evaporation. Ir. resistive evaporation, a tungsten boat, containing the
source material, is heated electrically with a high current to make the
material evaporate. Many materials are restrictive in terms of what
evaporation methods can be used (i.e. aluminium is quite difficult to
evaporate using resistive heating), which typically relates to the phase
transition properties of that material. A schematic diagram of a typical
system for e-beam evaporation is shown in the figure below.
Sputtering
Sputtering is a technology in which the material is released from
the source at much lower temperature than evaporation. The substrate
is place � in a vacuum chamber with the source material, named a target,
and an mert gas (such as argon) is introduced at low pressure. A gas
plasma is struck using an RF power source, causing the gas to become
ioniz ed. The ions are accelerated towards the surface of the target,
_
causrng atoms of the source material to break off from the target in
vapor form and condense on all surfaces including the substrate. As for
evaporation, the basic principle of sputtering is the same for all
sputtering technologies. The differences typically relate to the manor
in which the ion bombardment of the target is realized. A schematic
-diagram of a typical RF sputtering system is shown in the figure below.
Counter electrode
Vacuum pump
Fig. 10.10.65. Typical RF sputtering system.
Casting
In this process the material to be deposited is dissolved in liquid
form in a solvent. The material can be applied to the substrate by
spraying or spinning. Once the solvent is evaporated, a thin film of the
material remains on the substrate. This is particularly useful for
10.64
10.65
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

and it is the common method used to apply photoresist to substrates (in

CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS

photolithography) . The thicknesses that can be cast on a substrate range

for all the way from a single monolayer of molecules (adhesioin This is the simplest etching technologies. All it requires is a
Wet Etching

promotion) to tens of micrometers. In recent years, the casting
technology has also been applied to form films of gl�s materials on
substrates. The spin casting process is illustrated in the fi gu re below.
Casting is a simple technology which can be used for a variety of
When do I went to use casting ?
container with a liquid solution that will dissolve the material in
question. Unfortunately, there are complications since usually a mask
is desired to selectively etch the material. One must find a mask that
will not dissolve or at least etches much slower than the material to be
patterned. Secondly, some single crystal materials, such as silicon,
exhibit an isotropic etching in certain chemicals. Anistrophic etching in

materials (mostly pol ymers). The control on film thiclmess depends on
exact conditions, but can be sustained within + /- 10% in a wide range.
If you are planning to use photolithography you will be using casting,
which is an integral part of that technology. There are also other
interesting materials such as polymide and spin-on glass which can be
applied by casting.
contrast to isotropic etching means dHferent etch rates in different
directions in tl: e material. The classic exam� of this is the < 111 >
crystal plane sidewalls that appear when etciling a hole in a < 100 >
silicon wafer in a chemical such as potassium hydroxide ( KOH). The
result is a pyramid shaped hole instead of a hole with rounded sidewalls
with a tsotropic etchant. The principle of anisoterpic and isotropic wet
etching is illustrated the figure below.

;,\� This is a simple technology, which will aii.ve geod results if you can
When do I went to use wet etching ?

find the combination of etchant and mask ma�erial to suit your

application. Wet etching works very well for etching,:llms on substrates,
Syn-/

and can also be used to etch the substrate itself: . The problem with
substrate etching is that isotropic processes will cause undercutting of
• Material to be deposited Unlfor,m layer of malerlal
·� the mask layer by the same distance as the etch depth. Anisotropic
processes allow the etching to stop on certain crystal planes is the
I

� we
�S!:B
substrate, �ut still results in a loss of space, since these planes cannot
be vertical to the surface when etching holes or cavities. If this is a
��
.�
= �afer
limitation for you, you should consider dry etching of the f?ubstrate
Vacuum chuck

instead. However, keep in mind that the cost per wafer will be 1 - 2
orders of magnitude higher to perform the dry etching.
BEFORE SPINNING AFTER SPINNING
Fig. 10.66. The spin casting process as used for photoresist in
photolithography

Slow etching crystal plane

In order to form a functional MEMS structure on a substrate, it is
Etching Process

