A PROJECT REPORT

ON
“DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE”

Submitted in partial fulfillment of

B.TECH in Electrical Engineering

Session: 2020-2024
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
BHARTIYA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY, SIKAR RAJASTHAN

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Mrs. SUMAN NEHRA GRISHMA KUMAWAT

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 CERTIFICATE

THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT THE WORK IS BEING PRESENTED IN THE PROJECT

"DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE" SUBMITTED BY " GRISHMA
KUMAWAT".
A STUDENT OF THIRD YEAR B. TECH IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AS A
PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF
ENGINEERING IS A RECORD OF THE STUDENT'S WORK CARRIED OUT BY HIM
UNDER GUIDANCE AND SUPER VISIONS.

DATE 15/07/2023 Mr. DEVESH SADRANGANI

PLACE: MNIT Innovation and incubation center (MIIC) (Training Coordinator)

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Exchange of ideas generates a new object to work in a better way wherever a person is helped
and co-operated by others, his heart finds to pay gratitude and obligation to them.
Acknowledgment is not merely formalities but an expression of a deep sense of gratitude.
I would like to thank our project coordinator Mr. DEVESH SADRANGANI, who gave her full
support and guidance during training and completion of the project report.
It is a great pleasure for me to acknowledge the assistance and contributions of our Senior
Executive, MIIC MNIT Jaipur. Ms. DIVYA PAREEK, for his prompt and timely help in the
official clearances and valuable suggestions during the development of this project.

Thank you all. GRISHMA KUMAWAT

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Contents
There are two main types of electric vehicles..............................................................................................8
1. Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs......................................................................................................8
2. Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs):.....................................................................................9
COMPONENTS OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE............................................................................................10
1. BATTERY PACK.............................................................................................................................10
TYPES OF BATTERY.........................................................................................................................11
1. PRIMARY BATTERY(NON RECHARGEABLE.......................................................................11
2. SECONDARY BATTERY(RECHARGEABLE)..........................................................................11
NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERY(NICAD).................................................................................12
LITHIUM-ION BATTERY...........................................................................................................13
2.ELECTRIC MOTOR..............................................................................................................................14
TYPES OF ELECTRIC MOTOR..........................................................................................................15
1. DC MOTOR..................................................................................................................................15
BRUSHED DC MOTOR...............................................................................................................16
SEPARATELY EXCITED DC MOTOR......................................................................................17
PERMANENT MAGNET DC MOTOR A...................................................................................17
SELF EXCIETED DC MOTOR....................................................................................................18
BEUSHLESS DC MOTOR:..........................................................................................................20
2. AC MOTOR..................................................................................................................................21
INDUCTION MOTORS................................................................................................................22
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR..........................................................................................................23
3. CHARGING SYSTEM.....................................................................................................................24
COMPONENTS OF CHARGING SYSTEM........................................................................................25
What is the need for BMS?....................................................................................................................26
TYPES OF CHARGING METHOD.....................................................................................................27
Charging standards................................................................................................................................28
Load Management and Smartcharging:.................................................................................................29
Battery efficiency:.................................................................................................................................29
Advancement in EV charging system:...................................................................................................30
4. THERMAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM..........................................................................................31
5. CHASSIS FRAME............................................................................................................................32

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 Monocoque:...........................................................................................................................................33
Backbone:..............................................................................................................................................34
Tabular:.................................................................................................................................................34
X-frame:................................................................................................................................................35
Platform frame:......................................................................................................................................35
6. wheels:...............................................................................................................................................36
I. Steel wheels:..................................................................................................................................36
II. Alloy wheels:.................................................................................................................................36
III. Multi-piece Wheels:...................................................................................................................37
IV. Chrome Wheels:........................................................................................................................37
V. Diamond Cut Wheels:....................................................................................................................37
VI. Forged Wheels:..........................................................................................................................38
VII. Replica ‘OEM style’ Wheels.....................................................................................................38
7. Tyres..................................................................................................................................................39
Functions of Tyres:................................................................................................................................39
Properties of Tyres:...............................................................................................................................39
Main Components of Tyres:..................................................................................................................39
Types of Tyres:......................................................................................................................................40
On the Basis of Tube used:....................................................................................................................40
On the Basis of Construction:................................................................................................................41
Types of Tyre and Tread Explained:......................................................................................................42
8. CONTROL SYSTEM:.......................................................................................................................45
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................45
CONTROLLER AREA NETWORK(CAN)........................................................................................45
HUMAN MACHINE INTERFACE MODULE:..................................................................................46
LIGHTING SYSTEM MODULE:........................................................................................................47
MOTOR DRIVER MODULE:.............................................................................................................48
BATTERY MONITORING SYSTEM MODULE:..............................................................................48
9. BRAKING SYSTEM........................................................................................................................49
Working Principle of Regenerative Braking System.............................................................................49
Types of Braking Systems and Types of Brakes:...................................................................................50
Hydraulic braking system:.....................................................................................................................50
Electromagnetic braking system:...........................................................................................................50

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 Servo braking system:...........................................................................................................................51
Mechanical braking system:..................................................................................................................51
DISC BRAKE.......................................................................................................................................51
DRUM BRAKES..................................................................................................................................52
Emergency Brake System:.....................................................................................................................52
Anti-lock Braking system:.....................................................................................................................52
Hand Brake System:..............................................................................................................................52
10. Steering System.............................................................................................................................53
Rack-and-pinion steering:......................................................................................................................53
Power-assisted rack-and-pinion steering:..............................................................................................53
Recirculating ball steering:....................................................................................................................53
Electric power steering..........................................................................................................................54
Hydraulic Power Steering:.....................................................................................................................54
11. Suspension.....................................................................................................................................55
1. Leaf Spring Suspension.................................................................................................................55
2. Dependent Suspension:..................................................................................................................55
3. Independent Suspension................................................................................................................56
4. Air Suspension:.............................................................................................................................56
5. Multi-Link Suspension:.................................................................................................................57
6. Double Wishbone Suspension:......................................................................................................57
7. Rigid Axle Suspension..................................................................................................................58
12. Range.............................................................................................................................................59
The difference between theoretical range and actual range:..................................................................59
How to increase the range of an electric vehicle:...................................................................................59
Study of some software.............................................................................................................................60
AutoCAD..................................................................................................................................................60
2D and 3D drafting:...............................................................................................................................60
Arduino uno...............................................................................................................................................62
Code for electric vehicle charger and motor:.........................................................................................62
Proteus.......................................................................................................................................................63
Analysis of charger circuit of EV on Proteus:........................................................................................63
Analysis of motor circuit of EV on Proteus:..........................................................................................63
SolidWorks:...............................................................................................................................................64

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 Chassis frame design on SolidWorks:...................................................................................................64
Chassis Frame Static Load Analysis:.....................................................................................................64
Chassis Frame Front Impact Load Analysis:.........................................................................................65
Chassis Frame Rear Impact Load Analysis:..........................................................................................65
Chassis Frame Side Impact Load Analysis:...........................................................................................66
Results of chassis frame load analysis:......................................................................................................66
Brake Calculation:.....................................................................................................................................67
Results :.................................................................................................................................................70
Gear ratio and speed:.................................................................................................................................71
Chassis Manufacturing Process:................................................................................................................71

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ELCTRICAL VEHICLE INTRODUCTION
An electrical vehicle (EV) is a type of vehicle that uses one or more electric motors for
propulsion instead of an internal combustion engine (ICE) that relies on fossil fuels. EVs are
powered by electricity stored in batteries or other energy storage devices.