I /
necessary etch the thin films previously deposited and/or the substrate
// Etch mask
itself. In general, there are two classes of etching processes
1 . What etching where the material is dissolved when immersed
in a chemical solution.
2. Dry etching where the material is sputtered or dissolved
using reactive ions or a vapor phase etchant. � ��\
�2]
In the following, we will briefly discuss the most popular
technologies for wet and dry etching. ANISOTROPIC ISOTROPIC
Fig. 10.67. Difference between anisotropic and isotropic wet etching.
10.66 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
If you are making very small features in thin films (comparable to
the f1im thickness), you may also encounter problems with isqtropic
wet etching, since the undercutting will be at least equal to the film
thickness. With dry etching it is possible etch almost straight down
without undercutting, which provides much highdr resolution.
Dry Etching
The dry etching technology can split in three separate classes
called reactive ion etching (RIE), sputter etching, and vapor phase
etching.
In RIE, the substrate is placed inside a reactor in which several
gases arc introduced. A plasma is struck in the gas mixture using an RF
power source, breaking the gas molecules into ions. The ions arc
accelerated towards, and reacts at, the surface of the material being
etched, forming another gaseous material. This is known as the chemical
part of reactive ion etching. There is also a physical part which is similar
in nature to the sputtering deposition process. If the ions have high
enough energy, they can knock atoms out of the material to be etched
without a chemical reaction. It is a very complex task to develop dry
etch processes that balance chemical and physical etching, since there
are many parameters to adjust. By changing the balance it is possible
to influence the anisotropy of the etching, since the chemical part is
isotropic and the physical part highly anisotropic the combination can
form sidewalls that have shapes from rounded to vertical. A schematic
of a typical reactive ion etching system i s shown in the figure below.
A special subclass of RIE which continues to grow rapidly in
popularity is deep RIE (DRIE). In this process, etch depths of hundreds
of microns can be achieved with almost vertical sidewalls. The primary
technology is based on the so-called "Bosch process", named after the
German company Robert Bosch which filed the original patent, where
two different gas compositions are alternated in the reactor. The first
gas composition etches the substrate. The polymer is immediately
sputtered away by the physical part of the etching, but only on the
horizontal surfaces and not the sidewalls. Since the polymer only
dissolves very slowly in the chemical part of the etching, it builds up on
the sidewalls and protects them from etching. As a result, etching aspect
ratios of 50 to � can be achieved. The process can easily be used to etch
completely through a silicon substrate, and etch rates are 3 - 4 times
higher than wet etching.
Sputter etching is essentially RIE without reactive ions. The
systems used are very similar in principle to sputtering deposition
systems. The big difference is tha� substrate is now subjected to the ion
bombardment instead of the material target used in sputter deposition.
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS 10.67
Vapor phase etching is another dry etching method, which can be
done w�th simpler equipm_�nt that what RIE requires. In this process
the wafer to be etched is placed inside a chamber, in which one or more
gases are introduced. The material to be etched is dissolved at the surface
in a chemical reaction with the gas molecules. The two most common
vapor phase etching technologies arc silicon dioxide etching using
hydrogen fluoride (HF) and silicon etching using xenon di!louride (XeF. ),
both of which are isotropic in nature . Usually, care must be taken in the
design of a vapor phase processes Lo not have by-products form in the
chemical reaction that condense on the surface and interfere with the
etching processes.
When do I went to use dry etching ?
The first thing you should note about this technology is that it is
expensive to run compared to wet etching. If you are concerned with
feature resolution in thin film structures or you need vertical sidewalls
for deep etchings in the substrate, you have to consider dry etching. If
you arc concerned about the price of your process and device, you may
want to minimize the use of dry etching. The IC industry has long since
adopted dry etching to achieve small features, but in many cases feature
size is not as critical in MEMS. Dry etching is an enabling technology,
�hich comes at a sometimes high cost.
Wafers
Diffuser nossles
Gas Gas
Fig. -1 0.68. Typical parallel-plate reactive ion etching system.
Lithography
Lithography in the MEMS context is typically the transfer of a
pattern to a photosensitive material by selectivP. exposure to a radiation