There are two main types of electric vehicles:

1. Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs): These vehicles run solely on electricity and are
powered by rechargeable batteries. They do not have an internal combustion engine and
produce zero tailpipe emissions. BEVs need to be charged using an external power
source, typically through charging stations or home charging units. The driving range of a
BEV varies depending on the battery capacity and model, with some newer models
offering ranges comparable to traditional gasoline-powered vehicles.

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 2. Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs): These vehicles have both an electric
motor and an internal combustion engine. They can be charged by plugging into an
external power source, allowing them to run on electricity for a certain distance before
switching to the internal combustion engine. PHEVs provide the flexibility of using
electricity or gasoline, which extends their total driving range. They produce fewer
emissions compared to conventional vehicles but may still emit some pollutants when
running on gasoline.

EVs offer several advantages over traditional gasoline-powered vehicles. They are more energy-
efficient, as electric motors convert a higher percentage of energy from the battery to power the
wheels compared to internal combustion engines. EVs also produce fewer greenhouse gas
emissions, contributing to reduced air pollution and combating climate change. Additionally,
they have lower operating costs due to the lower cost of electricity compared to gasoline, and
they require less maintenance since they have fewer moving parts.
The popularity of electric vehicles has been growing rapidly in recent years due to advancements
in battery technology, increased charging infrastructure, government incentives, and heightened
awareness of environmental issues. Automakers around the world are investing heavily in EV
development, and many countries have set targets to phase out the production and sale of
conventional gasoline-powered vehicles in the coming years.

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COMPONENTS OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE
1. BATTERY PACK it is the heart of an electric vehicle. It stores electrical
energy that powers the vehicle. Typically, lithium-ion batteries are used, and they are
made up of multiple battery cells connected in series and parallel configurations

TYPES OF BATTERY
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 1. PRIMARY BATTERY(NON RECHARGEABLE ) Primary battery are
single-use galvanic cells that store electricity for convenient usage, usually showing a
good shelf life. Examples are zinc-carbon cells, alkaline zinc- manganese dioxide cell ,
and metal-air-depolarized batteries.

2. SECONDARY BATTERY(RECHARGEABLE) A rechargeable battery,

storage battery , or secondary cell , is a type of electrical battery which can be charged ,
discharged into a load , and recharge many time , as opposed to a disposable or primary
battery , which is supplied fully charged and discarded after use.
Examples-
1. Nickel-cadmium (NiCad)
2. Lead acid
3. Lithium ion batteries.

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 NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERY(NICAD)
A nickel-cadmium battery (NiCad or NiCad) is a rechargeable battery used for portable
computers, drills, camcorders and other small battery-operated devices requiring an even power
discharge. Nicads use electrodes made of nickel oxide hydroxide, metallic cadmium and an
alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide

LEAD ACID BATTERY

A lead acid battery is a rechargeable battery that uses lead and sulphuric acid to function. The
lead is submerged into the sulphuric acid to allow a controlled chemical reaction. This chemical
reaction is what causes the battery to produce electricity. Then, this reaction is reversed to
recharge the battery.

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LITHIUM-ION BATTERY
Lithium-ion is the most popular rechargeable battery chemistry used today. Lithium-ion batteries
power the devices we use every day, like our mobile phones and electric vehicles.

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2.ELECTRIC MOTOR Electric motor is responsible for converting electrical
energy from the battery into mechanical energy to propel the vehicle. There are various types of
electric motors used in EVs, including AC induction motors, permanent magnet motors, and
synchronous motors.

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 TYPES OF ELECTRIC MOTOR
1. DC MOTOR A DC motor or direct current motor is an electrical machine that
transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy by creating a magnetic field that
is powered by direct current. When a DC motor is powered, a magnetic field is
created in its stator. The field attracts and repels magnets on the rotor; this causes the
rotor to rotate. To keep the rotor continually rotating, the commutator that is attached
to brushes connected to the power source supply current to the motors wire windings.

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 TYPES OF DC MOTOR
BRUSHED DC MOTOR The magnetic field in a brush DC motor is produced by
current sent through a commutator and brush that are connected to the rotor. Brushes are
made of carbon and can be separately excited or self-excited. The stator is the enclosure that
contains the components of the motor and contains the magnetic field. The winding of the
coil on the rotor can be in a series or parallel to form either a series-wound DC motor or
shunt wound DC motor.
The commutator is an electrical switch that reverses the current between the rotor and the
external power source. It is a method of applying electrical current to the windings and produces
a steady rotating torque by reversing the current direction. The sections of the commutator are
attached to the windings on the rotor through a set of contact bars that are set in the shaft of the
motor.

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SEPARATELY EXCITED DC MOTOR In a separately excited DC motor, the motor
has separate electrical supplies to the armature winding and field winding, which are electrically
separate from each other. The operations of the armature current and field current do not
interfere with each other‘s actions, but the input power is their total sum.

PERMANENT MAGNET DC MOTOR A permanent magnet DC motor has an

armature winding but does not have a field winding. The permanent magnet is mounted on the
inner surface of the stator core to produce the magnetic field. It has a regular armature consisting
of a commutator and brushes.

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SELF EXCIETED DC MOTOR In self excited DC motors, the field and armature
windings are connected and have a single supply source. The connections are parallel or series
with parallel made as shunt wound while the series version is series wound.
SHUNT
In a shunt wound DC motor, the field and armature windings are connected parallel to each
other; this exposes the field winding to terminal voltage. Though the supply is the same, the
current for the field and armature windings is different. The speed of a shunt DC motor is
constant and does not deviate with varying mechanical loads.

SERIES
The field and armature winding on a series DC motor are connected to the power supply in a
series. The same current flows in the field and armature windings. A series wound motor can
work with AC and DC voltage supply, which makes it a universal motor. Series motors always
rotate in the same direction regardless of the voltage source. Their speed varies with the
mechanical load.

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COMPOUND
A compound DC motor uses the features of the series and shunt field windings. The winding for
the armature is connected in a series while the winding for the field is a shunt or parallel
connection.

Compound DC motors are further divided into cumulative and differential. With cumulative DC
motors, the flux of the shunt field helps the flux in the series field. They both move in the same
direction while the flux of a differential compound DC motor, for the series and shunt fields,
moves in the opposite direction. Cumulative and differential compound DC motors can have
long or short shunts; this is based on the shunting of the shunt field winding.

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BEUSHLESS DC MOTOR: Brushless DC motors, known as BLDC motors, are a
permanent magnet synchronous electric motor driven by direct current and an electronically
controlled commutation system, the process of producing rotational torque by changing phase
currents. They are also referred to as trapezoidal permanent magnet motors.
The electrical commutation by a BLDC motor is what differentiates it from brushed DC motors
that operate by mechanical contact on a rotor. A BLDC motor includes a magnet rotor and a
stator with a sequence of coils. The permanent magnet rotates while current-carrying conductors
are fixed in position.

The armature coils are switched electronically by transistors at the correct rotor position. The
created force causes the rotor to rotate. Hall sensors sense the position of the rotor and are placed
on the stator. The feedback position of the rotor from the sensors determines when to switch the
current of the armature.

The design of brushless DC motors eliminates the need for brushes and makes BLDC motors
quieter and more reliable with an efficiency rating of 85 to 90 percent. The elimination of
brushes removes the wear and tear that brushes experience since very little heat is produced by
the rotating magnet.

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 2. AC MOTOR An AC motor or alternating current motor is an electric motor that
consists of a stator with a coil that is supplied with alternating current to convert
electric current into mechanical power. The stator is the stationary part of the motor
while the rotor is the rotating part. AC motors can be single or three phase with three
phase motors mainly used for bulk power conversion. Single phase AC motors are
used for small power conversions.

AC motors are a power source for a wide variety of applications due to their flexibility,
efficiency, and noiseless operation. They are used on pumps, water heaters, garden equipment,
ovens, off road equipment and are commonly found in many appliances, equipment, and tools.
They are an intriguing and interesting device since they can fit easily into a wide range of
applications.

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 TYPES OF AC MOTORS
INDUCTION MOTORS An induction motor (also known as an asynchronous motor) is
a commonly used AC electric motor. In an induction motor, the electric current in the rotor
needed to produce torque is obtained via electromagnetic induction from the rotating magnetic
field of the stator winding. The rotor of an induction motor can be a squirrel cage rotor or wound
type rotor.
Induction motors are referred to as ‘asynchronous motors’ because they operate at a
speed less than their synchronous speed.

TYPES OF INDUCTION MOTORS

1. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

2. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

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SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR A synchronous motor (short for synchronous electric motor)
is an AC motor where the rotation of the rotor (or shaft) is synchronized with the frequency of
the supply current. That is, the rotation period of the rotor is equal to the rotating field of the
machine it in inside.

It is a fixed speed motor because it has only one speed, which is synchronous speed. This speed
is synchronised with the supply frequency. The synchronous speed is given by:

Where:

 N= The Synchronous Speed (in RPM – i.e. Rotations Per Minute)

 f = The Supply Frequency (in Hz)
 p = The number of Poles

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 3. CHARGING SYSTEM Charging stations-A charging station, also known
as a charge point or electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE), is a piece of equipment
that supplies electrical power for charging plug-in electric vehicles (including electric
cars, electric trucks, electric buses, neighbourhood electric vehicles, and plug-in
hybrids). There are two main types: AC charging
stations and DC charging stations.

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COMPONENTS OF CHARGING SYSTEM
1. ONBOARD CHARGER the on-board charger allows you to control the current
and voltage at which the battery needs to be charged (Voltage or Current Control
Mode), thus taking care of the battery lifespan.

The charger offers either constant current or constant voltage charging, both of which are
easy to operate. And each of them has its advantages and disadvantages. In the case of
constant current charging, there is high efficiency and charging speed, but there is a risk
that the battery will be overcharged at a later stage, and its lifespan reduced. In the case
of constant voltage charging, there is a risk that too much current will flow into the
battery from the beginning, which will heat the battery too much and shorten its lifespan
again.

Thus, the charger ensures that it is initially charged with a constant current, thus
maintaining speed and efficiency, and when the voltage at both ends of the battery
reaches a certain amplitude, it changes to constant voltage charging. This system is called
the charging strategy and it is the most important function of the on-board charger.

2. BMS A Battery Management System (BMS), which manages the electronics of a

rechargeable battery, whether a cell or a battery pack, thus becomes a crucial
factor in ensuring electric vehicle safety. It safeguards both the user and the
battery by ensuring that the cell operates within its safe operating parameters.

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What is the need for BMS?
The main function of BMS is to ensure that the battery is protected and any operation out of its
safety limit is prevented. It monitors the battery pack’s state of charge (SOC) along with the state
of health. BMS also manages the battery optimization via cell balancing that improves the life of
the battery in the long run. The BMS will also monitor voltage, different temperature
parameters, and coolant flow.

Lithium-ion batteries that possess high charge density, power most electric cars. These battery
packs even though are not very big; can be highly unstable. Therefore, these batteries should
never be overcharged or be allowed to reach a state of deep discharge at any point. Thermal
Runaway is a condition where the current flowing through the battery on charging or
overcharging causes the cell temperature to rise. Conditions like these can harm the lifespan or
the capacity of the battery. To ensure this does not happen, we require BMS to monitor its
voltage and current.

This process is very challenging as many cells are put together to form a battery pack in an
electric vehicle and every cell needs to be individually monitored for its safety and efficient
operation, which requires a specially dedicated system called the Battery Management
System (BMS).

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TYPES OF CHARGING METHOD
1. AC LEVEL 1 CHARGER This charger has low output and it takes so long time.it has
output of 2-3kw.this charger is provided in EV. It designs for domestic purpose, so we
charge the EV through 16amp socket. It took overnight to charge a EV.
2. AC LEVEL 2 CHARGER It is types of the upgraded version of level 1. It is used in 3
phases only. It has output of 20Kw. As it is 3 phase charging system we can’t use in
domestic socket. Nowadays the car manufacture installs this type of charger in the
parking. They provided when we buy EV.
3. DC FAST CHARGING These chargers are the latest technology till now. Its output
voltage is 50KW. Its charge vehicle up to 80%in 1 hour. It should be installed. The
Indian car like Mahindra and Tata also use this type of charging.

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Charging standards
These are two different type of charging standard
1. CSS 1-This type is used for both AC level 1and DC level positive and negative DC
level at the time. It is little bit slow as compared to CSS COMBINE.

2. CSS COMBINED-In this we use AClevel1 and AC LEVEL 2 AND also dc supply. It
can use both CSS 1 AND CSS 2 combine to provide the power upto 350kw.

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Load Management and Smartcharging:
▶ Battery Thermal Management: Implementing an effective thermal management system
to control the temperature of the battery pack, preventing overheating and optimizing its
performance and longevity.
▶ Smart charging refers to the use of advanced technologies and algorithms to control the
charging process of EVs, considering factors such as electricity grid demand, renewable energy
availability, and user preferences.
▶ Load management aims to avoid peak electricity demand by distributing charging loads
over time, reducing strain on the grid and preventing power outages.
▶ Smart charging systems can incorporate vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology, allowing EV
batteries to not only charge but also discharge electricity back into the grid, supporting grid
stability and enabling energy trading.
▶ Time-of-use (TOU) pricing is often employed in load management, incentivizing EV
owners to charge their vehicles during off-peak hours when electricity rates are lower.
▶ Load management algorithms consider various factors, including battery state of charge,
charging infrastructure availability, user preferences, and grid conditions, to optimize the
charging schedule for each EV.

Battery efficiency:
 Battery Thermal Management: Implementing an effective thermal management
system to control the temperature of the battery pack, preventing overheating and
optimizing its performance and longevity.
 Regenerative Braking: Utilizing regenerative braking technology to capture and convert
kinetic energy during braking or deceleration into electrical energy, which is then stored
back into the battery, increasing overall efficiency.
 Lightweight Materials: Incorporating lightweight materials in the construction of the
vehicle to reduce overall weight
 Research and Development: Continuously investing in research and development to
improve battery chemistry, exploring new materials and technologies that enhance
energy density, charging speed, and overall battery efficiency in EVs.