10.68
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
source such as light. A photosensitive material is a material that
experiences a change in its physical properties when exposed to a
relation source. If we selectively expose a photosensitive material to
radiation (e.g., by masking some of the rad�tion) the pattern of the
radiation on the material is transferred to the material exposed, as the
properties of the exposed and unexposed regions differs (as shown in
Fig. 10.69).
Top view Cross section
....J
+�t l;;;;;;
I Radiation
-Mask
---Photosensitive material
Vl!1Illllllll/J-- Substrate
j
l lllr:1••-- Photosensitive materials
properties change only
. .
where exposed to radiation
1/
h
Fig. 10.69. Transfer of a pattern to a photosensitive material.
This discussion will focus on optical lithography, which is simply
lithography using a radiation source with wavelength(s) in the visible
spectrum.
In lithography for micromachining, the photosensitive material
used is typically a photoresist (also called resist, other photosensitive
polymers are also used). When resist is exposed to a radiation source of
a specific a wavelength, th� chemical resistance of the resist to developer
solution changes. If the resist is placed in a developer solution after
selective exposure to a light source, it will etch away one of the two
regions (exposed or unexposed). If the exposed material is etched away
by the developer and the unexposed region is resilient, the material to
the developer and the unexposed region is etched away, it is considered
to be a positive resist [shown in Fig. 10.70(a)). If the exposed material
is resilient to the developer and the unexposed region is etched away,
it is considered to be a negative resist [shown in Fig. 10.70(b)] .
10.69
CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS
+! �
Cross section
_J Radiation
-Mask
.
- -- Photosensitive material
Wlllllllll/J -- Substrate
Photosensitive materials
properties change only
where exposed to radiation
(b)
Fig. 10.70.
MEMS technology has incredible potential for a broad range of
1 0.15 MEMS APPLICATIONS
applications. MEMS is currently under heavy research by a number of
companies, agencies and universities, and is proving to be beneficial in
many respects compared to existing technology. While most applications
have not seen widespread industry use, they are slowly being integrated
into marketable devices.
Micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) is a ttlchnology that
combines computers with tiny mechanical devices such as sensors,
valves, gears, mirrors, and actuators embedded in semiconductor chips.
Paul Saffo of the Institute for the Future in Palo Alto, California, believes
MEMS or what he calls analog computing wi11 be "the foundational
technology of the next decade". MEMS is also sometimes called smart
matter.
MEMS are already used as acceleratometers in automobile air­
bags. They've replaced a less reliable device at lower cost and show
promise of being able to inflate a bag not only on the basis of sensed
declaration but also on the basis of the size of the person they are
protecting. Basically, a MEMS device contains mica-circuity on a tiny
silicon chip into whi.ch some mechanical device such as a mirror or a
sensor has been manufactured. Potentially, such chips can bf built in
large quantities at low cost, making them cost-effective fc. m.:.uy uses.