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Advancement in EV charging system:
▶ High-Power Charging: Advancements in EV charging systems have led to the development of
high- power charging stations, capable of delivering significantly faster charging speeds,
reducing overall charging time.
▶ Ultra-Fast Charging: Ultra-fast charging technologies, such as 800-volt charging systems,
enable extremely rapid charging rates, allowing EVs to gain a substantial amount of range in
just a few minutes.
▶ Wireless Charging: Wireless charging systems eliminate the need for physical cables by
using inductive or resonant charging technology
▶ Vehicle-to-Vehicle Charging: Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) charging technology enables one
EV to transfer power to another EV directly
▶ Solar Integration: EV charging systems can incorporate solar panels and energy storage
solutions, enabling renewable energy generation and storage on-site.
▶ Bidirectional Charging: Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) and Vehicle-to-Home (V2H) capabilities
allow EVs to not only charge from the grid but also supply electricity back to the grid or power
a home during peak demand or power outages, providing flexibility and grid stability.

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 4. THERMAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM The developed
battery thermal management system is a combination of thermoelectric cooling, forced
air cooling, and liquid cooling. The liquid coolant has indirect contact with the battery
and acts as the medium to remove the heat generated from the battery during operation.

In the below figure shown we have used the following equipment’s for controlling of
motor by sensor:

1. Arduino
2. Motor dc
3. LM35
4. L293D
5. VIRTUAL TERMINAL

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 5. CHASSIS FRAME The frame of any vehicle is the foundation on which the
chassis is built. Or we can say that the frame is the main structural component of the
chassis.
1. The function of chassis frame:
 The main function of the frame is to support the chassis and its components.
 To ensure proper positioning of all the working components of the chassis.
 To provide a rigid foundation for the whole vehicle.
 Another important function of the frame is to counter static and dynamic loads acting on
the vehicle.

2. Forces acting on the frame of a vehicle:

 Vertical bending: The force acting on an automobile due to the vertical load is called
vertical bending. This force accommodates the weight of the body and passengers sitting
inside the vehicle.

 Longitudinal torsion: The longitudinal torsion acts on a vehicle when one wheel is lifted
and the other wheels are grounded as. This tends to twist the frame; this results in a
torsional effect.

 Lateral bending: Lateral bending of the frame takes place when the vehicle is taking a
turn or we can say during cornering. The centrifugal force acting on the frame tends to
bend the frame laterally as shown in the figure.

 Fore and aft loading: When the vehicle is suddenly accelerated or brakes are applied
suddenly, forces start acting on the frame of the vehicle. During braking the forces act on
the front side of the frame and during accelerating the forces act on the rear side of the
frame.

 Impact loads When the vehicle strikes a solid structure it causes the frame to collapse, or
lose shape. These types of sudden loads are known as impact loads. This also means that
the vehicle has met with an accident.

 Overloading: Overloading again is a type of vertical load that is due to excess weight on
the vehicle.

Types of chassis frame:

a) Monocoque
b) Ladder Frame
c) Backbone
d) Tabular
e) X-frame

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 f) Platform frame
Monocoque:
 The construction of a monocoque chassis is quite simple in the sense that the entire
structure is one big construction.
 All components or mechanical parts constitute the frame, foundation, and body of the
car.
 The engine, gearbox, suspension, seats, and exterior body panels are simply attached to
the construction.
 The applications include all sorts of everyday vehicles ranging from small and compact
hatchbacks to large and heavy SUVs.

Ladder frame:
 The second-most popular type of chassis is the ladder frame chassis.
 A lot of people know about this because of its heavy usage in SUVs, particularly the off-
roading capable SUVs. SUVs in India like the Fortuner, Endeavour, Thar, Gurkha are
some of the most common large SUVs with quite impressive off-roading capabilities.
 The chassis is constructed separately and the body is attached to it later on.

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Backbone:
 Some modern cars still use this chassis.
 The construction includes a rectangular cross-sectional tube connected to both, the front
and the rear axle shaped like a spine in humans.
 The driveshaft is neatly tucked under this backbone and kept safe from getting damaged.
 The drivetrain and engine are attached to the ends of this tube

Tabular:
 These are the most used types of chassis frames in racing cars.
 You must’ve seen that in the racing cars, all the interiors are removed and the entire
vehicle is constructed in a cage-like manner (even on the inside).
 Since the entire vehicle is covered with a thick network of tabular pipes

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X-frame:
 This is the design used for the full-size American models of General Motors in the late
1950s and early 1960s in which the rails from alongside the engine seemed to cross in the
passenger compartment,
 Each continuing to the opposite end of the cross member at the extreme rear of the
vehicle.

Platform frame:
 This is a modification of the perimeter frame, or of the backbone frame, in which the
passenger compartment floor,
 sometimes also the luggage compartment floor, has been integrated into the frame as
loadbearing parts, for strength and rigidity.

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 6. wheels: A wheel is a circular component that is intended to rotate on an axle
bearing. The wheel is one of the key components of the wheel and axle.

Different Types of Wheels

 Steel Wheels
 Alloy Wheels
 Multi-piece Wheels
 Chrome Wheels
 Diamond-Cut Wheels
 Forged Wheels
 Replica ‘OEM style’ Wheels

I. Steel wheels: Steel wheels, also known as Steelies, are one of the most basic kinds
of wheels in the automobile industry around the world. The steelies are manufactured
by using powerful hydraulic machinery and pressing steel billets.

II. Alloy wheels: Alloy wheels are some of the most common types of wheels used
in today’s vehicles. These wheels are manufactured using the alloys of aluminum and
magnesium. Steelies also use alloys but they’re not included in the alloy wheels
category.

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 III. Multi-piece Wheels: The two-piece wheels are constructed by using the wheel
face and the rim which are fitted together with rim screws around the circumference
of the wheel’s center. After this, the sealant is applied to them to secure the fittings
and the sections together.

IV. Chrome Wheels: Most of the cheap wheels in the market are usually coated
with paint to help avoid corrosion. Some of them don’t even need the paint, but
only if the material of the rim is corrosion-resistant.
However, expensive wheels use a layer of chromium to help avoid corrosion on the
surface of the wheel.

V. Diamond Cut Wheels: Diamond cut wheels are sort of like the conventional
alloy wheels, however, they offer a more high-shine finish. The manufacturers use a
machine lathe to create an incision in the metal which helps create the shiny finish
along with the edge and a little grooving effect.

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 VI. Forged Wheels: The forged rims are manufactured by forging only a single piece
of solid aluminium into the shape of wheel rims.
Forged wheels offer some key benefits than the cast wheels such as they are 3 times
more strong and 25% lighter – some of the best things you’d want in your high-
performing car.

VII. Replica ‘OEM style’ Wheels: These replica wheels are mostly made by
keeping the manufacturing costs as low as possible. And for doing so, their quality
suffers a great deal!
Most of these wheels are manufactured by using the gravity casting method. In this
method, the molten metal is poured into the moulds , but not compressed, and is left
to be poured completely with the help of gravity.

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 7. Tyres: Tyres are considered as the most important part of your automobile because
they affect almost every performance factor like braking, acceleration, handling, and
comfort.

Functions of Tyres:

• It supports the load on vehicles

• It absorbs shock during motion

• It enables one to take turns to left or right

• It helps to get the best acceleration and braking

Properties of Tyres:
1. Non-skidding: – The tyre should have good grip so that it can overcome skidding.
2. Noise resistant: – There should be minimum noise from tyre during driving.

3. Optimum Load carrying capacity: – The tyre size and material should be selected in such a
way that it can carry vehicle load and withstand with fluctuating stress during revolution.

4. Minimum power consumption: – Tyre transmits power from engine to road so there should
be minimum power loss in tyre to get better efficiency.

5. Uniform wear: – The wear around the tyre should be uniform so that there is no issue of
unbalancing.

6. Should be well balanced: – The weight and dimensions of all tyre are such that, that it is
dynamically balanced.

7. Satisfactory cushioning: – The tyre should have good shock-absorbing properties so that it
can absorb vibrations by road to provide a cushioning effect.

Main Components of Tyres:

1. Belts: These are rubber-coated layers of rayon, steel, fiberglass and other materials which are
located in mid of the tread and plies, across at angles, which hold the plies in place. It provides
resistance to punctures and help treads to in contact with the road.

2. Sipes: These are special kind treads within the tread which improves tractive effort on
different road surfaces.

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3. Tread:
It is the portion of the tire that comes in directly contact with the road. It should have
higher strength and good heat dissipation property for good life of tyre.

4. Grooves:
It is the spaces provided on the outer layer of tyre which comes in contact with
road. It provides space for water to flow and friction.

5. Shoulder:
It is the outer edge of the tread which wraps into the sidewall area.

6. Sidewall:
It is the portion of tyre which is exposed to environment and not come in contact
with road . It protects cord plies. it is also used to feature tyre markings and information such as
tyre size and type.

7. Inner Liner:
It is the innermost layer of a tubeless tyre. It prevents the flow of air from inside
to outside and vice versa.

Types of Tyres:
On the Basis of Tube used:
1. Tube Tyres: It is the most commonly used kind of tyre. It encloses a rubber tube which
is filled with air at high pressure. The outer part is made of synthetic rubber which is
known as tread. Inside tyre beads are formed with the help of reinforced steel wires.

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 2. Tubeless Tyres: In current time use of this tyre are continuously increasing. This tyre
does not enclose tube. The high pressure air is filled in tyre itself. The internal features
and construction of this tyre are same as tube tyre. An NRV (non-return valve) is fitted to
the rim for air filling.

On the Basis of Construction:

1. Cross Ply Tyre Construction: It is also known as bias ply tyre construction. This tyre
has better a resistance against wear. They have good bonding to the road. Cross ply tyres
consist of carcass layers made from nylon cord which are placed diagonally along each
other in the tread and the sidewalls, at an angle of 50 degrees.

2. Radial Ply Tyre Construction: It consists of a carcass ply which is formed by textile
arcs running one bead to the other. Each ply embedded at an angle of 90 degree to the
rolling direction. At the top of tyre crown several plies is reinforced with metal wire on
the top of carcass ply.

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 Types of Tyre and Tread Explained:
1 Multi- directional /symmetrical: These are known as ‘symmetrical’ because
the pattern on the inside matches the pattern on the outside of the tyre. The multi-
directional lines means they can be placed anywhere on the car - which makes them
cheaper, as you don’t have to order four different tyres for your car.

2 Asymmetric: These types of tyres feature a different pattern on the inside and
outside of the tyre which makes them able to perform well in dry and wet conditions.
However, asymmetric tyres need to be facing a certain way when mounted onto the
wheel of your car, so this can make them a little more expensive.

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 3 Directional: Their arrow-like design works really well with wet conditions as the
arrow channels water through the tread and displaces it very effectively. This gives you
lots of grip, especially in wet conditions but, like asymmetric tyres, these need to be
placed all facing the same way – which will be different on either side of the car.

Summer tyres: Summer tyres are designed to work in mostly dry, warm conditions. As the
rubber doesn’t need to be thick enough to prevent splitting from cold environments, summer
tyres can be made from a softer, more elastic rubber compound.

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Winter tyres: Winter tyres feature a high groove ratio to enable more grip on wet, snowy
ground. When you have a smooth tyre surface, the wheels aren’t able to channel water away –
this then can lead to ‘aquaplaning’ which is a complete loss of traction and can cause crashes.
Their tyre compound also contains more natural rubber to stop it hardening in the cold (which in
turn leads to splitting).

All season tyres: These types of tyres are best suited for regions with moderate climates
year-round (such as the UK). Due to the tyres not having to deal with extreme conditions, the
manufacturers can develop them to match both wet and dry conditions within a reasonable
temperature range.

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 8. CONTROL SYSTEM:
INTRODUCTION

• Modern electric car research and development is based on the theory of modern
control technologies, including automotive technology, motor driver technology, power
electronics technology and energy storage technology, etc.
• The design process of the electric cars have three major problems need to be solved,
are respectively the vehicle technology, electric drive technology and energy
management system.
• The vehicle control system integrated control technology, mainly for reasonable
arrangement and coordination of the electronic control unit (ECU) for electric vehicles,
save material and reduce cost, realize the system optimization of multiple factors in the
process of optimization, improve the vehicle performance.
• Because of pure electric vehicle control system integration of electrical, electronic,
mechanical, chemical and other nonlinear dynamic system, complicated structure,
which includes motor, converters, power battery, transmission, and other electric
control equipment, so, no matter how electric cars are assembled, they have to
perform in good condition, once there was a problem in the vehicle controller, electric
vehicles will not be able to run normally, cannot achieve energy recovery control, or
even an accident.
• The electronic Control Unit collects real-time dynamic parameters of the controlled
object and feedback, and then through the CAN bus is passed to the core Controller for
operation analysis, and then by the VCU to ECU Control instruction, make the
reasonable coordination of efficient performance of ECU, realize the Control of the
Vehicle drive performance and energy management, optimization, to ensure the
Electric performance.

CONTROLLER AREA NETWORK(CAN)

• CAN is a well-thought-out network architecture that allows for the reliable transmission
and reception of brief real-time communication. It’s developed to link multiple
controllers. and it can communicate at a rate till 1Mbps, with robust fault recognition
and treatment algorithms.

• The Controller Area Network based system is developed for the EV to operate the
specified 12Vdc loads. CAN modules should be built precisely to meet the requirements

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 of the numerous loads in the EV, whereas the programmed software which satisfies the
CAN standards operates each load.
• Below figure shows the proposed system, in block level representation. It contains the
individual module information and the details about the electronic components used in
the module construction.

HUMAN MACHINE INTERFACE MODULE:

The Human machine interface (HMI) module's function is for the reading, processing and
transmission of human signals via the CAN bus. Input data is received through the CAN bus
via the light module and the motor controller module. The connected loads are adjusted in
a number of ways as per the programmed code. The HMI module can read digital inputs
for simple on/off actions as well as analog inputs for devices that have changing speeds,
such as motors.