10.70
COMPUTER AIDED MAN U�'ACTURING
As with other production techniques, however, the MEMS design
process can be very costly, as engineers and scientists design, fabricate,
test and then redesign a device in order to optimize its performance.
Numerical simulation can provide quan�ative analysis and significant
insight across such disciplines as electronics, mechanics,· chemistry,
thermal science and fluid science. Using Flow-3D as a simulation tool
can substantially reduce the cost of design and production.
Companies with strong MEMS programs come in many sizes. The
larger firms specialize in manufacturing high volume inexpensive
components or packaged solutions for end markets such as automobiles,
biomedical, and electronics. The successful small firms provide value
in innovative solutions and absorb the expense of custom fabrication
with high sales margins. In addition, both large and small companies
work in R & D to explore MEMS technology. Com plexity and
performance of advanced MEMS based sensors are described by different
MEMS sensor generations.
Common applications include
• inkjet printers, which arc piezoelectrics or bubble ejection to
deposit ink on paper.
• accelerometers i:r;i modern cars for airbag deployment in
collisions.
• MEMS gyroscopes used in modern cars and other applications
to detect yaw ; e.g., to deploy a roll over bar or trigger dynamic
stability control.
• pressure sensors e.g. car tyre pressure sensors, and disposable
blood pressure sensors.
• displays e.g., the DMD chip in a projector based on DLP
technology has on its s urface several hundred thousand
micromirrors.
• optical switching technology which is used for switching
technology for data communications, and is part of the
emerging technology of smartdust.
Finite element analysis is an important part of MEMS design.
1 0.1 5.1 Defense Applications of MEMS
• Inertial navigation units on a chip for -munitions guidance
and personal navigation.
• Electromechanical signal processing for ultra-small, ultra low­
power wireless communication.
• D i stributed u n attended sensors for asset tracking,
environmental monitoring, security surveillance
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CAPP, MAECHATRONICS & MEMS
• I n tegrated fl uidic syste m s for m i niature analytical
instruments, propellant and combustion control
• Weapons safing; arming and fuzing
• E m bedded sensors and actuators for condition-based
maintenance
• Mass data storage devices for high density, low power
• Integrated micro-optomechanical components for identify­
friend-or-foe systems, displays and fiber-optic switches
• Active, conformable surfaces for distributed aerodynamic
�control of aircraft and adaptive optics.
1 0. 1 6 MEMS MATERIALS
MEMS technology can be implemented using a number of different
materials and manufacturing techniques ; the choice ofwhich will depend
on the device being created and the market sector in which it has to
operate.
Silicon
Silicon is the material used to create almost all integrated circuits
used in consumer electronics in the modern world. The economies of
scale, ready availability of highly accurate processing and ability to
incorporate electronic functionality make silicon attractive for a wide
variety of MEMS applications. In single crystal form, silicon is an almost
perfect Hoolzean material, meaning that when it is flexed there is
virtually no hysteresis and hence almost no energy dissipation. As well
as making for highly repeatable motion, this also makes silicon very
reliable as it suffers very little fatigue and can have service lifetimes in
the range of billions to trillions of cycles without breaking. The basic
techniques for producing all silicon based MEMS devices are deposition
of material laye·r s, pattering of these layers by lithography and then
etching to produce the required shapes.
Polymers
Even through the electronics industry provides an economy of scale
for the silicon industry, crystalline silicon is still a complex and relatively
expensive material to produce. Polymers on the other hand can be
produced i n h u ge volumes, with a great vari ety of material
characteristics. MEMS devices can be made from polymers by processes
such as injection moulding, embossing or stereolithography and are
especially well suited to microfluidic applications such as disposable
blood testing cartridges.
 '
10.72 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING
Metals
Metals can also be used to create MEMS elements. While metals
do not have some of the advantages displayed by silicon in terms of
mechanical properties, when used within� heir limitations, metals can
exhibit very high degrees of reliability. .
Metals can be deposited by electroplating, evaporation, and
sputtering processes.
Commonly used metals include Gold, Nickel , Aluminium,
Chromium, Titanium, Tungsten, platinum, and silver.
1 0.17 CURRENT CHALLENGES IN MEMS
MEMS and Nanotechnology is currently used in low-or medium-
volume applications. · to automobile-mounted global positioning systems, allowing
Some of the obstacles preventing its wider adoption are :
1 0.17 .1 Limited .Options
Most companies who wish to explore the potential of MEMS and
Nanotechnology have very limited options for prototyping o r
manufacturing devices, and have n o capability o r expertise i n
microfabrication technology. Few companies will build their own
fabricatic;m facilities because ofthe high cost. A mechanism giving smaller
organizations responsive and affordable access to MEMS and Nano
fabrication is essential.
1 0.17.2 Packaging
The packaging of MEMS"devices and systems needs to improve
considerably from its current primitive state. MEMS packaging is more
challenging than IO packaging due to the diversity of MEMS devices
and the requirement that many of these devices be in contact with their
environment. Currently almost all MEMS and Nano development efforts
must develop a new and specialized package for each new device. Most
companies find that packaging is the single most expensive and time
consuming task in their overall product development programs. As for
the components themselves, numerical modelling and simulation tools
for MEMS packaging are virtually non-existent. Approaches which allow
designers to select from a catalog of existing standardized packages for
a new MEMS device without compromising performance would be
beneficial.
1 0.1 7.3 Fabrication Knowledge Required
Currently the designer of a MEMS device requires a high level of
fabrication knowledge in order to create a successful design. Often the
. . ·· � �.
CAPP, MA�CHATRONICS & MEMS 10.73.-
development of even the most mundane MEMS device requires a
dedicated research effort to find a suitable process sequence for
fabricating it. MEMS device design needs to be separated from the
complexities of the process sequence.
1 0.18 FUTURE OF MEMS
')i'MS devices now are making the world of the future a reality.
• Scientists have created "smart dust" where millions of
miniscale MEMS sensors are spread over a military site and
communicate information to humans or computers ready to
interpret possible troop movements.
• "Smart roads" would have MEMS devices embedded in them,
conveying information about the roadway, traffic and accidents
drivers to avoid problems and alerting highway workers to
areas thai are potential troublespots.
• Today, MEMS are most commonly found as sensors in
automobile airbags, but the devices a:re making extensive
inroads into medical, aviation, defense, and wireless and optical
communications systems. A lot of research into new uses for
MEMS is based on military and aerospace applications. One
application still being developed is "smart dust" where MEMS
sensors will be deployed in the air to measure pollution. Other
innovative applications include "smart roads" where MEMS
devices would be laid out as a blanket on the roadbed to
measure physically conditions and traffic and rep?,r.t t]Je
information to geo-positioning systems mounted in cars.'MiEMS
devices are also aiming in the following fields :
• Global position system sensors that can be included with courier
parcels for constant tracking and that can also sense parcel
treatment en route.
• Sensors built into the fabric into the fabric of an airplane wing
so that it can sense and react to air flow by changing the wing
surface resistance ; effectively creating a myriad of tiny wing
flaps
• Optical swi�ching devices that can switch light signals over
different paths at 20-nanosecond switching speeds
• sensor-driven heating and cooling systems that dramatically
improve energy savings
* Building supports with imbedded sensors that can alter the
flexibility properties of a material based on atmospheric stress
sensing.