Figure below depicts the complete block schematic of the HMI controller. The linkage
between the different elements of the HMI controller can be observed in it.

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LIGHTING SYSTEM MODULE:
The Lighting system module is in charge of the front outside lighting. The lighting system
module has CAN bus network connectivity, which allows modules to communicate with each
other using only a single twisted pair connection. The ability to create smart features based on
any of the various sensor or manual inputs in the system is also facilitated by network
communication between modules. Digital load control using programmable microcontrollers
allows for much simpler wiring with only one circuit connected to each load. Additional
functionality can be simply added by changing the software

code without changing the circuitry. Figure below

depicts the complete block schematic of the Lighting system module.

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MOTOR DRIVER MODULE:
The Motor Driver module's job is to read rotary potentiometer data from the HMI module
through the CAN bus network, where it is then used to drive the wheel's motor. This module
was made separately from any other functions so that when coupled with motor drivers using
CAN input for speed data, the module could be hooked either directly to the motor driver or
through an existing CAN network. Due to the design and ability to upload different program
codes, this module is capable of working with the existing accelerator pedal or standard drive-
by-wire pedals in the event of an upgrade.

Figure below shows the block diagram of the development of the Motor driver module.

BATTERY MONITORING SYSTEM MODULE:

• The function of Battery monitoring system (BMS) module is to monitor the health of
battery in terms of battery voltage and battery state of charge (SOC). We have used a
combined strategy of Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) and Coulomb counting method. The
OCV method uses the voltage of a battery cell as an indicator of a current battery SOC.
Coulomb counting method (also called a Current integration method) is a simple process
of summing of capacity taken out from the battery.
• This module consists of Arduino UNO MCU, MCP 2515 module, 25V Voltage Sensor,
30A ACS 712 current sensor and Relay.
• Figure below shows the block diagram of the development of the Battery monitoring
module.

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 9. BRAKING SYSTEM Regenerative braking is a mechanism found on most
hybrid and full-electric vehicles. It captures the kinetic energy from braking and converts
it into the electrical power that charges the vehicle's high voltage battery. Regenerative
braking also slows the car down, which assists the use of traditional brakes.

Working Principle of Regenerative Braking System

 The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system
cannot change, it is said to be conserved over time. Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed. But can be changed, for example, by converting chemical energy into
kinetic energy in the detonation of a stick of dynamite.

 The most common form of regenerative brakes involves using an electric motor as a
power generator. The generated electricity is fed back into the Supply system, while in
battery electric and hybrid electric vehicles, the energy is stored chemically in the
battery.

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Types of Braking Systems and Types of Brakes:
Most brakes use friction on the two sides of the wheel, the collective press on the wheel converts
the kinetic energy of the moving object into heat. For example, regenerative braking turns much
of the energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for later use. Eddy current brakes use
magnetic fields to turn kinetic energy into electrical current in the brake disc, blade, or rail,
which is converted into heat.

The following are the most common types of braking systems in modern cars. It’s always good
to know which ones fit your car for easy troubleshooting and servicing.

Hydraulic braking system:

This system runs on brake fluid, cylinders, and friction. By creating pressure within, glycol
ethers or diethylene glycol forces the brake pads to stop the wheels from moving.

• The force generated in the hydraulic braking system is higher when compared to the
mechanical braking system.
• The hydraulic braking system considered as one of the important braking systems for modern
vehicles.
• The chance of brake failure is very less in case of the hydraulic braking system. The direct
connection between the actuator and the brake disc or drum makes very less chance of brake
failure.

Electromagnetic braking system:

Electromagnetic braking systems can be found in many modern and hybrid vehicles. The
electromagnetic braking system uses the principle of electromagnetism to achieve frictionless
braking. This serves to increase the life span and reliability of brakes. Also, traditional braking
systems are prone to slipping while this is backed with the quick magnetic brakes. So without
friction or need of lubrication, this technology is preferred in hybrids. Also, it is quite modest in
size compared to the traditional braking systems. It is mostly used in the trams and trains.

To make electromagnetic brakes work, a magnetic flux when passed in a direction perpendicular
to the rotating direction of the wheel, we see rapid current flowing in a direction opposite to the
rotation of the wheel. This creates an opposing force to the wheel rotation and it slows down the
wheel.

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Servo braking system:
Also known as vacuum or vacuum-assisted braking. Among this system, the pressure applied to
the pedal by the driver is increased.

They use the vacuum that is produced in petrol engines by the air intake system in the engine's
intake pipe or via a vacuum pump in diesel engines.

A brake where power assistance is used to reduce the human effort. In a car, engine vacuum is
often used to make a large diaphragm flex and operate the control cylinder.

• Servo braking system boosters used with the hydraulic brake system. The size of the cylinder
and the wheels are practically employed. Vacuum boosters increase the braking force.
• Pushing the brake pedal releases the vacuum on the side of the booster. The difference in the air
pressure pushes the diaphragm for braking the wheel.

Mechanical braking system:

The mechanical braking system powers the hand brake or emergency brake. It is the type of
braking system in which the brake force applied on the brake pedal is carried to the final brake
drum or disc rotor by the various mechanical linkages like cylindrical rods, fulcrums, springs etc.
In order to stop the vehicle.

Mechanical brakes were used in several old automobile vehicles but they are archaic nowadays
due to their less effectiveness.

Types of Brakes:

DISC BRAKE
The disc brake is a mechanism for slowing or stopping the rotation of a wheel from its motion. A
disc brake is normally made of cast iron, but in some cases, it is also made of composites such as
carbon-carbon or ceramic -matrix composites. This is linked to the wheel and/or the axle. To
stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads is forced against both sides of the disc.
Friction caused, on the disc wheel will slow or stop.

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DRUM BRAKES
A drum brake is a traditional break in which the friction is caused by a set of shoes or pads that
press against a rotating drum-shaped part called a brake drum.

The term drum brake usually means a brake in which shoes press on the inner surface of the
drum. Where the drum is pinched between two shoes, similar to a standard disk brake , it is
sometimes called a pinch drum brake , although such brakes are relatively rare.

Emergency Brake System:

They are also known as parking brakes, it acts as secondary and independent braking System for
all the service brakes.

There are several kinds of emergency brake (a level between the driver placed, a third pedal, a
handle beside the steering column, etc.)

They are all sourced by cables that apply the pressure mechanically to the wheels, generally
maintain the vehicle stationary when parked, and are used in emergency situations if the
stationary brakes are not at work.

Anti-lock Braking system:

Most of the modern vehicles are introduced to anti-lock Braking systems. They are installed for
good as the reasons for several advantages mostly having to do with the driver and passenger
safety.

For beginners, anti-lock brakes allow drivers to maintain control of their vehicles with all types
of road conditions.

It provides rushing stopping at the exact point where the driver wants, without using these brake
roads with slippery conditions can turn out a bit risky.

One of its great advantages is that its system parts work together, for instance, ABS controls
wheel activity with the sensor placed on both wheels. The sensor is controlled by the brake force
ensuring the wheel’s speed to run in tandem.

Hand Brake System:

A hand Brake system is also known as a parking brake or emergency brake. It helps to keep the
vehicle motionless while parking, it is used to perform in emergency situations when the main
hydraulic brakes fail.

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 10. Steering System The car steering system or just steering system is the
most important part in automobile vehicle steering control, respond so well to the driver
while driving. Steering control makes you feel safe while driving.

The car steering system in the automobile is the process of running the vehicle in the
desired direction by turning, usually the front wheels. For effective control of the vehicle
throughout its speed range with safety, proper steering is necessary.

Function of Steering System

1. With the help of the steering system, the driver can control the vehicle however
he wants
2. The steering provides stability to the vehicle on the road.
3. It minimizes tyre wear and tear.
4. It prevents road shocks from reaching to the driver.
5. The steering provides self-rightening effect after taking a turn.
Steering system types:

Rack-and-pinion steering: Your average car or truck likely utilizes a rack-and-

pinion steering system. This simple system is made up of two main parts: the rack, a horizontal
piece of metal with teeth along the top side, and the pinion gear, a round gear at the end of the
steering shaft that interlocks with the teeth of the rack. This mechanical system is typically set
inside of a tube. As you turn your steering wheel, the steering shaft and pinion gear turn with it.
This will then shift the rack to one side or another, causing the tie rod ends to move the spindles
and wheels in the desired direction.

Power-assisted rack-and-pinion steering: As mentioned, many modern vehicles that make

use of rack-and-pinion steering will also be paired with a power steering system. This pairing is known as
power-assisted rack-and-pinion steering. This system includes a cylinder and piston located on the rack.
The piston is connected to power steering lines on both sides. The lines provide a pathway for power
steering fluid to be delivered from a power steering pump, located outside of the rack. As you turn your
steering wheel, a rotary valve on the power steering pump directs more power steering fluid to that
particular side of the piston, which helps ease the steering. When driving in a straight line, the rotary
valve will ensure equal amounts of pressure on both sides of the piston.

Recirculating ball steering: Before the advent of power steering, recirculating ball steering
was the steering system of choice. The recirculating ball system accomplishes the same tasks as
the rack-and-pinion system with some key differences. Instead of teeth, the recirculating ball
system utilizes a worm gear – a long spiral similar to that of a bolt. This system still has a
steering shaft that turns as you rotate the steering wheel, only that the shaft now turns the worm
gear instead of a pinion. The worm gear is inserted inside of a metal box with teeth in it. The
teeth of the metal block then transfers the motion to a sector gear – a gear which has teeth on
only one side.

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Electric power steering: The most eco-friendly and fuel efficient steering system of them
all, electric power steering systems utilize an electric motor that replaces the power steering
pump from the traditional power steering system. This electric motor is attached either to the
rack-and-pinion assembly or directly onto the steering shaft. By using a variety of sensors, an
internal computer senses which direction the driver wants to turn and powers the motor to offer
assistance in that direction. Since the power steering pump is replaced, power steering is
available without any need of additional horsepower from the engine as in the standard power
steering systems. The responsiveness of electric power steering systems can also be adjusted as
you drive, providing the optimal amount of steering assistance whenever it is needed.

Hydraulic Power Steering:

It was the hydraulic power steering that came into production first. Talking about this type in
detail, it came with a hydraulic pump that pumps the oil in and out of the steering rack.

working
Also, this pump usually takes power from the engine via a belt called the serpentine belt. Now,
as the driver gives input to the steering, the pump pumps the working oil in and out from the
reservoir to the rack.

This power steering fluid is usually pressurised, and the pump delivers the fluid to the opposite
side of the rack or the piston in the assembly. Say, if a car is turning left, the right chamber to the
piston will get the fluid in turn, reducing the driver’s effort.

This type of power steering was common in most cars from 2005. But now, rarely do any cars
use hydraulic power steering, naming some, Nissan Kicks and some cars from McLaren still use
the old school yet effective power steering.

Having said that, hydraulic power steering is common in the car community as it offers a direct
feel of the road hence better control of the vehicle.

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 11. Suspension is the system of tires, tire air, springs, shock
absorbers and linkages that connects a vehicle to its wheels and allows relative motion
between the two. Suspension systems must support both road holding/handling and ride
quality, which are at odds with each other. The tuning of suspensions involves finding the
right compromise. It is important for the suspension to keep the road wheel in contact
with the road surface as much as possible, because all the road or ground forces acting on
the vehicle do so through the contact patches of the tires. The suspension also protects the
vehicle itself and any cargo or luggage from damage and wear. The design of front
and rear suspension of a car may be different.

What Are the Types of Car Suspension?

1. Leaf Spring Suspension: Leaf springs act as dampers, supporting an extensive

weight. These are made of steel and can flex when a vehicle’s axle exerts pressure on
them. Additionally, it can easily nullify the bumps that a vehicle encounters on the road.
This, along with their high load-bearing capacity, makes them ideally suited for in
commercial vehicles.

2. Dependent Suspension: There is a rigid axle connecting the left and right wheels.
These are present in heavy vehicles such as SUVs and trucks. Non-independent
(dependent) suspension is where the left and right wheels share a single, solid axle. It’s
still common with rear suspension on cars and still found upfront in trucks. The problem
with non-independent suspension is the jarring is felt across the entire rear axle if one
wheel hits a bump and it’s not great with preventing body roll.

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 3. Independent Suspension: In this type, the left and right wheels are not connected
and can move independently. Although their structure is complex, they offer a more
damping effect. The arrangement of springs and dampers varies significantly with
different types of independent suspensions.

4. Air Suspension: In place of conventional coils, this type of suspension

uses bellows as dampers to compress air. It can easily support
vehicles of a larger height. They can bear extreme loads and ensure a
comfortable ride for their passengers and are extremely suitable for
luxury cars.

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 5. Multi-Link Suspension:

Multi-Link is a suspension developed by Double Wishbone and Multi-Link into a

suspension that has a fairly complicated construction design because it has separate
parts that are held together by joints.

This suspension also has component ends that pivot on two sides of the arm.
Construction is made by manipulating the direction of the force that will be received by
the wheel.

Multi-Link is a type of suspension that has quality grip and with this suspension,
controlling the car becomes easier. The Multi-Link suspension also has many
variations.

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 6. Double Wishbone Suspension:

Double Wishbone is a type of suspension that has 2 arms that support the suspension
system, namely the upper and lower arms. With this suspension, the car can run stably.

7. Rigid Axle Suspension: Rigid Axle suspension is usually placed at the rear of the
car. The main feature of this suspension is its wheels on the rear left and right. The two
wheels are connected into one axle which is commonly referred to as the axle.

The rigid axle suspension has 2 models at once, namely the Axle Rigid model which is
equipped with leaf springs, and the Axle Rigid model which is equipped with a coil
spring or often referred to as a spring.

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 12. Range: The range of an electric vehicle depends first and foremost on the
capacity of its lithium-ion battery, in other words the amount of electricity it is able to
store. Expressed in kWh (kilowatt hours), it is equivalent to the size of the fuel tank in
combustion-powered vehicles: it determines the energy reserves available to the motor
and other elements of the vehicle. The level of energy in the battery at a given moment
therefore defines the remaining range of the electric vehicle.

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The difference between theoretical range and actual range:

1. Two people driving the same car will not necessarily obtain the same range.

2. Potential buyers need to be able to analyze and compare the range of different vehicles on the
market based on universal autonomy tests.

How to increase the range of an electric vehicle:

To optimize the range of a Renault ZOE,
for example, and preserve the energy in its battery as much as possible, the driver needs to
reduce energy consumption during acceleration, all while capitalizing on the vehicle’s ability to
recover electric energy when slowing down: this is known as “eco-driving”.

Factors that affect range:

1. Road topography
2.The weight of the car
3.Using interior equipment
4.Condition of the tires
5.Battery wear

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Study of some software: In which electric vehicle design and analysis
has been done like AutoCAD, Arduino uno, Solidworks, proteus.

AutoCAD: AutoCAD is computer-aided design (CAD) software that is used for precise
3D and 2D drafting, CAD design, and modeling with solids, surfaces, mesh objects,
documentation features, and more. It includes features to automate tasks and increase
productivity such as comparing drawings, counting, adding objects and creating tables. It also
comes with seven industry-specific toolsets for electrical design, plant design, architecture layout
drawings, mechanical design, 3D mapping, adding scanned images and converting raster images.
AutoCAD enables users to create, edit and annotate drawings via desktop, web and mobile
devices.

2D and 3D drafting:

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Arduino uno: The Arduino Integrated Development Environment - or Arduino Software
(IDE) - contains a text editor for writing code, a message area, a text console, a toolbar with
buttons for common functions and a series of menus. It connects to the Arduino hardware to
upload programs and communicate with them.

Code for electric vehicle charger and motor:

int x=3,y=4,z=A1;
float Vout=0,Temp=0;

void setup() {
pinMode(x,OUTPUT);
pinMode(y,OUTPUT);
pinMode(z,INPUT);
Serial.begin(9600);
}
void loop() {
z=analogRead(A1);
Vout= analogRead(A0);
Temp =(Vout*500)/1023;
Serial.print("temperature in degree celcius=");
Serial.print(Temp);

delay(1000);
if(Temp<=55){
digitalWrite(y,HIGH);
digitalWrite(x,LOW);

delay(10);
}
else{
digitalWrite (x,LOW);
digitalWrite(y,LOW);
delay (10);
}
}

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Proteus: Proteus can provide all the resources needed for the test, directly evaluate the
correctness of hardware circuit design, directly debug the software with hardware schematic
diagram, verify the function of the whole design, and test controllable, easy to evaluate and easy
to implement.

Analysis of charger circuit of EV on Proteus:

Analysis of motor circuit of EV on Proteus:

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SolidWorks: SOLIDWORKS is an industry-leading CAD (Computer-Aided Design) and
CAE (Computer-Aided Engineering) software used by millions of engineers across the world.

Chassis frame design on SolidWorks:

Chassis Frame Static Load Analysis:

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Chassis Frame Front Impact Load Analysis:

Chassis Frame Rear Impact Load Analysis:

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Chassis Frame Side Impact Load Analysis:

Results of chassis frame load analysis:

1. Factor of safety for static load = 25.10
2. Factor of safety for front impact load = 11.11
3. Factor of safety for rear impact load =4.49
4. Factor of safety for side impact load = 12.10

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Brake Calculation:
The brake pedal:
F bp=F d × {L1 ÷ L2 }
= 250*(270/50)
Fbp = 1350
where,
• F bp = the force output of the brake pedal assembly

• F d = the force applied to the pedal pad by the driver

• L1 = the distance from the brake pedal arm pivot to the output rod clevis attachment

• L2 = the distance from the brake pedal arm pivot to the brake pedal pad

The master cylinder:

F bp
Pmc =
A mc

Amc = 314.15
Pmc =4.2973
where,
• Pmc = the hydraulic pressure generated by the master cylinder

• Amc = the effective area of the master cylinder hydraulic piston

Brake fluid, brake pipes and hoses:
Pcal =P mc

where,
• Pcal = the hydraulic pressure transmitted to the caliper

The caliper, Part I:

The one-sided linear mechanical force generated by the caliper will be equal to:
F cal=Pcal × A cal

Fcal = 4.2973*2827.43
=12150.32

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where,
• F cal = the one-sided linear mechanical force generated by the caliper

• Acal = the effective area of the caliper hydraulic piston(s) found on one half
of the caliper body
The caliper, Part II:

The clamping force will be equal to, in theory, twice the linear mechanical force as follows:

F clamp =Fcal ×2

=24300
where,
• F clamp = the clamp force generated by the caliper

The brake pads:

The clamping force causes friction which acts normal to this force and tangential to the plane of
the rotor. The friction force is given by:

F friction =F clamp × μbp

=7290.19
where,
• F friction = the frictional force generated by the brake pads opposing the rotation of the rotor

• μbp = the coefficient of friction between the brake pad and the rotor

The rotor:

This torque is related to the brake pad frictional force as follows:

T r=F friction × R eff

=364509.885

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where,
• T r = the torque generated by the rotor

• Reff = the effective radius (effective moment arm) of the rotor (measured from the rotor center
of rotation to the center of pressure of the caliper pistons)

The torque will be constant throughout the entire rotating assembly as follows:

T t=T w =T r

where,
• T t = the torque found in the tire

• T w = the torque found in the wheel

The tire:
Tt
F tire=
Rt

=2391.79
where,
• F tire = the force reacted between the tire and the ground (assuming friction
exists to support the force)
• Rt = the effective rolling radius (moment arm) of the loaded tire

The total braking force generated is defined as the sum of the frictional forces at the four tires
which is given as follows:

F total=∑ F tire LF , RF , LR , RR

Total force=9567.18
Deceleration of a vehicle in motion:

The deceleration of the vehicle will be equal to:

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 F total
a v=
mv

= 10
where,
• a v = the deceleration of the vehicle

Kinematics relationships of vehicles experiencing deceleration:

For a vehicle experiencing a linear deceleration, the theoretical

stopping distance of a vehicle in motion can be calculated as follows:

2
vv
SD v =
a v ×2

=15 m
1.73 sec
where,
• SD v = the stopping distance of the vehicle

Results :
1. Stopping distance is 15 meter
2. Stopping time is 1.73 second

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Gear ratio and speed:
Velocity i K ( consta CRR(CoeffiRR (Rollin GR(GradintAD(AerodyTR (Tracti
2.78422 0.010007 0.009147 13.44649 0 0.67829 14.12478
3.062642 0.010009 0.009148 13.44743 0 0.82073 14.26816
3.341064 0.010011 0.009149 13.44846 0 0.976737 14.4252
3.619486 0.010012 0.009149 13.44958 0 1.146309 14.59589
3.897908 0.010014 0.00915 13.45079 0 1.329448 14.78024
4.17633 0.010017 0.009151 13.4521 0 1.526152 14.97825
4.454752 0.010019 0.009152 13.45349 0 1.736421 15.18991
4.733174 0.010021 0.009153 13.45497 0 1.960257 15.41522
5.011596 0.010024 0.009154 13.45654 0 2.197658 15.6542

Chassis Manufacturing Process:

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